ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

iii
 ABSTRACT

The regenerative braking plays a vital part to maintain the vehicle’s strength and
getting better energy. Electric vehicle’s use mechanical brake to boost the
roughness of wheel for the deceleration purpose. However, from the point of view
of saving energy, mechanical brakeincreasesout much energy while the EV’s
kinetic energy is renewed into the thermal one. This project proposes the efficient
battery energy management system for regenerative braking application.
This project has presented the RBS of EVs which are driven by the BLDC motor.
The performance of the EVs’ regenerative brake system has been realized by our
control scheme which has been implemented both in the simulation and in the
experiments. By combining fuzzy control and PID control methods which are both
sophisticated methods, RBS can distribute the mechanical braking force and
electrical braking force dynamically.
PID control is a very popular method in electric car control, but it is difficult to
obtain a precise brake current. Braking force is affected by many influences such
as SOC, speed, brake strength, and so on. In this paper, we have chosen the three
most important factors: SOC, speed, and brake strength as the fuzzy control input
variables.
Conventional braking systems use friction to counteract the forward
momentum of a moving car.As the brake pads rub against the wheels, excessive
heat energy is created.This heat energy dissipates into the air, wasting up to 30%
of the car's generated power.

iv
 TABLEOFCONTENT

S.NO TITLE PAGE NO

` ABSTRACT iv

LISTOFFIGURES viiv

LIST OF TABLE iii

LISTOFABBREVIATIONS ix

1 INTRODUCTION 10

1.1Introduction 10
1.2Objective 11

2 LITERATUREREVIEW 12

3 SYSTEMANALYSIS 15
3.1ExistingSystem 15

3.1.1BlockDiagram 17

3.2Proposed System 17

3.2.1BlockDiagram 18

4 SOFTWAREREQUIREMENTS 23
4.1MATLAB 23
4.1.1Introduction 24
4.1.2 MATLABSystem 24
4.1.3 MATLAB Power 25
ofComputationalMat
hematics

4.1.4 FeaturesofMATLAB 26
v
 4.1.5Usesof MATLAB 26

4.2BlocksinMATLAB 27

4.2.1PIC Microcontroller 27
4.2.2A/D Converter 29

4.2.3Battery 31
4.2.4 4.2.5 4.2.6 Pulse Width Modulator 31
Control Circuit

4.2.7 4.2.8 4.2.9 N CHANNEL MOSFET 540 34

4.2.10LCDdisplay 34
4.2.11Transformer 36

4.2.12Motor 36

4.2.13Inverter 37

5. SIMULATION RESULT AND DISCUSSION 39

5.1 Simulation Screenshot 39

5.2 Result andDiscussion 40

6. CONCLUSIONANDFUTUREENHANCEMENT 43

6.1Conclusion 43

6.2FutureScope 43

APPENDIX 48

vi
 LISTOFFIGURES

FIGURE FIGUREN PAGENO

NO AME

3.1 ExistingSystemBlockDiagram 17

3.2 ProposedSystemBlockDiagram 18

4.1 PIC Microcontroller 28

4.2 SG3525 pin diagram 33

4.3 LCD Display 34

4.4 Transformer 36

4.5 Permanent magnet DC motor 37

5.1 Simulation screenshot 39

5.2 Result of Regenerative braking 40

5.3 Waveform of speed 41
5.4 Wave form of current 41
5.5 Wave form of generator output 42

vii
 LISTOFTABLES

TABLENO TABLENAME PAGENO

4.1 PIC Microcontroller Tabulation 27

4.2 Analog to Digital Converter Tabulation 30

4.3 SG3525: Pulse Width Modulator 32

Tabulation
4.4 N Channel MOSFET 540 tabulation 34

viii
 LISTOFABBREVIATIONS

GND Groundpin

RST Resetpin

EN EnablePIN

TX SerialTransmitPin

RX SerialReceivePin

VCC Voltagecommoncollector

VIN Voltageinput

VOP Voltageoutput

ix
 CHAPTER

IINTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Prologue to Regenerative Braking Systems When a regular vehicle applies its

