TEACHING MANUAL

EDU 321

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARH

AND STATISTICS
 COURSE OUTLINE

UNIT ONE: Nature of Educational Research

UNIT TWO: Selection of Research Problems

UNIT THREE: Review of Related Literature

UNIT FOUR: Methodology

UNIT FIVE: Quantitative Research Methods

UNIT SIX: Qualitative Research Methods

UNIT SEVEN: Summary / Conclusion of a Study

UNIT EIGHT: Presentation of Research Report

 UNIT ONE: NATURE OF EDUCATION RESEARCH

INTRODUCTION

Problems characterize all human activities including the process of teaching and learning
of deliberate attempts are therefore made by scholars and research to identify and define the
observed problems for the purpose of finding solution to improve human activities for the
solution to be valid and acceptable, the preceding activities must comply with some enshrined
systematic and scientific procedures. In this unit there, basic information about the nature of
education research will be provided. Specifically, information will be on the following sub-
headings.

I. Methods of knowing
II. Meaning of research
III. Meaning of educational research
IV. Purpose of educational research
V. Classes of research
VI. Approach of research

Meaning of Research

Research generally implies an examination or enquiry or investigation or an experiment

which is aimed at discovering facts or truths. It can also be said to be the discovering and
interpretation of facts that are widely believed to exist. The revision of acceptable theories or
laws or principles in the light of new developments can also be referred to as research. As a
matter of fact, the term “research” may take on a range of acceptable definitions.

According to Gay (1981) research is the formal and systematic application of the
scientific method to the study of problems.

To Cohen and Manion (1987), research is the systematic application of the principles of
science to finding solutions to problems. The definition of research according to Mouly (1970) is
the systematic objective and accurate search for the solution to a well-defined problem Massey
(1973) reviewed the definition of research to mean diligent and systematic inquiry or
investigation to revise facts and theories. To Kerlinger (1970), research is the systematic
controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed
relationship (or differences) between (and among) phenomena the common features in the above
definition by schools are:

1. Research is based on observation or empirical evidence

2. It entails the application of the scientific method
3. Research is systematic and controlled
4. It is a process directed towards finding solutions to identified problems
5. Research is characterized by objectivity
6. Research is characterized data collection, analysis and interpretation

To sum up the meaning of research from the foregoing definitions Igbineweka (2018)
defined research as the formal, controlled, systematic diligent and objective application of the
scientific principle in resolving an identified problem.

Meaning of Education Research

The definition of research is applicable.

The above definition are apt and applicable to education, being a social activity that is
principally concerned with parents, government, students and teachers, it is for this reason,
Engelhart (1972) defines educational research as the total procedure employed in collecting,
organizing, summarizing and interpreting data for the purpose of arriving at dependable answers
to observable problems in education.

According is peretomode and Ibeh (1995) Educational research as the formal, controlled,
systematic and objective application of the scientific method in finding solutions to educational
problems or issues. The problems of poor job performance, amongst teachers, students poor
academic achievements amongst students including inadequate facilities and funding that
characterize the Nigerian Educational system according to Omorogiuwa (2019 and Igbineweka
(2018) can only be resolved through research. This implies that educational research could mean
the application of the processes of research in solving identified educational problem.
Purpose of Educational Research

One of the purpose of educational research is to improve on upon educational thinking and
practice, a travers (1964) and Owie (1998) considered as the goal of research to discover laws or
generalizations about behavior that can be used to make explanations, predictions and/or control
events in education business specifically, the purpose of research include but not limited to

1) Improve on teaching and learning

2) Provide understanding to a phenomenon
3) Advance knowledge
4) Provide answers to questions
5) Test hypotheses

Approaches to Research

By approach, we mean how research is conducted in terms of methods, techniques and

terminologies in behavioral research:

Quantitative and Qualitative approaches are identified quantitative research involves the
use of checklist, questionnaire, anecdotal records, observation and other objective instruments
for data collection. On the other hand, qualitative research focuses on perception of the
researcher in interpreting social phenomena. Theories are not tested as in qualitative research but
generated after data have been externally analyzed.

Types of Research

Ideally, the first five types of research enumerated above are generally regarded as non-
experimental because they do not involve laboratory manipulation of experimental variables. A
detail discussion of each the following classes of research methods are given below.

1. Historical Research:

Historical research deals with the determination; evaluation and explanation of past
important events essentially for the purpose of gaining a better and a clearer understanding of the
present and making a more reliable prediction for the future. The main purpose of historical
research is to reconstruct the past objectively and accurately in relation to the defense of an
objective or a hypothesis about the present.

The historical research like any other research follows a systematic process of data
collection, analysis and interpretation which leads to some significant findings. Consequently,
historical research utilizes some of the well-known scientific procedures or techniques of
investigation. Some of the techniques used in the historical research include:

1. Definition and identification of research problems including literature review

2. Formulation of research hypothesis and or objectives,
3. Collection of data or record.
4. Analysis and interpretation of data.
5. Reporting of finding and recommendation from the above, historical research is no doubt
scientific. However, it should be not historical research differs from those of the natural
sciences because historical research is not based on pure experimentation, rather it is
utilizes recorded observation. Furthermore, historical research does not involve the
manipulation of variables and control experiment.

Characteristics of Historical Research:

The characteristics of historical research can be summarized from the works of Peretomode
and Ibeh (1992), Isaac and Michael (1976) and Cohen and Manion (1987) as follows:

1) Data used in historical research are derived from either primary or secondary sources.
Primary sources of information in this regards, are those report: records from people who
have witnessed the past event. Primary sources of information include: written documents
relies and oral testimonies. On the other, hand secondary sources of information are
provided by people who may not necessary have witness in the past events of interest.
Information under this category is acquired through periodical, newspaper in
encyclopedia etc.
2) Data used in historical research whether acquired from primary or secondary sources are
observed and recorded by other people rather than the investigator himself.
3) Through a historical research is not scientific or experimental as such, it is rigorous,
systematic, analytic and exhaustive.
 4) The information and data collected in historical research must be critically examined and
authenticated before subjecting them to empirical treatment this process of authentication
and critical examination is necessary to ensure that there is no distortion and bias in the
material to be used in historical research.
5) Finally, historical research must be able to report some significant finding which can
contribute to the stock of existing knowledge and suggest some useful recommendation
which can help solve contemporary problems as well as those of future occurrence.

Educational Issues or Topic in Historical Research:

From the above characteristics of historical research, several area of educational principle
and practices can be study historically by relating past educational events to the
contemporary-scene. In this regard, issues relating to educational administration, supervision,
evaluation and even curricular changes can be examined from the historical perspectives.

Consequently, the following issues or topic are researchable from the historical context.

a) A study of the history of education in Nigeria.

b) An examination of various Educational policies in Nigeria.
c) The training of teaching staff in Nigeria School System.
d) Analysis of School funding in Nigeria.
e) A study of the development of the format education in Nigeria.
f) A study of student’ unrest Nigerian Tertiary Institutions.

Limitation of Historical Research:

Research based on historical investigation is limited in approach, approach method, coupled

with poor logical analysis. These lead to errors in historical report and a number of internal and
external historical criticisms. Thus, historical research is limited by the following:

1. Limitation in the application of major research finding

2. Limited generalization of findings,
3. Walking on a very board research problem which is not properly define or identified.
4. In-ability to involve experimental variables investigation.
 5. Possible omission of control experiment non-manipulation of research variable and
absence of statistical testing of research hypotheses.
6. Finally, this is poor logical analysis in most historical research resulting in over-
simplification, over-generalization, in ability to interpret data, words and expressions as
well as failure to distinguish between facts which are relevant and irrelevant (Best,
1970 ).

The Importance and Value of Historical Research:

In spite of the limitations and error associated with historical research there are usefulness.
Some of these value and contribution of historical research are summarized from the work of
Peretomode and Ibeh (1992); Hill and Kerber (1967); Cohen and Manion (1987); and Iwuama et
al (1992).

1. Providing solution to contemporary problems.

2. Throwing more light on the present and future trends.
3. Stressing and relative important of past events as it affect the present and the future.
4. Allowing the re-evaluation of data in relation to selected hypotheses, theories and
generalizations.

With respect to educational practices, Cohen and Manion (1987) related the above values
to historical research in education as providing solution to contemporary educational
problems through the analysis of past educational ideas, issues institutions, policies and
practices.

Finally, it should be stated that historical research in education when properly conducted
has a lot to offer in providing solution to contemporary education problems which have their
roots in previous or past educational mistakes.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research is concerned with the collection of data for the purpose of describing
and interpreting existing conditions, prevailing practices, beliefs, attitudes, on-going process etc.
according to Peretomode and Ibeh (1992), descriptive investigations involve systematic
collection of data about a given population or area of interest, individual, group of persons,
institutions, number of objects, methods and materials or a class of events.

It should be noted however, that the central purpose of descriptive research is not just the
description of what is happening, but the discovering of the meaning of events taking place.
Consequently, descriptive research describes, compares, contrast, classifies, analyses and
interprets the existing concepts with a view to answering questions and discovering the present
status of the concept in question.

Descriptive research systematically describes a situation or an area of interest factually

and accurately by employing public opinion, survey, observation, interview or through sampled
questionnaire. Sometimes, descriptive research can be referred to as “status study” or “fact
finding survey”. Through descriptive research, educational facilities can be surveyed alongside
with the survey of student enrollment and the availability of teaching staff.

Other areas of education that can be studied through descriptive research include the
following:

a) Universal free primary education in Nigeria.

b) The problem of shortage of teachers in Nigeria
c) The expansion of teacher training institutions and the over-production of professional
teachers in Nigeria.
d) The menace and off-shot of Sandwich degree programmes in University and the
production of half-baked graduate teachers in Nigeria.

Procedures of Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research utilizes some Scientifics procedures of investigation such as:

1. Identification and definition of research problems in a clear and pericise term.

2. Formulation of research hypotheses or objectives
3. Specification of research design such as specifying target population and determining
sample size, sampling techniques as well as the development of research instrument and
other data collection tools
4. Collection of information and data
 5. Analysis and interpretation of data
6. Reporting of research findings and suggestions/recommendations as well as
generalizations and predictions.

