Homework 11: Pollution and water treatment methods

Note: this is a reading handout. Do not print.

Aims:
Analyze the main causes for water pollution in order to propose real-life applicable
solutions.
Water treatment methods:
Primary methods: sedimentation; Secondary methods: trickling filters, activated sludge;
Tertiary or advanced methods: ionic exchange, coal bed with regeneration, chemical
precipitation, filtration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and distillation.

The agricultural revolution and establishment of big cities, in addition to the rapid
population growth, led to one of the most important environmental problems:
water pollution.
Initially, before the Industrial revolution, pollution was basically local and mainly
biological. That is, from organic wastes of humans and animals that were left
over on the ground or in nearby streams and rivers. The organic wastes were
laden with pathogenic microorganisms responsible for many diseases, many of
the deadly, such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery and hepatitis. Later on, with the
rise of the industrial activity and technological improvement, the problem was
magnified. Water originally from natural streams was used, not only as raw
material for the production of a huge amount of products on a large scale, but
also as a vehicle for transporting human-produced wastes into the sea.
Accordingly to the World Health Organization (WHO), now a day, the supply of
polluted water and poor hygiene are responsible for the death of 2.668 million
people per year, worldwide. It is ranked fourth among other main causes of
death; malnutrition, Tabaco, and hypertension. It is estimated that 80% of the
world’s disease are caused by polluted water. (Hill & Kolb, 1999, pp.329-330)

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Revised and edited by: Prof. Leticia Ló pez Cuevas
Drinkable water and the one used in cooking, personal and household hygiene,
as well as agricultural and industrial production, is exposed to various sources of
pollution that can be classified into three main groups (SEMARNAT,2007):

1. Biological/Organic pollution: caused by microorganisms such as bacteria,

viruses and protozoa)
2. Chemical pollution: caused by heavy metals, detergents, fertilizers, and
pesticides)
3. Physical pollution: solid waste produced from human daily activities, such
as plastic, batteries, packages, etc, dumped into the sea, streams, lakes
or rivers.

All these impurities change the main water characteristics and they determine its
final possible uses. Organisms with the FDA (Food and Drug Administration),
responsible for the proper regulation of the quality of the products we consume,
have established maximum level of substances allowed in potable water. As it is
shown in Table 1, the substances are subscribed from the lowest to the highest
toxicity level.
According to the type of pollutant, water can be classified into soft water and hard
water. Soft water contains Na+ and K+ ions and is suitable for cooking and
washing clothes and dishes as a soapy solution, as well as to bath with. Hard
water contains Ca+2, Mg+2, and Fe+2 ions. Fe+2 produces a cream that sticks
to cloths and makes them look dirty. It also forms crusts around drains from sinks
and in the shower floor.

Table 1. Maximum levels of substances allowed in potable water. (U.S. Public

Health Service).
Substance Maximum concentration
(mL/L; ppm)
Total dissolved solids 500
Chloride 250
Sulphate 250
Nitrate 45
Zinc 5

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 Fluoride 2
Barium 1
Copper 1
Iron 0.3
Cyanide 0.2
Organic compounds 0.2
Arsenic 0.05
Chrome 0.05
Lead 0.05
Manganese 0.05
Silver 0.05
Cadmium 0.01
Selenium 0.01

Ions present in water come from various sources, such as the decomposition of
organic matter by microorganisms, contributing with nitrate ions, phosphate,
sulfate and bicarbonate, plus carbon dioxide. Under anaerobic conditions, it also
found methane, ammonia, amines, hydrogen sulfide, and methanethiol. They are
all responsible for unpleasant odors from drains and pipes.

The bacterial decomposition of organic matter in the water depletes dissolved

oxygen that can be measured through an index known as Biochemical Oxygen
Demand (BOD). It states that the greater the amount of organic waste, the
greater the BOD. An environment with high levels of BOD does not permit
aquatic life (fish, plankton, etc.) The presence of nitrate and phosphate ions in
this type of water serves as nutrients for algae growth, which are also
responsible for some problems, since they raise the value of BOD as they dye.

This phenomenon is known as eutrophication, a neutral process that is

accelerated by human waste, such as fertilizers. Finally, this causes dead lakes
and streams that nature fails to purify in the short or medium term.
Another natural source of pollutants is the rain that carries dust from the
atmosphere to the soil and dissolves some gases (O2, N2, and CO2). These

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gases react during thunderstorms with water vapor to form nitric acid (acid rain),
which easily dissolves a variety of minerals from rocks and soils.

The industrial pollution supplies to the water a huge variety of pollutants that are
mostly highly toxic, such as cyanide ions and chromate ions from chrome
processes. Heavy metals like mercury, lead and cadmium; sulfur compounds,
fats, organic solvents of all types (derived from benzene, trichloroethylene and
other haloalkanes), dyes, alkalis, and acids, and many other pollutants.

According to SEMARNAT (2007), the problem of water pollution can be attacked

in three ways:
1. Reducing the amount of wastewater and the concentration of pollutants in
it.
2. Reducing pollutants that are carried by water before they are poured into
rivers, lakes and seas through a treatment that either holds them or
eliminates them.
3. Keeping rivers, lakes and seas in good conditions so that they can
naturally process much of the waste that is dumped in them.