brakes; motor vitality is changed over to warm as grinding between the brake cushions
and wheels. This warmth is diverts in the airstream and the vitality is viably
squandered the aggregate sum of vitality lost along these lines relies upon how
frequently, how hard and for to what extent the brakes are applied. Regenerative
slowing down alludes to a procedure in which a bit of the motor vitality of the vehicle
is put away by a momentary stockpiling framework. Vitality regularly dispersed in the
brakes is guided by a force transmission framework to the vitality store during
deceleration. That vitality is held until required again by the vehicle, whereby it is
changed over go into motor vitality and used to quicken the vehicle. The size of the
part accessible for vitality stock piling changes as per the kind of capacity, drive train
effectiveness, and drive cycle and idleness weight. A lorry on the mother way could
travel 100 miles between stops. This speaks to small sparing regardless of whether the
proficiency of the framework is 100%. Downtown area driving includes a lot
additionally slowing down occasions speaking to an a lot higher vitality misfortune
with more prominent likely investment funds. With transports, taxis, conveyance vans,
etc. there is much increasingly potential for economy.
Since regenerative slowing down outcomes in an expansion in vitality yield for a given
vitality contribution to a vehicle, the effectiveness is improved the measure of work
done by the motor of the vehicle is diminished, thusly decreasing the measure of prime

10
 vitality required to impel the vehicle. All together for a regenerative slowing
mechanism to be practical the prime vitality spared over a predetermined lifetime must
balance the underlying cost, size and weight punishments of the framework. The
vitality stockpiling unit must be minimal, sturdy and equipped for dealing with high
force levels productively, and any helper vitality move or vitality transformation
hardware must be effective, minimized and of sensible expense.
To be effective a regenerative breaking mechanism ought to in a perfect world have the
accompanying properties,
 Efficient vitality transformation A vitality store with a high limit for each unit
weight and volume
 A high force rating so a lot of vitality can stream in a short space of time
 Not require over entangled control frameworks to connect it with the vehicle
transmission
 Smooth conveyance of intensity from the regenerative framework
 Absorb and store slowing down vitality in direct extent to slowing down, with the
least deferral and misfortune over a wide scope of street speeds and wheel forces.

1.2 OBJECTIVE

Regenerative braking systems aim to recover, store and reuse some of the vehicle's
braking energy to improve fuel efficiency or boost the range of electric and hybrid
vehicles.Energy storage media include electric batteries and/or ultra-capacitors.

11
 CHAPTER
IILITERATUREREVIE
W

2. LiteratureReview
[1] S.H. Park, J.S. Kim, J.J. Choi, H. Yamazaki, “Modeling and Control of

Adhesion Force in Railway Rolling Stocks”, IEEE Control Systems

Magazine

A wheel slide protection (WSP) system of a railway train has the role of
reducing excessive wheel slide from brake applications in situations where
wheel/rail adhesion is temporarily impaired. The mechanism of the WSP is
complex and is related to highly nonlinear dynamics of the train. Hardware-in-
the-loop simulation (HILS) for the WSP system can test various dangerous
braking conditions which are not possible in actual train tests, and help to find
appropriate parameters of the WSP system. 

[2] Picasso, D. Caporal, P. Colaneri, “A distributed braking control algorithm

with preview action for railroad vehicles”,

A method is proposed to enhance the overall braking performance of a

railroad vehicle (train) by properly exchanging information among the single
control units. Taking advantage of data transmitted from the coaches at the front
of the train to the rear carriages, a novel distributed braking control algorithm is
proposed that, based on preview control techniques, allows one to reduce the
stopping distance.

12
[3] N.S.A.Zulki fi, F.K.Che Harun and N.S. Azahar, “Centralized Heart Rate

Monitoring Telemetry System Using Zigbee Wireless Sensor Network”,

This project is mainly concerned about monitoring patient's condition
simultaneously via Wireless Mesh Network. Wireless Mesh Network is a
network that allows data transmitted to the node's nearest neighbors and it can be
easily maintained as each node are self-configuring and self-healing.

[4] Guojin Li and Jing Han, “ Application of the Medical Care System Based

on ZigBee Technology”

Monitoring equipment used in hospital wards that most of the

networking capabilities most of the cable, so that the hospital must consider the
routing problem and health care workers in the process of care patients of ward
rounds not only time-consuming and inefficient. To solve these problems,
combined with the ZigBee network technology to design a new type of medical
monitoring system.