Limitation of Descriptive Research:

In spite of the scientific procedures involved in descriptive research, some errors have
been identified, which limit the validity of descriptive research. These limitation include:

a) The research formulates research objectives or hypotheses that are not specific and clear
b) The researcher in most cases based his sample on a very small population for his own
personal convenience
c) The research design is not properly laid out by the investigator.
d) Most investigators find it difficult to verify the information and data collected by
questionnaire method in descriptive research.
e) The inability of the researcher to plan his procedure for data analysis before collecting the
research data.

The Important of Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research is very valuable in any society despite the limitations associated
with it. Consequently, the important uses of descriptive research are summarized below.

The importance of Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research is very valuable in any society despite the limitations associated
with it. Consequently, the important uses of descriptive research are summarized below.

1) To provide basis for the existing situation or present condition through a systematic
collection of facts and accurate information.
2) To highlight research problems as it effects the present situation and practices.
3) To highlight moral code of conduct or cultural norms to enhance comparison and
evaluation of the present circumstances.
4) To plan the present situation with the solution arising from similar situation of the past
and to benefit from true previous experiences ‘in making further or future plans’.
5) To provide data on the contemporary situation to enhance planning for the future.
Types of Descriptive Research:

Descriptive research is further sub-divided into groups on the basis of their range, depth
of coverage and size of samples or population that are involved in the study. Though, this mode
of classification has not been universally accepted by research authority in educational research
methods. However, attempt will be made here to classify descriptive research on this basis into
the following categories:

(i) Case study

(ii) Survey studies
(iii) Developmental studies
(a) Longitude study
(b) Cross-sectional study
(c) Cross-cultural study
(iv) Correlation study

Case Study:

This is detail and in-depth analysis of a single phenomenon or sample which can be used
for further generalization for the entire population. A case study is specifically designed to
examine and analyze critically a problem in any setting such as working place, socio-economic
or political issues of given unit or a small group.

The scope of study in typical case study is usually smaller when compared with other
descriptive researches or surveys studies. Case studies are often characterized by detailed
investigation and generation of background information useful in planning more elaborate types
of educational researches.
Case studies are valuable for their use in exploring variables which can be utilized for making
generalizations in a wider population (Whawo; 1992). Finally, Ndagi (1984) noted that the
finding of care studies are usually limited to sampled population without attempting to
generalized its findings to the entire target population.
Survey studies:

This is essentially the opposite of case study in which a large sample of subjects are
drawn to sample opinions from the populations for an exploratory study to enable him discover
relative incidence, distribution and interrelation of educational, sociological, psychological,
political as well as economics variables (Klerloinger, 1073; Whawo, 1992).

Survey studies appear to be the most commonly used method of descriptive research.
Isaac and Micheal (1976) are fo the opinion that, with the exception of historical and
departmental research, all other forms of research are essentially survey studies. This implies that
survey studies are of various types, such as social survey, community survey, school survey,
building or housing survey, job analysis or documentary survey, content analysis and publics
opinion survey etc.

However, Klerloinger, (1973) classified survey studies on the basis of method employed
in gathering information into personal interviews, mail questionnaire, panel and telephone
survey. With apecific reference to educational research, two types of survey studies adopted by
Barbbie (1975) are;

a) Self-administered questionnaires
b) Personal interview

Survey studies are very valuable and advantageous because they have wide range of scope, a
great deal of information as well as representative samples which permit reference and
generalizations to the entire population. This makes survey studies very economical for
independent researchers.

However, the major pitfall or limitation of survey studies is the superficial nature of the study
which focuses on a wide range of study rather than an in-depth analysis. It is always very
difficult for the researcher to verify some of the data and information acquired through
questionnaires, interviews and observation un survey studies should be familiar with the
principles and techniques of research method. He should also be knowledgeable and competent
in sampling techniques, conduce of personal interview and vast in statistical method of data
analysis and other related aspects of survey studies.
Developmental Studies:

Developmental studies according to Peretomode and Ibeh (1992) “ are concerned not
only with existing status and interrelationship of phenomena, but also with the pattern and
sequences of growth and or change that takes place as a function of time.” In this regard,
developmental research attempts to investigate the nature and extent of growth of particular
phenomenon. It is specifically designed to advance the knowledge of the growth and
development of individual as if affects the physical, social, mental, emotional and moral
development pattern if the child.

Developmental Studies are usually characterized by:

1. Focusing attention on variables and how they change over time to show the direction,
rates, pattern or sequences of growth and development.
2. Concentration on limited number of subject mostly in the longitudinal type of
developmental studies.
3. Ensuring the continuity of materials and human resources which spans over a long period
of time.

On the basis of number of subjects required in developmental studies, the length of time
required for the investigation as well as the cost, developmental studies are often sub-divided
into two:

(a) Longitudinal study

(b) Cross-sectional study
(c) Cross-cultural study

Longitudinal Study:
A longitudinal study is essentially a descriptive research which involves the investigation
of patterns and sequence of growth or changes that take place with time. Longitudinal studies
are elongated studies taking a long period of time to be conducted.
Longitudinal approach to developmental studies makes observations and collects
information and data on the same person or group of persons at pre-determined interval of
time. As noted earlier, longitudinal study is mostly used in studying human growth and
developments with particular reference to the child’s physical, mental, social, emotional and
 moral development. Longitudinal study conveniently allows the investigator to observe
trends and to distinguish real changes from occurrences by chance (Bailey,1978).
This according to peretomode and Ibeh (1992) permits the research to examine individual
variation in characteristics or traits, are to produce more valid and reliable growth curve.
However, longitudinal studies are constraint by the length of time involved sample
mortality and the high cost of conducting the investigation.

Cross-Sectional Study:
When a developmental study cuts across different samples or individual of varying
chronological ages or different levels of maturity at the same time, it is referred to as cross-
sectional study.
In a cross-sectional study, data are collected and observations made on individuals at
different stages of development simultaneously.
Unlike a longitude study, cross-sectional study is time saving and cheaper or conduct.
The investigation in a typical cross-sectional study, selects sample of children of the ages he has
specified and collects the data he is interested in within a relatively short period of time. This
helps to solve the problem of sample mortality often associated with longitudinal studies

However, cross-sectional research is limited because of its in-ability to examine cause-

effect relationships between variables as well as the non-comparative phenomenon due to the
disparity in the maturity level of the subjects used in most cross-sectional studies.

Therefore, there is need for careful selection of subjects in a cross-sectional study to

ensure some form of uniformity in the sub-components of the various categories of subjects that
will be used in a cross-sectional study.

Correlational Research

Correlational research or study involves the investigation of the extent to which the
variation in one factor or variation in one factor or variable corresponds with the variation in one
or more factors or variables based on correlation co-efficient. In other words, correlational
research is study of the extent of relationship between two or more variables this imples that
correlational research is concerned with investigating and describing the extent to which two or
more variables are related in quantitative terms (Peremode and Ibeh, 1992).
 On this basis, Cohen and Halliday (1982) believed that correlational studies are designed
to investigate the relationship between two variables, the direction and magnitude of the
relationship which is known to exist between the two variables. Issues relating to the relationship
between intelligence and academic achievement; reading achievement and age, socio-economic
status and academic achievement as well as physical development and diet or nutritional factors
can be studied to determine their relationship through correlational research.

Correlational research is usually characterized by a detail analysis of variables

constituting the research problem which are complex that they are not to be studied empirically
through control experimentation or cause effect relationship. Secondly, correlational research
allows the investigation of several variables and their interrelationships at the same studies
enable the researcher to measure different variable as well as making prediction for further
investigation.

Casual- Comparative Research:

Casual –comparative research is often referred to as expost-factor research and it involves

the investigation of possible cause effects relationship by observing the consequences of one
phenomenon on the other. Casual-comparative research starts with the effect of phenomenon or
concept and then analysis with the effect of a phenomenon or concept and then analysis with
appropriate data to establish the cause effect relationship through careful interpretation of
information and data collected in field that is related to the phenomenon that is under
consideration. In a casual-comparative research, there must be a cause and effect relationship
which must be determined through the collection and analysis of relevant data.

Some selected examples of casual-comparative or expost facto research include the

following:

(a) The case of School drop outs among secondary school students in Delta State.
(b) The problems of indiscipline among University undergraduates,
(c) The case of poor academic performance among secondary school science student.
(d) The effect of family background on Juvenile delinquency.
(e) The effect of nursery school education on the academic performance of primary school
children.
Though, casual-comparative research is not as rigorous as the true-experimental research,
it is able to identify relationship or, variables that may lead to experimental investigation:
As a result of this, casual-comparative research yields vital information and data that are
amendable to statistical testing. In spite of these usefulness, casual-comparative or
expost-factor research is limited by its non-scientific approach to research investigation,
such as lack of control over independent variable, non-randomization of subjects and the
problem of limited number of samples. In addition, casual-comparative research is too
artificial and it lacks rigidity which makes it impossible to be used when carrying some
sophisticated research investigation.

Experimental Research
Experimental research is define as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical
investigation of hypothetical proposition about the presumed relationship between natural
phenomenon. Experimental research is essentially a scientific investigation which
according to Kerlinger (1973) is systematic and controlled experimentation of
hypothetical proposition about the presume a relation among natural phenomena.
Experimental research follows very closely some of the known procedures of scientific
investigation such as:

(1) Observation of phenomenon of interest

(2) Identification of research problem.
(3) Formulation of research objectives and/or hypotheses.
(4) Review of relevant literature.
(5) Development of research design
(6) Preparation of measuring instrument and other data collection devices
(7) Research investigation and collection of data and other relevant
information.
(8) Data analysis, interpretation and discussion of research findings
(9) Conclusions, generalizations and drawing of inferences.
 (10) Recommendations and suggestions for further studies.
Experiment research involves the randomization of samples and the use of control
and experimental groups as well as the treatment or manipulation of variables. Experimental
research is further sub-divided into two broad categories. These are:

True Experimental Research:

The true experimental research involves the investigation of possible cause and effects
relationship by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatment conditions
and comparing the results to one or more control groups that were not exposed to treatment. This
comparison between the two leads to the confirmation of a research hypothesis. For example, a
true experimental research can used to investigate the efficacy of a teaching method by exposing
one group of students to a teaching method of interest and comparing the performance of this
group of students to another group of students that were not exposed to the teaching method
which efficacy is being investigated.
One basic characteristics of a true experimental research is the randomization of the
samples before they are assigned to both the experimental and control group. However, treatment
is only given to the experimental, group to make room for comparison in the verification of
research hypothesis. In addition, pure or true experimental research requires rigorous
manipulation of experimental variables to ensure the internal and external validity of the research
(Denga and Ali, 1983)