To reduce pollutants in wastewater, there have been developed various

treatment methods that are defined as “…processes related to the extraction and
sanitary control of waste products and washed away from homes and industries.“
(SEMARNAT, 2007, p.110)

Although these methods are highly efficient, in developing countries, treatment is

given to 10% of the total % of water. In Mexico, only 23% of wastewater
(municipal and industrial) is treated. According to data collected by SEMARNAT,
in our country there are 8.03 km 3 of wastewater produced annually from cities,
5.62 km3 from other sources, mainly produced by industries. Here, only 36% of
municipal sewage is treated and 15% of water from industrial sources. The
amount of wastewater increases each year and it is estimated that in 20 years,

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Mexico will have had an overall increase of 60% for municipal water, 272% for
industrial water and 170% for agriculture.

Wastewater treatment
Depending on the type and amount of pollutants present in the wastewater, it will
be necessary to treat it in a certain way. The nature of the water states the
treatment needed, it is not the same water the one we used for cleaning
vegetables than the one used to separate heavy metals in a mine. However, the
methods used in each case follow very similar steps and are classified into three
main groups:

1. Primary of physical method: sedimentation

2. Secondary of biological method: trickling filters and activated sludge.
3. Tertiary or advanced methods: regenerative carbon bed, ion exchange,
chemical precipitation, filtration, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis and
distillation.

The primary or physical method involves wastewater accumulation in

sedimentation ponds for a specific period of time so that the bodies and heavier
insoluble particles are settled in the bottom of the container in a mass called
sludge. This mixture has a high biochemical oxygen demand, so soon it starts
producing anaerobic decomposition, which produces unpleasant odors.

The secondary or biological method involves passing the previous effluent

through sand and gravel filters. In this step there is some aeration preventing
anaerobic decomposition, so that the aerobic bacteria oxidizes much of the
organic matter and transforms it into stable inorganic materials. Thus, the amount
of oxygen in the water is maintained at a good level and it does not rot.

It is very common that wastewater treatment plants use a combination of the

primary and secondary methods, in which case is called “activated sludge
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method”. In this method, sewage is deposited in tanks and aerated with powerful
fans, causing the formation of large clusters called porous floc, which serve to
filter and absorb pollutants. Aerobic bacteria convert the organic material in
sludge. Part of it is recycled to keep the process running, but storing it on land or
pouring it into the sea, which is a major source of pollution, eliminates most of it.
Some countries use sewage sludge as fertilizer, making this process a little more
sustainable.

The water resulting from the primary and secondary methods is still far from
having a good quality for any use, so it goes through advanced methods or
tertiary type, which helps to remove the remaining pollutants.
One of those methods is filtration by allowing activated carbon to adsorb organic
molecules that are difficult to remove by other methods. Adsorption is a surface
phenomenon that is recorded when substances such as bituminous coal have
rough surfaces on which colored particles responsible for unpleasant odors
adhere.
Another commonly used method is the addition of chlorine, which removes a
large number of pathogens. However, is not effective against viruses (such as
those causing hepatitis). Plus, chlorine can react with certain dissolved organic
compounds generating carcinogenic substances, although their presence is in
such low fractions is considered low risk and therefore is used to disinfect
swimming pools.

For households and industry’s consumption, water must go through much finer
treatments of chemical type. Once the water has passed through the secondary
treatment, it proceeds to be added slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) and a
flocculator as aluminum sulfate. Both substances react to form a gelatinous mass
of aluminum hydroxide that traps dust particles and bacteria, as shown in the
following equation:

3 Ca(OH)2 + Al2(SO4)3 -----> 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 CaSO4

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Subsequently, water is filtered through sand and gravel and again subjected to
aeration in order to eliminate odors and improve taste. It may be added some
activated carbon and finally chlorine to reduce the bacterial level.

Table 2 summarizes the methods of wastewater treatment, cost, type of material

eliminated and its percentage removal. These are all data certainly needed to
decide the type and amount of methods to use depending on the usage you want
to give to the water (irrigation, cleaning toilets, pet grooming, animal and human
consumption, industrial processes, etc.).

Table 2. Summary of the wastewater treatment methods.

Method Cost Eliminated Percentage

Material Removal
Primary
Sedimentation Low Organic substances 25-40
dissolved and 40-70
suspended solids.
Secondary
Trickling filters Moderate Organic substances 80-95
Activated sludge Moderate dissolved and 70-95
suspended solids.

Tertiary
Regenerative carbon bed Moderate Organic substances 90-98
Ion exchange High dissolved. 80-92
Chemical precipitation Moderate Nitrates y 88-95
Filtration Low phosphates 50-90
Reverse osmosis Very high Phosphates 65-95
Electrolysis Very high Suspended solids 10-40
Distilling Extremely high Dissolved solids 90-98
Dissolved solids

References:
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Revised and edited by: Prof. Leticia Ló pez Cuevas
Hill, J.W., y Kolb, D.K. (1999). Química para el nuevo milenio. 8ª edición. México:
Pearson Educación.

SEMARNAT. (2007). ¿Y el medio ambiente? Problemas en México y el mundo. México:

SEMARNAT.

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