Quasi-Experimental Research:
In quasi-experimental research, the researcher investigations and approximates the
conclusions of the true experimental research in a setting that does not control the manipulation
of all the relevant variables. In fact, quasi-experimental research is used when a true
experimental research appears to be too difficult to be carried out. In most educational and social
science researches where it is difficult to manipulate variables, quasi-experimental research is
often applied instead of true-experimental research.
 The difference between quasi-experimental research and true experimental research is
that the former is conducted under a condition that does not permit control group, manipulation
of variables and specification of control and experimental groups.
In spite of the lack of reality associated with experimental research generally and the high
cost of assembling the human and material resources needed in conducting an experimental
research is the most authentic way of establishing the cause and effects relationship between
natural phenomena. Lastly, and perhaps more important, experimental research whether true
quasi, allows the repetition or replication of a study with or without variables under the same
circumstances which may in some cases be different from the original situation.
 UNIT 2: SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM/TOPIC

 Meaning, sources and characteristics

 Background of the study
 Statement of the problem
 Research Question
 Hypothesis
 Variables
 Purpose of the study
 Significance of the study
 Scope and Delimitations of the study
 Limitations of the study
 Operational definitions of terms

Research Problem:
A research problem can be conceived from an unsatisfactory state of affairs or abnormalities
that affect the effective and efficient performance of a system. The aim of a research is to find
solutions to problems. A problem properly unidentified leads to writing a research topic, hence
the first step in research is to identify the problem to be solved

Sources of Research Problems

i. Literature
ii. Personal experience
iii. Previous research carried out
iv. Conferences
v. Theories.

Characteristics of a good research problem

a. A good research problem should be researchable; one that can be attacked empirically
b. A good research problem should have significance; one whose solution will make a
contribution to educational theory or practice.
c. The problem should be one that will lead to new problems and so to further research.
d. The problem should be ethically appropriate; one that can be investigated without ethical
principles.
e. It must be pertinent to the area of knowledge of the researcher; one in the area and level of
specialty of the investigator.

Statement of the Problem:

It is the description of an issue currently existing which needs to be addressed. It provides the
context for the research study and generates the questions which the research aim to answer. The
statement of the problem answer the question "what". A good problem statement is just one
sentence (with several paragraphs of elaboration) for example it could be " the frequency of job
layoffs is creating fear, anxiety and loss of productivity in middle management workers" While
this problem statement is just one sentence, it should be accompanied by a few paragraphs that
elaborate on the problem.
In the statement of the problem, the researcher states in clear terms, the existence of the
problem in the population, the variables that are relevant in seeking for the solution to the
problem, the relationships that exist between the variables with clear emphasis to the fact that the
solution to the problem is not known in term of what the correct solution to the problem is. It
therefore explains the gap the researcher intend to close by the research exercise.

Background of the Study:

It include a review of existing literature on the area of your research, leading up to your topic.
It is a part of the research provided in the introduction of the paper. It explains why your research
topic or thesis is worth the time of your readers. It could also contain the researcher experiences
and information about the general overview of the variables and situation under study.

Research Question:
Is a question that a research project sets out to answer. A research questions are raised from
the defined research topic and statement of the problem.
Characteristics of a good research question
i. A good research question should be as a result of relevant experience and theories on the
problem of the study.
ii. A good research question should be written in clear and unambiguous language
iii. A good research question should link with the variables of the study
iv. A good research question should be directly related to the problem of the study.

Hypothesis:
Is an intellectual guess that provide the investigator with a relational statement that is directly
testable in a research study. Hypothesis provide direction to the research, propose tentative
explanation for phenomenon and provide framework for reporting the findings and conclusion of
the study. e.g There is a relationship between anxiety and stress coping skills..
The most important characteristic of a good hypothesis is testability that is it is verifiable.
Types of hypothesis
1. Research Hypothesis
a. Directional hypothesis
b. Non-directional hypothesis
2. Null hypothesis
3. Alternate hypothesis
1. Research Hypothesis: states the relationship one expects to find as a results of the research. It
may be a statement about the expected relationship or the expected difference between the
variables in the study.
Example: There is a positive relationship between intelligent quotient and anxiety in
elementary school children.
a. Directional Hypothesis states the direction of the predicted relationship of difference
between the variables.
Example: The mathematic achievement of boys is not significant greater than that of girls.
b. Non-directional hypothesis states a relationship or difference exist but without specifying the
direction or nature of the expected finding.
Example: There is a relationship between intelligent quotient and anxiety in children.
2. Null Hypothesis (H0): Is a statistical hypothesis, it states that there is no relationship between
variables in the population. A null hypothesis lets researcher assess whether apparent
relationship are genuine or are likely to be a function of chance alone.
Example: There is no significant relationship between intelligent quotient and anxiety in
children.

3. Alternate Hypothesis (H1): The hypothesis states that there is a relationship between
variables in the population. When null hypothesis is not supported, then the alternate hypothesis
is for example: There is a significant relationship between intelligent quotient and anxiety in
children.
Variables:
Is a measurable characteristic or phenomenon that varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person or even within one person over time. There are 6 common variables;
i. Independent variable: Is a variable that the researcher that the researcher has control over in
form of manipulation, modifying or introducing new variable for example the effect of cognitive
behavioural therapy on the anxiety and stress coping skills among long distance drivers, here the
independent variable is cognitive behavioural therapy.
ii. Dependent variable: Is the variable that show the effect of manipulating or introducing the
independent variable for example from the above research title, the dependent variables are
anxiety and stress coping skills.
iii. Intervening variable: Is the variable refer to abstract processes that are not directly
observable but that link the independent and dependent variables for example, effect of lecture
method on the performance of history students, here the language learning processes used by the
subjects are the intervening variable.
iv. Moderator variables: These are variables that affect the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables by modifying the effect of the intervening variable(s)
Moderator variable are measured and taken into consideration for example; gender, age, culture
etc.
v. Control variables: These are variable that are not measured in a study but held constant,
neutralized or eliminated, so they will not have a biasing effect on the other variables.
vi. Extraneous variable: These are variables or factors in the research environment which may
have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but are not controlled. They are dangerous variable
that can damage a study validity, making it impossible to know whether the effects were caused
by the independent or moderating variables or some extraneous factors. If they cannot be
controlled, extraneous variable must be at least taken into consideration when interpreting
results.

Purpose of the Study:

This is the part of research in the introduction that explains the reason the research is being
conducted. It state the aim of the research and answer the question "why" the research is
conducted. It reflect the intention from the title of the research.
Example: The purpose of the study is to investigate the effect of cognitive behavioural
therapy on the anxiety and stress coping skills of distance drivers.
Significance of the Study: Is a written statement that explains why your research was needed. it
is a justification of the importance of your work and impact it has on your research field, its
contributions to new knowledge and how others we benefit from it. It can also be called the
rationale of the study.

Delimitations of the Study:

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher which should be mentioned. It is the essence
the limitation consciously set by the researcher. They are concerned with the definitions that the
researcher decide to set as boundaries or limit or scope of the work so that the study's aims and
objectives do not become impossible to achieve. The delimitation are mainly concerned with the
study's theoretical background, objectives, research questions, variables under study and study
sample. In a way, delimitations are not as much as "why I did this" but rather" why I did not do it
like this".

Limitation of the study:

Is concern with potential weaknesses that are usually out of the researcher's control and are
closely associated with the chosen research design, statistical model, funding constraints or other
factors. In other word, limitation is an 'imposed' restriction which is therefore essentially out of
the researcher's control and may affect the study design, results and ultimately conclusion and
should therefore be acknowledged clearly in the research report.
Example: when exploring participants responses to a survey, the researcher may be limited to
access only a small geographical area which would not provide an overall scope of responses

Operational Definition of Terms:

This explains the description of a variable as used in the study and not necessary the dictionary
meaning for example, from the research topic; effect of cognitive behavioral therapy on the
anxiety and stress coping skills of long distance commercial drivers. Long distance drivers can
be operational define to mean drivers who drive buses from one state to another (interstate
drivers) and not necessary by distance covered.

Follow up exercise

1. Differentiate between research question and hypothesis

2. Provide a suitable likely problem statement for the research title " Factors responsible for
the inconsistency in condom use among undergraduate students"
3. List three (3) qualities of a good research problem
4. Differentiate between null and alternate hypothesis and give examples each
5. Define the following;
i. Variable
ii. Intervening variable
iii. Dependent variable
iv. Extraneous variable
v. Moderator variable
6. What is the significant of the study
7. Differentiate between limitation and delimitation of the study
 UNIT 3. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction
Review of related literature is a very important part of educational project report. This is why a
whole chapter (chapter 2) of the report is devoted solely to it. Most often, young researchers like
final year undergraduate students find it difficult to undertake the task of reviewing related
literature. It is therefore important that such persons are acquainted with the steps that have
proved helpful in carrying out a successful review of related literature.
This will be discussed under the following subheadings.
 Meaning of review of related literature.
 Purpose of review of related literature.
 Sources of related literature.
 How to carry out review of related literature.
 Organizing reviewed literature.
Meaning of Review of Related Literature.
Review of related literature is the process of systematically identifying, locating and analyzing
documents containing information related and relevant to the research problem of interest. In the
process of reviewing literature, the researcher must study thoroughly those documents on earlier
works similar to the research/project he is undertaking currently. The researcher must do this
with the aim of gaining understanding of these earlier works in terms of their purposes and
significance, time and location, methodology, results and implications. This will help the
researcher to discover gaps in knowledge (problem in that area of research) which his research
can fill (provide solution to). Literature review should be the starting point of every research
work. This will help the researcher to discover what earlier researchers have and have not
accomplished in solving the problem at hand.
In review of related literature, sources of information are quoted in relation to the author of the
information. In doing this, the researcher can have a direct or an indirect quotation. In a direct
quotation, the exact words of the author and used by the researcher and information quoted are
put in inverted commas. The date of the publication of the material where the information is
located and the page number are also indicated. For example: In the view of Osawaru (2019, 31),
“one instrument which can facilitate solidarity and world peace is language and communication”.
The date and page number can also be at the end of the quotation. For example; it is necessary to
put on note that “one instrument which can facilitate solidarity and world peace is language and
communication” (Osawaru, 2019, p.31). It can also take the form: In the view of Osawaru
(2019), “one instrument which can facilitate solidary and world peace is language and
communication” (p.31). When a direct quotation is more than three lines, it should be indented,
single line spaced, without quotation marks. For example;

According to Osawaru (2019),

one instrument which can facilitate solidarity and world peace is language and
communication. This explains why many countries around the world are interested in
encouraging their citizens to learn other languages aside indigenous ones (p.31)
Indirect quotations are author’s words paraphrased or summarized. Quotation marks and page
number are not required. An example is as follows: Omorogiuwa (2006) noted that it will be a
waste of time and effort to embark on solving a research problem whose solution is obvious.
Documents for literature review should not be too old because knowledge is dynamic, it keeps
changing and expanding. Except for the purpose of historical information, literature for review
should be within the last ten years preceding the current research.
Purpose of Review of Related Literature.
The main purpose of review of related literature is to identify, study and understand the works
that have been done in the researcher’s area of interest. This will equip the researcher with
relevant information to serve as guide for the conduct of his/her research. Purpose of review of
related literature can be summarized as follows:
1. To shape the researcher’s research focus.
2. To gain useful insight into previous studies.
3. To gain understanding of issues in the research area that have been over flogged in order
to avoid unnecessary repetitions.
4. To help the researcher raise good research questions and formulate good hypotheses.
 5. To help the researcher make the right choice of method of the study, instrument for data
collection and the right tool for statistical analysis.
6. It helps the researcher to identify gaps in knowledge which his/her study can fill.
7. It provides the researcher empirical evidence to use in discussing the findings of his/her
research.
The benefits of review of related literature to a researcher are numerous and cannot be over
emphasized.
Sources of Related Literature.
Sources of related literature can be classified in primary and secondary sources. A source of
literature is said to be primary if the work is done by a direct author. But if the researcher quotes
a direct author who was quoted by another author, that work is a secondary source. For example,
if a researcher studied the work of Omorogiuwa and make the following citation: According to
Omorogiuwa (2006), research is a systematic search for truth with the application of scientific
method. In this case, Omorogiuwa (2006) is a primary source. However, Kelinger (1993) in
Omorogiuwa (2006) noted that research is a critical investigation of hypothetical prepositions. In
this case, Omorogiuwa (2006) is a primary source while Kerlinger (1993) is a secondary source.

Related literature can be sourced from both the print media and the electronic media. These
includes:
 Encyclopedias and dictionaries.
 Who is who.
 Books.
 Journals and periodicals.
 Magazines and newspapers.
 Students’ projects, Theses or dissertations.
 Wikipedia.
 Google scholar, etc.
How to Carry Out Review of Related Literature.
Chapter two of the project report is devoted to the review of related literature. The researcher
should begin this chapter with a preamble mentioning the areas of interest as derived from the
research questions and outlined as subheadings under which the review will be discussed.
Usually, the first subheading in the theoretical or conceptual framework of the study. This refers
to the structure that supports a theory on which the research is based. This is not often
emphasized in undergraduate projects.
To determine the related literature to review, the researcher should go back to the research
questions in chapter one. These research questions contains the variables of the study, therefore,
every research questions should be turned into a subheading for literature review. Consider the
project title; “The Influence of Gender and School Location on Students’ Academic
Achievement in Senior Secondary School Mathematics”
The researcher raised the following research questions:
1. Is there a difference in the academic achievement of rural and urban students?
2. Is there a difference in the academic achievement of male and female students?
3. Is there any interaction influence of gender and school location on the achievement of
students?
Based on the research questions, the researcher review literature on:
1. School location and academic achievement.
2. Gender of students and academic achievement.
3. School location, gender of students and academic achievement.
Note that, it is the variables in a research problem (usually addressed in the research questions)
that informs what literature to review for a study.
Organizing Reviewed Literature.
In a research report, all the sources cited in the report are organized into “references”. References
are usually organized according to the authors’ surnames in alphabetical order. There are
different styles of organizing references, but the Faculty of Education, University of Benin, uses
the American Psychological Association (APA) style. This style differs from book to chapter in
book to journal articles, etc.
For a book, the order is;
Author’s surname, initials. Date in brackets. Title of book in italics. Place of publication: Name
of publisher.
Note that titles, such as, Mrs., Mr., Dr., Prof., etc. are not used.
Example:
Omorogiuwa, K.O. (2006). Research and Applied Statistics for the Behavioral
Sciences. Benin City;
Mindex publishing company limited.
 Note that other lines starts from the 5th letter of the first line.
Chapter in a Book.
Author’s surname, initials. Date in bracket. Title of work. In Editor(s)’ surname, initials. Title of
Book in italics. Place of publication: Name of publisher, page numbering.
Example:
1. Osawaru, O.O. (2019). An Appraisal of French Language Teaching in Nigerian Schools. In
Omoifo,
C.N., Iyamu, E.O.S. & Eraikhuemen, L. (Eds). An Appraisal of the Nigerian School
Curriculum.
Benin City: Department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology, Faculty of
Education,
University of Benin. 30-46.
2. Azubuike, O.J. (2016). The Teaching and Learning of Visual Arts in Secondary Schools. In
Ivowi, V.M.O.
(Ed). Teacher Education in Nigeria. Lagos: Foremost Educational Services. 279-292.

Journal Article.
Author’s surname, initials. Date in brackets. Title of work. Title of journal in italics. Volume
(number). Page numbering.
Example:
Adamu, J. (2019). Influence of School Factors on Students’ Attitude to the Study of Chemistry in
Selected
Secondary Schools in Gombe Metropolis. African Journal of Curriculum and
Instructional
Technology. 3(1). 107-117.
Article Published On-line.
Author’s surname, initials. Date in brackets. Title of work. Date of retriever from website
address.
Example:
Ogunbor, R.A. (2010). The Status of UBE in Edo State. Retrieved April 10th 2013 from
https://Nigeriaworld.com6+0/letters/2002/jui/185.hmt/

Revision Questions.
1. What do you understand by literature review?
2. Identify any five sources of literature in educational research.
3. Give two examples each of;
i. A book reference.
ii. A journal reference.
iii. Chapter in a book reference.
iv. An on-line article reference.
4. Explain four purposes for the review of literature in educational research.
 5. Differentiate between a direct and an indirect quotation. Give an example of each.
6. What is the difference between a primary and a secondary source of information? Give an
example of each.

UNIT 4: METHODOLOGY

 What is Research Design

 Population of the Study
 Sample and Sampling Techniques
 Instrumentation
 Validation of Instrument

Research Design
Research design refers to the overall strategy that is chosen to integrate the different
components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring that the research
problem is effectively addressed. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data. It could also be seen as a plan on how data will be collected, analyzed and the
extent to which decisions reached are applicable and generalizable. The design used for a study
is dependent on the nature of the research problem.

Types of Research Design

There are many research designs, but they are classified, based on research
methods/Approaches (quantitative and qualitative research methods).
Quantitative Research Method/Approach
The following are the research designs used for investigating researches that are quantitative
in nature:
- Survey Design
- Ex-post facto/Causal-Comparative Design
- Experimental Design
Qualitative Research Method/Approach
The following are the research designs used for investigating researches that are qualitative
in nature:
- Historical Design
- Case Study Design
- Ethnography Design
- Document Or Content Analysis
- Grounded Theory
- Phenomenological Study
- Naturalistic Observation
- Intervention Study
-
Functions of Research Design:
1. The function of research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables one to
effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible.
2. Research design provides the researcher with the framework or blue print for conducting
research. The research design helps in providing answers to questions such as:
  What should constitute the target population?
 What portion of the target population should be used as the sample of study?
 What type of sampling technique should be adopted?
 How to collect and organize data pertinent to the problem of interest
 What type of statistical tests would be appropriate?
 To what extent are conclusions reached applicable?
3. Research design provides a proper delineation of the research purpose and scope. It
enables the researcher to know exactly how far he is expected to go in the conduct of an
investigation.
4. It enables the researcher to become familiar with the potential problems to anticipate in
the execution of study. It will enable the researcher estimate the cost, time and materials
needed and how best to arrival at optimum results. It guides the researcher on how to
interpret and generalize findings.
5. The purpose of research design is to provide a plan of study that permits accurate
assessment of the study.

Population of the Study

Population in research is different from how it is generally defined. In a general term, it
refers to a group of people living in a specific location. In research, it refers to a group of people
that are of interest to the researcher that is those having the characteristics the researcher intents
to study. For example, if a researcher wants to investigate the level of job satisfaction among
public primary school teachers in Edo state, the population of the study entails all public primary
school teachers in Edo state. The nature of the study determines whether or not a population can
be totally covered or not. Therefore, population can be finite or infinite.
Finite Population- is a population that has a definite or fixed number of subjects that are
countable.
Infinite population- is a population that has indefinite or unfixed number of subjects that are not
countable. For example, a study titled ‘the impact of university training on job performance of all
university of Benin millennium graduates’. This study’s population is infinite because university
of Benin millennium graduates are very many, some are not in the country and some are not
employed. In this case, so many of them cannot be accessed due to inability to get in touch with
them. If the study addresses, all Professors in University of Benin, then, it can be finite.
A target population- stands for all the members of a specified group to which the investigation
relates. For example, if a researcher wants to investigate the level of job satisfaction among
graduate public primary school teachers in Edo state, the target population of the study entails all
public primary school teachers in Edo state who have 1st degree.

Sample and Sampling Techniques

Most times, the researcher cannot access all the members of the population due to the
number of subjects that is in the population and their locations. So, sample is selected from the
population. The selected sample is expected to possess similar characteristics as the population.
Findings obtained from the sample are usually generalized to the population of the study. Sample
therefore can be defined as a unit of a population that is carefully drawn using appropriate
procedure. Generalization of research findings of a sample to the entire population is subjected to
the statistical tool used for data analysis which is determined by the modalities of sampling. That
is to say, for the findings of a sample of a research study to be generalized to the population from
which it was drawn, the sampling procedure employed is considered. The sampling procedure
also determines the method of data analysis to be used.
Sampling Technique/Procedure- refers to the technique/procedure employed in selecting
subjects from the population

Types of Sampling Techniques

We have two types of sampling techniques
1. Probability sampling technique (used in quantitative research approach)
2. Non-probability sampling technique (used in qualitative research approach)
Probability Sampling- in this type of sampling, subjects have equal probability of being selected.
For example
 Simple random sampling
 Stratified random sampling
 Cluster random sampling
 Systematic sampling
Simple Random sampling
In simple random sampling, every member in the group is given equal chance of being
selected. So, the chance of drawing a subject does not depend on drawing of another subject.
This technique can be carried out using any of the following:
 Ballot
 Toss of a coin or throw of dice
 Use of table of random digits
 Use of the computer
Ballot Paper- the researcher can cut pieces of paper and write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ then squeeze. If 40
respondents are in a group, and the researcher needs 20 of them, he/she can write 20 ‘Yes’ and
20 ‘No’ and make them pick. Anyone who picks ‘Yes’ is selected while those who pick ‘No’ are
not drawn for the study.
Toss of a Coin or Throw of Dice- the researcher predetermines the side of the coin and the
number(s) of the die that will be picked for the study. Subjects/respondents are made to throw
the coin/die. Anyone who gets the predetermined side of the coin or the number of the die is
drawn.
Use of table of random digits- a researcher may decide to pick all even or odd numbers in
groups’ register for the study.
Use of the computer- computer can be programmed to select subjects by printing a series of
numbers within a given range. The subjects whose numbers are printed are drawn for the study.
Stratified Random Sampling- this sampling technique is possible when it makes sense to
partition the population into sub-groups based on a factor that may influence the variable that is
being measured. These sub-groups are then called strata. An individual sub-group is called a
stratum.
There are two types of stratified random sampling:
 Proportionate stratified random sampling
 Disproportionate stratified random sampling
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling- in this type of stratified random sampling, a fixed
percentage of the sub-group (stratum) is sampled. For example, if a study is to be carried out on
all 400level students in the department of Curriculum and Instructional Technology (CIT) in
Faculty of Education, University of Benin, if the desired sample size is 200, the researcher will
first of all partition the students into sub-groups (Strata). The strata can be partitioned based on
subject areas: Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics, Integrated Science, Social Studies and
Computer Science. Automatically each subject sub-group becomes a stratum. A fixed percentage
can be sampled from each of the stratum to get the required 200 students. It means that, equal
number of student will not be sampled from each subject area (Stratum). The number that will be
sampled from each subject area will be dependent on the size of students in that subject area.
For instance, if we have 240 Biology students, 60 Physics students, 80 Chemistry students, 145
Mathematics students, 175 Integrated Science students, 220 Social Studies students and 80
Computer Science students. All put together gives a total of 1,000 students. Being that 200
students are needed as sample, 20% can then be sampled from each stratum to give the required
sample. Hence, 48, 12, 16, 29, 35, 44 and 16 students will be randomly selected from each
subject area respectively which will give a total of 200 students.
Disproportionate stratified random sampling- this type is almost the same as proportionate
stratified random sampling except for the fact that equal percentage is not sampled from each
stratum. A fixed number can be sampled irrespective of the sample size of each stratum. For
instance, the researcher can decide to randomly select equal number from each stratum. The 200
sample size divided by the 7 strata = 28.6. Since there are no half persons, the researcher can
then sample 29 from 4 largest stratum and 28 from others to make 200 students.
How to sample subjects using stratified random sampling
 Identify and define the population of the study
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify the variable/factor for partitioning the population into sub-groups (strata)
 Partition the population into sub-groups (strata) based on the identified variable
 Obtain a simple random sample from each sub-group (stratum) {fixed percentage in case
of proportionate while a decided number under disproportionate stratified random
sampling}
 Collect data on each sampling unit that was randomly sampled from each sub-group
(stratum). This techniques work best when a heterogeneous population is split into fairly
homogenous sub-groups.
Cluster Sampling Technique
 Cluster sampling technique is different from stratified sampling in that it focuses on groups
and not on individuals. It is a sampling technique where the researcher creates multiple clusters
of people from a population where they are indicative of homogeneous characteristics and have
an equal chance of being selected. Therefore, any “intact group” of similar characteristics is a
cluster.
How to sample subjects using cluster sampling technique
 Identify and define the population of the study
 Determine the desired sample size
 Identify and define a logical sub-group (cluster)
 List all clusters that constitute the population
 Determine the population of each cluster
 Determine the number of clusters that can give the needed sample size by dividing the
sample size by the estimated size of a cluster.
 Obtain a simple random sample of so many clusters from all possible clusters
 Obtain data on every sampling unit in each of the randomly selection clusters.
The procedure employed in sampling subjects when using cluster sampling technique is
similar to that of stratified random sampling. In this technique, all the subjects in randomly
selected clusters are sampled for data collection whereas in stratified random sampling, subjects
are randomly selected from all identified strata..
Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic random sampling technique is a type of probability sampling method in which
sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point and a
fixed, periodic interval. This interval, called the sampling interval, is calculated by dividing the
population size by the desired sample size. Despite the sample population being selected in
advance, this method is still thought of as being random if periodic interval is determined
beforehand and the starting point is random. For instance if a researcher wants to carry out a
study on all 300L students in the Faculty of Education using systematic sampling technique,
he/she will first of all decide on a sample size to be used. Thereafter, he/she can put all the
Matriculation numbers of all students in the orderly manner or names in ascending alphabetic
order then pick at regular interval. If they are 1,500 and the intended sample size is 300 students,
The researcher then divides 1500 by 300 = 5. Then pick Matriculation Number/name at interval
of 5. That is, he/she will pick Number 5, 10, 15, 20, until he/she gets to the last number (1500).
At the end, 300 students would be successfully sampled.
Therefore, it is a statistical method involving the selection of elements from an ordered
sampling frame. The most common systematic sampling is an equiprobability method. This
method is suitable if the population is logically homogeneous because systematic sample units
are uniformly distributed over the population. If the population is not evenly divisible for
example, 1,501 divided by 300 then, the researcher can start from a non-integer: 0, 5, 10 and so
on. The researcher is expected to continue in that order without skipping any number.

Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

Non-probability sampling techniques involve non-random selection based on
convenience or other criteria, allowing a researcher to easily collect initial data. In this sampling
technique, subjects are selected based on non-random criteria and not every subject has a chance
of being included. Although, this type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it gives
room for sampling bias and findings obtained from the study cannot be generalized to the entire
population. Hence, they are called “sampling disaster”. These techniques are appropriate for
exploratory and qualitative research. Hypotheses are not usually tested but to develop an initial
understanding of a small or under-researched population.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Convenience sampling
2. Voluntary response sampling
3. Purposive sampling
4. Snowball sampling
Convenience/Accidental Sampling – simply includes the individuals who happen to be most
accessible to the researcher. It is easy and inexpensive way to gather data, but sample
representativeness cannot be guaranteed. Hence, results are not generalizable.
Voluntary Response Sampling– is based on ease of access. In this type of sampling, subjects
volunteer to take part in the study instead of the researcher sampling them.
Purposive Sampling – is to use a sample that can be logically assumed to be representative of
the population. The researcher relies on his/her own judgment when choosing subjects of the
population. This sampling type is when researchers think about how they will establish a sample
population, even if it is not statistically representative of the larger pollution.
Snow Balling- in the type of sampling technique, the researcher is not aware of all the possible
members of a population that can be selected as part of the sample. To collect data therefore, the
researcher starts by meeting with the known sample for data collection and thereafter, through
the identified sample, the researcher connects to other members of the sample and then collects
data from them. The researcher continues to get in touch with other members of the sample
through the one he/she has collected data from until he/she gets the needed sample size.

Multi-Stage
In some cases, researchers need more than one sampling technique to carry out their
research studies. It is possible to make use of many sampling techniques. When a researcher uses
more than one technique, the sampling technique used is called Multi-Stage sampling technique.
This sampling technique is broken down into stages based on how they are used by the
researcher. For example,
 Stage 1- the purposive sampling technique can be used to select a Local Government
Area as the case may be.
 Stage 2- proportionate stratified random sampling technique can be used to identify the
different sub-groups for the study.
 Stage 3- simple random sampling technique can be used to select students from the
different sub-groups.

Instrumentation

Instrumentation is the process of constructing research instrument that could be used

appropriately in gathering data on the study. Research instrument is the general term that
researchers use for a measurement device (survey test, questionnaire and so on).
Difference between Instrument and Instrumentation
 Instrument is the device while instrumentation is the course of action (the process of
developing, testing and using the device)
Validation of an Instrument
Validation of an instrument is the establishment of validity and reliability of the
instrument for data collection. For any instrument to be termed good, it must be valid and
reliable.
Validity – is the extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform. An instrument is rarely 100% valid. Thus, it is usually
measured in degrees (the extent).
Types of Validity
1. Face validity
2. Content validity
3. Construct validity
4. Criterion related validity (Predictive and Concurrent)

Reliability of an instrument measures the consistency and stability of test score. It is the extent to
which measuring instrument consistently measures what it is intended to measure.
Types of Reliability
 Inter – rater / observer reliability
 Test – retest reliability
 Parallel forms reliability
 Internal consistency reliability
 Split half

Study Questions
1. What role does research design play in research study?
2. Why is probability sampling technique not applicable in qualitative research approach?
3. Distinguish between the following:
 Population and sample
 Stratified and cluster sampling technique
 Sample and sampling techniques
  Validity and reliability
 Finite and infinite population
 Proportionate and disproportionate stratified sampling technique

UNIT 5 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied social research. A
survey research is one in which a group of people or items is studied by collecting and analyzing
data from only a few people or items considered to be representative of the entire group (Nworgu
, 1991). The survey researcher is interested in the accurate assessment of the characteristics of
the whole population through the study of a sample considered to be representative of the
population. Only rarely do survey researchers study the entire population. Therefore, a random
sample of the population is usually studied at much less cost and with greater efficiency. When
the entire population is enumerated and studied such a study is known as census, while the study
of sample of the population is known as sample survey.
Appropriate sampling technique or procedure is followed In other to obtain a representative
sample,. Another pertinent issue in survey are the validity and reliability of data collected. Steps
should be taken in the development of instruments employed in data collection. The problem of
response faking put to question the authenticity of the data collected, so adequate precaution
should be taken to eradicate or at least reduce faking.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGNS

Survey research designs can be classified in terms of the procedure/information or the purpose of
study.

Survey research designs are classified by procedure/instrumentation into the following types:

 Questionnaire survey
 Interview survey
 Observational survey
 Panel survey

Questionnaire survey: This involves the use of the questionnaire as a means of data collection.
Large volume of data can be collected within a short period of time. The questionnaire is a self-
report instrument, which should be properly prepared to elicit responses that can provide answers
to the research questions or test the hypotheses. Since it is a self-report the possibility of bluffing
or hiding information should be noted and steps taken to reduce it in view of the way questions
are framed.
Interview survey: This involves the use of verbal interaction to collect data, even though it
could be time consuming. The possibility of getting in depth information, recording responses
and using it for any category of people makes it stand out as attractive type of survey design.

Observational survey: This involves the researcher watching an event, group or situation with
the interest of collecting data. The researcher could either be a participant in the event being
observed or not. But the procedure should not interfere with the natural setting.

Panel survey: The panel survey research design involves the collection of data from a given
sample at two or more different periods of time and data analyzed to discover trends or changes
in the opinions of the subjects over the period of time under study. This procedure can help in the
study trends, fluctuations and changes in respondents” opinions, attitudes and behavior. In the
panel survey, observed change and trends should be accounted for in terms of some intervening
variables. The time between successive measurements should neither be too long or too short. If
too short noticeable changes in the subject attitude or opinion may not have taken place, while if
too long one may not be sure what event would have taken place.

Classification by purpose

Survey research design can be classified by the purpose which the researcher intends to
accomplish in the following types:

 Developmental survey
 Descriptive survey
 Correlational survey
 Public opinion survey

Developmental survey: This type of survey seeks to ascertain how some dimensions, variables
or characteristics of a given population change with time and the factors which possibly
contribute to these changes. A developmental survey could either be longitudinal or cross-
sectional in approach.

In longitudinal studies, the same groups of subjects are studied over a given period of time.
The subjects are studied from time to time for changes in the particular characteristics under
study. Data collected are analyzed to reveal patterns and sequences which underline the
development or unfolding of these characteristics. Longitudinal studies however are confronted
with the following limitations; drop out of subjects due to transfer or death, the researcher may
be constrained that he may not be able to continue, lack of funds may hinder the completion of
the study, and the impossibility of modification once the study has begun. Any modifications in
procedure materials or subjects will bring about non-uniformity which can invalidate the
findings.

In cross-sectional studies, instead of studying a group of subjects over a period of time,

subjects are grouped by ages and studied at a time. The characteristics of interest across the age
groups are studied to reveal trends in the development of such characteristics. This approach
even though cheaper and quicker than the longitudinal approach, is not as accurate since the
developmental patterns and sequences observed at the different age levels may not solely be
attributable to age, because the various groups may also differ in other relevant aspects apart
from age.

Descriptive survey: A descriptive survey research design aims at collecting data on, and
describing in a systematic manner, the characteristic feature and fact about a population of study.
The interest of this design is to describe a certain variable in relation to a certain population.
Usually hypotheses are not tested since descriptive surveys are concerned with description of
events as they are.

Correlational survey design: This design is applied to a study that seeks to establish if linear
relationship exist between two or more variables. Such studies indicate the direction and the
magnitude of the relationship between the variables being studied. These study employ a type
statistics referred to as correlation coefficients for data analysis. There are many correlation
coefficients, the most commonly used are the Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient
for interval data and spearman rank order correlation coefficient for ordinal data.

Correlational studies do not establish causation. Two variables maybe highly correlated, that
does not however mean one in causing the other. It could be the case that both variables are
related to another variable which actually causes both variables. A typical example is that of a
high relationship between achievement in mathematics and achievement in English language.
We cannot say that achievement in mathematics causes achievement in English language vice
versa. But it is possible that the underlying variable causing the achievement in both subjects is
intelligence. Correlational studies are however suitable for prediction. As a correlation
coefficient shows how much one variable predicts the other.

Public Opinion Surveys: Public opinion surveys are designed to find out the opinion of people
in a given area towards an issue of common interest to the generality of the population in an area.
Usually a cross-section of the population is used as the sample of study, using instruments such
as the questionnaire interview. Random sampling is not possible in public opinion surveys; the
sampling procedure adopted is the accidental sampling technique. Due to sampling procedure,
generalization of results given such survey should be made with great caution.

Methodology of Survey Research

The implementation of a survey research involves:

 Stating of the objectives of the survey

 Definition of sample and sampling
 Construction of instrument
 Data collection
 Analysis of data collected
 Conclusions/ generalization

Stating the objectives of the survey involves stating the general and specific problems that are
to be solved as carefully and as completely as possible. This involves the discussion of problem
and statement of hypotheses. In the definition of sample and sampling plan, the population to be
sampled and studied must be defined first. Once the population (universe) is defined, a decision
is made on the sample size and the sampling technique that will adequately generate a
representative sample. In survey research design, random sampling technique is used, but due to
high cost and difficulty in executing random sampling, quota sampling may be used since it
ensures representativeness. But quota sampling should not be used in behavioral survey research
as it lacks the virtues of random sampling. Construction of instrument involves the construction
of an interview schedule and other measuring instruments, these are not to be done in a hurry,
and there should be a translation of the research questions or hypotheses into an instrument with
relevant items. These instruments are pretested on a small representative sample of the universe,
revised and put in final form. Data collection starts with the orientation of supporting staff on the
objective and procedure of instrument administration. Uniformity of standard should be
maintained in instrument administration. Analysis of data collected, should be carried out by
applying the appropriate statistics in view of the type of survey research design adopted.

Advantages of Survey Research

In survey research the conclusions reached are generalized to a large population. So a large
population can be studied at relatively lower cost. Even though it may be more expensive than
laboratory and field studies, for the amount and quality of information yielded it is more
economical.

Survey research information is accurate within sampling error. When the appropriate
sampling technique is adopted the information obtained is accurate.

Disadvantages of survey research

A disadvantage of the survey research design is that it essentially emphasizes scope rather than
depth. This is because survey seems to be adapted to extensive rather than intensive research.

A second limitation of survey research is that it demands a lot of skill, and money. Survey
of a small scale can be without the limitation of time and money but not that of skill in
instruments construction and analysis.

There is a possibility of behavior faking as the respondent cannot be completely removed from
his preferences, prejudices, and self-esteem. Even thou this can be reduced by appealing to the
respondents to be impersonal as much as possible.

Casual-comparative (Ex-post facto) Research Design

It is that research in which the research attempts to determine the reason or cause of a
relationship in or difference between variables after the event. “Ex-post facto” is a latin word
meaning “after the fact”, because both effect and the alleged cause had already occurred and are
studied by the research in retrospect. The basic casual comparative research involves starting
with an effect and seeking possible causes. Casual-comparative research seeks to establish cause-
effect relationships just like experimental research. However, it has no control over the variables
of interest and therefore cannot manipulate them. The subjects are already assigned to, or
classified into the various levels of the variable whose effects are being investigated. The
independent variable is the expected cause of the dependent variable across the groups attributed
to the independent variable. This design is appropriate when it is not possible for the researcher
to directly manipulate the independent variable. There are circumstances where it is
uneconomical, unethical and practically impossible to manipulate certain variables, so the
researcher cannot carry out experimental research, but casual-comparative research. In some
cases however, where it is possible to manipulate the independent variable casual-comparative or
ex-post facto can be used to obtain preliminary information regarding the possible causes of
some occurrences on the basis of which confirmatory studies could be undertaken using
experimental designs.

The limitation of this type of researches is that cause and effect variable can be swooped
such that one may not be able to say for sure which one causes the other. Example: a study of the
influence of achievement in English language on English literature. It could be difficult to say
whether achievement in English language causes achievement in English literature. Since
random selection and controlled manipulation of subjects are not possible and since existing
groups of subjects are not identical in all respects, the conclusion or generalization that the
variable in question is responsible for the observed differences between the groups could be
questionable. In assigning subjects to groups, there could be classification errors.

Conducting a casual comparative study

The casual-comparative research design is quite simple, even thou the independent variable is
not manipulated, there are control procedures that can be applied, and a wide variety of statistical
procedure can be used in data analysis.

The casual comparative design involves selecting two groups differing on some independent
variable and comparing them on some dependent variable.

In the basic casual-comparative design there are two types: case A and case B.

Case A

Group Independent variable Dependent variable

 (E) (X) O
(C) O
Symbols

(E)= Experimental group

(C)= Control group
( )= indicates no manipulation
In this type, one of the two comparison groups possess the characteristic that the other does
not. Furthermore, it might have had an experience which the other has not.

Case B

Group Independent variable Dependent variable

(E) (X1) O
(C) (X2) O

In this type both comparison groups possesses the characteristic of interest in varying degrees
and both groups may have had two different kinds of experiences.

Since randomization, manipulation and control which characterize experimental studies are
not possible in casual-comparative studies, there exist some control procedure to authenticate the
results, such measures are matching, comparing homogeneous groups or subgroups and applying
the statistical procedure known as the analysis of covariance. Matching is a control technique
whereby the researcher identifies a variable, he then control for such variable by pair-wise
matching of subjects. In this case, for each subject in one group, the researcher finds a subject in
the second group with the same or similar score on the control variable. If a subject in either
group does not have a suitable match, the subject is eliminated from the sample. Thus, the
resulting matched groups are identical or very similar with respect to the identified extraneous
variable. The elimination of subjects without a match is a visible problem of the pair-wise
matching.

Comparing homogeneous groups or subgroups is another way of controlling groups which

are homogenous with respect to that variable. This procedure however lowers the number of
subjects in the study and therefore restricts the generalizability of findings. Another approach is
comparing subgroup within each group that represents a level of the control group. For example
if intelligent quotient (IQ) is classified as high (116 and above), average (85 to 115), and low (84
and below), from each of the three groups subgroups are created to represent the comparism
groups.

Analysis of covariance is a statistical method which adjusts scores on dependent variable for
initial differences on some other variable, while assuring that performance on the other variable
is related to performance on the dependent variable.

Experimental Research Design

In experimental research study the researcher manipulate at least one independent variable,
controls other relevant variable and observes the effect on one of more dependent variables. It
can truly test hypotheses concerning cause and effect relationships. The manipulation of the
independent variables is the one characteristic that distinguishes all experimental research from
the other research designs. The independent variable is referred to as the experimental variable,
the cause or the treatment, which is the activity or characteristic believed to be the one
responsible for the effect. The dependent variable also referred to as attribute variable, effect,
post-test or the outcome of the study.

The experimental research design is the most demanding in terms of skill and it is also
productive in terms of providing evidence concerning hypothesized cause effect relationships.
Results obtained in experimental research permits prediction that are generalizable ( i.e Global).

The experimental research method follows the same steps as other research methods. The
experimental study is guided by at least one hypothesis that states an expected causal relationship
between two variables. The experiment is conducted to confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis. In
an experimental research the researcher selects the groups, decides what experiences each group
will be subjected to, and tries to control all relevant factors besides the change that he has
introduced and observes or measures the effect on the groups at the end of the study.

An experimental study typically involves two groups, an experimental group and a control
group. The experimental group receives anew or novel treatment, a treatment under
investigation. The control group is needed for comparison with the experimental group, to see if
the treatment is more effective than the usual or traditional procedure. It also helps to see if one
approach is more effective than another.

In experimental research, there is direct manipulation of at least one independent variable. This
means that the researcher decides what form or values the independent variable (or cause) will
take and which group will get which form. The different form or values that the independent
variable may take is either presence versus absence of a characteristic or occurrence presence is
varying degrees (i.e a lot of a characteristic or occurrence versus a little of it), or presence of
another kind or characteristic.

In experimental research the researcher exercise control in other to remove the influence of
any variable, other than the independent variable that might affect performance on the dependent
variable. Any uncontrolled extraneous variables affecting performance of the independent
variable are threats to the validity of an experiment. An experiment is valid if results obtained are
due only to the manipulated independent variable and if they are generalizable to situation
outside of the experimental setting, thereby, satisfying internal and external validity. Internal
validity refers to the condition that observed differences in the dependent variable are a direct
result of manipulation of the independent variable on some other variable. External validity
refers to the condition that results are generalizable or applicable, to groups and environments
outside of the experimental setting.

Threats to internal validity include history. This is the occurrence of any event which is not
part of the experimental treatment but which may affect performance on the dependent variable,
maturation refers to the physical or mental changes that may occur within the subjects over a
period of time. Testing means improved scores on a posttest resulting from subject having taken
a pretest. Instrumentation refers to unreliability, or lack of consistency, in measuring
instruments which may result in an invalid assessment of performance. Statistical regression
usually occurs when subjects are selected on the basis of extreme scores and it refers to the
tendency of subjects who score highest on a pretest to score lower on a post test and of subjects
who score lowest on pretests to score higher on a post test, differential selection of subjects
occurs when already formed groups are used is when some subjects dropout due to whatever
reason including death.
 Threats to external validity includes; pretest – treatment interaction, occurring when
subjects respond or react differently to a treatment because they have been pretested, multiple
treatment interference, can occur when the same subjects receive more than one treatment in
succession. selection – treatment interaction refers to situations when subjects are not
randomly selected for treatment, specificity of variables, experimental effects and reactive
arrangements.

Extraneous variables are controlled by matching, comparing homogeneous groups or

subgroups, using subjects as their own control and by analysis of covariance.

Types of Experimental Research Design

1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under

observation after implementing factors of cause and effect.
2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical
analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research.
Of the types of experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect
relationship within a group. In a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:

 There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental

Group, which will experience the changed variables.
 A variable which can be manipulated by the researcher
 Random distribution

This experimental research method commonly occurs in the physical sciences.

3. Quasi-experimental research design: The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-

experimental design is similar to experimental, but it is not the same. The difference
between the two is the assignment of a control group. In this research, an independent
variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not randomly assigned. Quasi-
research is used in field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not
required.

Data Analysis
Numerical Data collected is analyzed, using the method as described in the methodology. Here
again in the course of data analysis the method can be altered, as long as it is on the premise that
it is in the best interest of the study.
This involves (a) Editing, (b) Tabulating, (c) Codifying etc.
1. The data collected should be scanned, to make sure that it is complete and all the instructions
are followed. This process is called editing. Once these forms have been edited, they must be
coded.
2. Coding means, assigning numbers to each of the answers, so that they can be analyzed.
3. The final step is called as data tabulation. It is the orderly arrangement of the data in a tabular
form. Also at the time of analyzing the data, the statistical tests to be used must be finalized such
as T-Test, Z-test, Chi-square Test, ANOVA, etc.
Presentation of Results

The researcher presents the results or findings of the study usually in tables, figures and charts.
The details of the calculations involved in arriving at the results need not to be presented. The
tables, figures and charts should each have a number and titles. The numbers should be in Arabic
numeral. The number and titles should be on top while for the figure and charts the number and
titles should appear below.

Discussion of Findings

Under this heading the researcher advances possible interpretations and explanation for his
findings and tries to relate these with the findings of previous works.

SELF ASSESSEMENT EXERCISE

1. What is survey research design?

2. Why is a representative sample needed in survey?

3. List and explain 5 treats to internal validity

4. Briefly explain when the following statistics are used T-Test, Z-test, Chi-square Test,
ANOVA
 UNIT 6: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Introduction

In Educational Research, two approaches can be adopted in the process of finding

answers to issues that confront us in education. The approaches can either be; Quantitative or
Qualitative. In this study we shall be focusing on Qualitative Research Methods.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research Methods:

In a given Qualitative Research all these characteristics may not be present at a time.
Naturalistic Inquiry: this entails a situation where persons, objects, things are studied in their
natural settings.
Inductive Analysis: In qualitative research, the researcher moves from particular case/ situation
to the general.
Holistic Perspective: The phenomenon under study is looked as holistically: there is in-depth
and detail observation/inquiry
Qualitative Data: In this type of research non-numerical data is sought for, here observation,
interview, documented evidences, works of art etc. are obtained; there is narrative description
and interpretation of textual data.
Personal Contact/ Insight: In Qualitative Research Methods, the researcher must be physically
and personally involved in the enquiry, where sometimes his insight into the phenomenon under
investigation may be invaluable.
Dynamic System: In this type of research, the researches is not duty bound to a particular
method of investigation , there could be situation where he may chose to adopt more than one
method or change the method of inquiry in the study.
Unique Case Orientation: In Qualitative Research every case or inquiry is treated as unique, no
two situations are taken or treated as one.
Context Sensitivity: The particular situation in which the investigation is done is very
paramount in this type of inquiry, as the situation contributes to giving meaning to the
phenomenon under study.
Emphatic Neutrality: The researcher in qualitative research tries as much as possible to see
reality from the perspective of the persons under investigation even when trying to be neutral;
the researcher sees the world from the point of view of the social group under study.
Design Flexibility: There is no hard and fast rule to the design to use in this type of research, the
researcher can start with a given method and vary the method as the investigation progresses,
provided , it leads to the realization of the research objectives.

Types of Research Design

Historical Design: This type of design involves the analysis of documents, works of art and
other available materials in order to gain insight and knowledge related to past events; it enables
the researcher to gain understanding of things that happened in the past.
Case Study Design: This type of design is aimed at gaining in-dept understanding of a single
unit or entity, which could be individual, a group, an organization, a programme etc. in this type
of study, the researcher uses multiple methods to gather data in order to gain an intensive and
extensive knowledge about the phenomenon under investigation.
Ethnography Design: This is a Qualitative Research Design in which the researcher tries to gain
an in-dept understanding of a naturally occurring behavior, within a social group or culture. The
research dose not tampers with the environment of the research; information is obtained as they
occur in their natural settings.
Document or Content Analysis: In this method of qualitative research, documented and
recorded materials are obtained and analyzed in order to gain understanding of the problem
under investigation.
Grounded Theory: This method of Qualitative Research in geared towards developing a theory
of social phenomenon: information is obtained from a social group upon which a theory is
developed or formulated, though there maybe need to further refined the theory based on the
emergence of additional information, the theory developed in this fashion is said to be grounded
in data.
Phenomenological Study: This type of enquiry is based on the assumption that there are
Multiple Realities. Hence, information is obtained from multiple sources in order to understand
the meaning that individuals associate with a given reality.
Naturalistic Observation: This entails a researcher carrying out an Unobtrusive Observation: -
the observee(s) is/are not aware that he/they is/are being watched: - in a natural setting devoid of
any form of alteration. Unlike some form of investigations that are done in a controlled of
laboratory settings.
Intervention Study: This is a study that is aimed at solving a given social problem confronting
the society. It involves investigation into the solution in order to proffer solution to the problem
at hand.

Data Analysis
By the very nature of qualitative approach to research data analysis is non-numerical.
Documented and recorded materials are obtained and analyzed in order to gain understanding of
the problem under investigation. Here observation, interview, documented evidences, works of
art etc. are obtained; there is narrative description and interpretation of textual data. In data
analysis there are three steps involved; Organizing, Summarizing and Interpretation
 Organizing: Information relating to a particular issues are grouped together for
easy of understanding, in the form of Themes, Topics etc.
 Summarizing: These groups of related Themes/Topics/information are merged
and summary made into a manageable piece of information for easy
interpretation.
 Interpretation: The summarized data are given meaning, in the light of the
situation of the research and information obtained from literature.

Validation of Data
In qualitative research approach/ methods, there is no room for a standardized instrument for
data collection; here the emphasis is on the trustworthiness and credibility of data source as well
as the authenticity of data. Hence the researcher should make sure that information is sought
from multiple sources and cross checking of obtained information to making sure that the
information are correct, and emphasis should be on who is providing the information.

Presentation and Discussion of Findings

 In the presentation of findings the researcher as a matter of deliberate effort must make
sure that the voice of the participants are heard, and also make sure that literature are used to
buttress data and not to over-shadow it. Direct quotes as recorded by the researcher are presented
alongside with citation from literature in order to make meaning of given information. The
researcher when discussing the finding, take into account the prevailing circumstances of the
study as well as the meaning attached to a phenomenon by the participants and these issues are
discussed in the light of information available in literature.

Conclusion
In this unit Qualitative Research Methods; we discussed the meaning and characteristics
of Qualitative Research Methods, the types of Qualitative Research Design, Data Analysis in
Qualitative Research, Data Presentation and Interpretation.

Study Questions
1. What is Qualitative Research?
2. List and explain Five characteristics of qualitative approach to research
3. Identify and explain any four types of Qualitative Research methods
4. Briefly discuss the issues in validation of data in Qualitative Research
 UNIT 7: SUMMARY/ CONCLUSION OF A STUDY

It is generally agreed that the research format should cover five major aspect of the study these
areas are:

1. Introduction or background to the definition of problem.

2. Review of literature
3. Methodology
4. Data analysis
5. Summary conclusion and recommendations.

Conclusion, Recommendations, implications for a study and suggestions for further studies are
usually written in the final chapter of a research work.

Conclusion
Writing a conclusion for a research paper can be difficult. Here, the research presents the majors
findings of his work. There are different types of conclusion for a research work. However, a
summarizing conclusion is considered the most common form. When writing a conclusion, the
following steps are to be considered:
(1) Restate your research topic.
(2) Summarize the main points of your findings.
(3) State the significance of your results.
(4) Conclude your thought.

Recommendations
Recommendations are based on the results of your research findings and should indicate the
specific measures or direction. In recommendation, the researcher suggests action which would
be taken by all to benefit from the purpose of the study.
A good research recommendation should be one sentence succinct and should start with an
action verb such as create, establish, facilitate. Each recommendation should be follow by few
sentences of explanation.

Implications of a study:
Implications of a study are basically the conclusion that a research draws from his results and
explain how such findings may be important for policy, practice or theory. They are specific
suggestions a researcher make with regard to further studies on the topic studied.

Suggestions/ for further studies

An important result of a project work is a set of new questions that can be used as ideas for
further studies by other researchers. There is need for suggestions for further studies in a project
or thesis because this can help to resolve the following issues:
(1) Building on a particular finding
(2) Addressing a flaws in a research work
(3) Replication of work in a new context, location and/or culture.

References and Bibliography

References in research refer to a list of all the sources that were actually cited in a study. It
essentially involves the sources of information to directly link the reader readers of a work to
other areas of knowledge referenced. Bibliography is a list of all the sources which a researcher
consulted during the course of carryout the research work
 UNIT EIGHT: PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH REPORT

8.0 This unit is intended to acquaint students/ researchers the format to present a research report
in Education. The format comprises of four sections:

 Preliminaries
 Main Body
 Bibliography/References
 Appendix

Unit 8.1 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students should be able to:
a) Identify and outline the format for reporting research
b) Describe each section of the research report.

Unit 8.2 Preliminary pages

Preliminary pages are numbered in roman figures. This comprises of: -
1. Front Cover Page
2. The Title Page
3. Certification page (Approval Page)
4. Dedication
5. Acknowledgments
6. Table of Contents
7. List of Tables, Figures, Appendices
8. Abstract

1. Front Cover Page-: This is the first page of the project. This page contains:
 The title of the project written in capital letters
 The full names of the investigator or student. The first name comes first (in initial
cap), follow by middle name in initial caps and the surname in capital.
 The date of submission of the research work in the order of month and year.
2. Title Page -: This is the first preliminary page that is number in Roman figure. This page
contains
  The title of the project.
 The name of the student then Matric number
 Degrees obtained with institution.
 Department and institution to which report is being presented
 The month and year of submission of the work written below
3. Certification page –: This page is for the approval / certification of the students work by
the supervisor(s) that the work is done under their guidance. The supervisor(s), head of
department and the dean of the faculty sign on this page.
Example
We, the undersigned, certify that this study was carried out by Alex Osas EHIOSU in the
Department of _______________, Faculty of Education, University of Benin, Benin City,
Edo State.

_______________ ____________________
Supervisor Head of Department

_______________
Dean

4. Dedication page – This is the page where the researcher is oblige to dedicate his / her work
to anybody he/ she considered very dear to him/ her. Dedication could be to the living
or dead; institutions or systems.

5. Acknowledgements – On this page, the researcher shows appreciation and gratitude to those
considered to be instrumental to the work. Stating with God or the Supervisor(s), then
the HOD, follow by the lecturers, then others (family, friends or well-wishers, institutions or
organization) that provided assistance to the execution of the work.

6. Table of Contents – This page contains the headings and sub headings of the contents as
found in the work and the pages were they appeared. Stating from the preliminary pages to
Appendices.
Example

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
LIST OF TABLES -
LIST OF FIGURES -
LIST OF APPENDICES -
ABSTRACT -
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Statement of the Problem
Purpose of the study
Significance of the Study
Research Questions
Hypothesis
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Design of the Study
Population
Sample and Sampling Technique
Research Instrument
Validity of the Instrument
Reliability of the Instrument
Method of Data Collection
Method of Data Analysis
CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
Presentation of Results
Discussion of Finding
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
Conclusion
Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDICES

7. List of Tables, Figures and Appendices – This is the list of the tables, figures (diagram)
and appendices with the pages they appear.
8. Abstract – This is a brief summary of the entire research work. The abstract is presented in
3 paragraphs reflecting the essentials in each of the chapters of the work.

Activity 8.1

1. Itemize the parts of the preliminary page.

2. What is difference between the information on the front cover page and the title page
in education research report?
3. Distinguish between the dedication page from the acknowledgement page.

Unit 8. 3 The Main Body of the Project

This is the description of the whole research or study. It’s arranged into five chapters,
starting from chapter 1 to 5. Under each chapter, the sub headings are addressed in details.
 Chapter One: Introduction
This chapter is arranged into sub sections
i. Background to the Study: The background of the study provide the rationale to the
definition of the problem. Here, the researcher presents all the necessary information
that will help in understanding the development of the problem.
 ii. Statement of the Problem: The researcher has to present a concise and a specified
statement regarding the focus of the research. The statement can be presented in
declarative form or an interrogative form.
iii. Research Questions -: The research questions involves the relevant variables or factors
in the research problem that will help to guide the study.
iv. Hypothesis -: These are the intelligent guess which are formulated in relation to the
research questions.
v. Purpose of the Study - These the objections which must be specific, clearly &
unambiguously stated to facilitate the determination of the extent to which the study aim
to achieved.
vi. Scope and Delimitation -: Scope entails the extent to which the study can deal with the
present problem. It shows what will be covered in the study in terms population time
lag, variables. While delimitation involves delineating property the boundaries of the
study. It involves narrowing the scope of the study to a manageable size.
vii. Significance of the Study –: This provides the main rationales or importance of the
study. This is to state how useful the result of the study will be to the beneficiaries such
as of populace, government, society, institution etc.
viii. Assumptions –: This is where the researcher presents the conditions that must be
satisfied before a project becomes valid. If is not all studies that requires assumptions.
ix. Limitation –: This relates to the possible weaknesses of the research uncontrollable
circumstances during the study.
x. Definition of Terms -: This involves giving of the operational definition of terms or
concepts used in the study. The terms should be arranged alphabetically.
 Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature

In this chapter, the researcher presents the review of literature related to the topic under sub-
headings.

 Chapter Three -: Methodology

It involves the following sub-section
i. Research Design -:It explain the research design adopted in the study. It can be survey
design, etc.
 ii. Population -: The researcher specifies the individuals or group of persons whom data
will be collected from.
iii. Sample and Sampling Procedure-: This shows the portion of the population that will be
used in the study. Sampling procedure explains how the sample is obtained.
iv. Instrument for Data Collection -: This describes the instrument (s) used in collecting
data. It includes explaining how the instrument was developed and the major
characteristics of the instrument.
v. Validation of the Instrument -: Validation of the instrument describes how the researcher
was able to validate the instrument i.e ensuring that the instrument measured what is
ought to measure.
vi. Reliability of the Instrument-: It is the process of ensuring that the instrument measures
consistently what it ought to measures. The evidence of this report should be reported.
vii. Method of Data Collection -: This gives a full report on how the data were collected. It
involves that the researcher to state how and who collected the data.
viii. Method of Data Analysis -: The researcher report the statistical technique or tool
employed in analyzing the data.

 Chapter Four: Presentation of Results and Discussion of Findings

In this chapter, the research presents the analysis of the data collected in tables, figures and
charts which are arranged in order of the research questions and hypothesis. The tables, figures
and charts should each have numbers, title and interpretation. For tables, the number and title
should appear above and interpretation below while for figures and charts, the number title and
interpretation should appear below.
Under the discussion of findings, the researcher presents a comprehensive interpretation and
explanation of the findings of the study and relate these with the findings of previous studies
captured in the review of literature.

 Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

This chapter focuses on:
i. Summary -: The researcher presents a brief description of the entire project. Starting from
the introduction to the findings of the study.
 ii. Conclusion -: Here, the research states the major findings that emerge from the study and
draw assertion based on the findings.
iii. Implication of the Findings -: The research relates his findings to what it suggest either
theoretically or practically.
iv. Recommendations -: Based on the findings, the researcher states suggestions that can be
helpful or that will bring about improvement in the system or discipline.
v. Suggestions for Further Studies -: The researcher states areas that needed to be
investigated in his study but restrained, so that other researchers can carry out studies on
such areas.
vi. Contributions to Knowledge-: What the study has contributed to existing knowledge.
What new knowledge and experience has been gained from the study are written in this
section.

Unit 8.4 Bibliography or Reference

Bibliography is a list of all the materials which was consulted in the course of the research
while reference is the part of the report that contain the list of all sources that were actually cited
in the work. It usually follows APA format which is the most extensively used format. They are
presented in Alphabetical order.

Unit 8. 5 Appendix
The appendix consist of valuable supporting information that are related to the report but
were not suitable for inclusion in the main body of the work. Such as letter of introduction for
permission to collect data, instrument used for the study, computer print outs etc.

Activity 8.2

1. Itemize the sub sections of chapter one and three

2. Using the APA Format 6th edition, write a reference from the following
a. New Delhi, 2016, Fundamentals of Research Methodology and Statistics, New Age
International Limited Publishers, Kolovie B .U.
b. Quantitative and qualitative Approach, 2014, Journal of Education and Practice
Ehiosu W.L, 16(4), Osaro N. E, 145-153
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alutu, A.N.G (2015). Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations. In Salami, L.I and Alutu,
A.N.G (Eds.), Guidance on Project Writing for Undergraduate Students. A publication of the
Faculty of Education.

Edigin, J.E.O (1999). Writing a Research Report in Education. In Awanbor, D and Iyamu, E.O.S
(Eds.), Fundamentals of Research Methods and Statistics. Ikeja : Vision Publishers Ltd,

Omorogiuwa, O. K (2019). Introduction to Behaioural Research Methods and Applied Statistics.

Benin City : Mase – Perfect Printing Press.

Yogesh, K.S (2006). Fundamentals of Research Methodology and Statistics. New Delhi :New
Age International Limited Publishers.