[5]A.Juels ,“RFID securityand privacy”

A research survey RFID tags are small, wireless devices that help
identify objects and people. Thanks to dropping cost, they are likely to proliferate
into the billions in the next several years – and eventually into the trillions. RFID
tags track objects in supply chains, and are working their way into the pockets,
belongings and even the bodies of consumers.

13
[6]Stephen a. Weis, Sanjay E.Sarma, Ronald.L.Rivest , “Security and Privacy aspects
of low cost radio frequency identification Systems”
Like many technologies, low-cost Radio Frequency Identification(RFID)
systems will become pervasive in our daily lives when affixed to everyday
consumer items as “smart labels”. While yielding great productivity gains,RFID
systems may create new threats to the security and privacy of individuals or
organizations. This paper presents a brief description of RFID systems andtheir
operation. We describe privacy and security risks and how they apply tothe
unique setting of low-cost RFID devices.

14
`

CHAPTER

IIISYSTEMANALYSI

3.1 EXISTINGSYSTEM
 Electrical variable transmission (EVT) was initially proposed by Professor
Hoeijmakers in the Netherlands in 2001. As a novel electromagnetic ceaselessly factor
transmission, it very well may be applied in the electro mechanical vitality con-form,
for example, half and half electrical vehicle (HEV), wind power age, submerged
impetus, etc. The half breed electrical vehicle dependent on electrical variable
transmission (EVT-HEV) can accomplish the force circulation impact of Prius and
procedures the points of interest as follows:
1) Increasing the space usage of the outspread structure and having higher force and
force thickness
2) Electro mechanical vitality transformation is increasingly adaptable because of the
double mechanical ports and double electrical ports;
3) Insolating the inner burning motor (ICE) and street load so ICE can work in the
ideal state.
 The regenerative slowing mechanism (RBS) is a significant framework for vitality the
board in HEV which can viably improve the cruising range. In this paper, EVT-HEV
is taken as the exploration object and the proficiency advancement control
methodology of RBS is contemplated. At present, the explores on RBS of the
conventional HEV fundamentally incorporate basic plan, slowing down power
dissemination control and composed control with different frameworks on vehicle.

15
`

 The structure of the regenerative slowing mechanism is regular in arrangement and

equal structure. The creator contrasts the arrangement framework and the equal
framework from the parts of regenerative slowing down proficiency and wellbeing.
 The investigates on slowing down power dissemination control mostly center around
the appropriating pace of the mechanical and the regenerative slowing down power to
accomplish the objectives of improving the ideal regenerative slowing down
effectiveness, guarantee the dependability of the slowing down procedure, the slowing
down solace and improving the presentation of the battery or the engine.
 A slip rate control methodologies dependent on sliding mode control and a slowing
down power control system dependent on ECE guidelines are proposed to improve the
proficiency of regenerative slowing down. The fluffy control calculation is utilized to
control the extent of regenerative slowing down power, so the slowing down power
can be joined with the greatest slowing down power bend or make the control
procedure of regenerative breaking progressively steady.
 Thinking about the battery life, regenerative slowing down productivity and
wellbeing, the slowing down power conveyance strategy dependent on model prescient
control is proposed. There are likewise different explores concentrating on the control
system of regenerative slowing down engines. The explores on facilitated control with
other vehicle frameworks are chiefly planned with the ABS, the transmission control,
the guiding framework to guarantee the security of the vehicle and improve the
working execution of the framework.
 This investigate on RBS in EVT-HEV are principally remembered for the vitality the
executives in EVT-HEV as a little part and a couple of explores are exclusively about
the control methodology of RBS in EVT-HEV. While all the investigates on RBS in
EVT-HEV are like the control methodology in the conventional HEV in which just
one engine (the external engine) is used to give the regenerative slowing down power
without thinking about the working province of ICE.
16
3.1.1EXISTINGSYSTEMBLOCKDIAGRAM

Fig.3.1 Existing SystemBlock Diagram

This project has presented the RBS of EVs which are driven by the BLDC motor.
The performance of the EVs’ regenerative brake system has been realized by our
control scheme which has been implemented both in the simulation and in the
experiments. By combining fuzzy control and PID control methods which are
both sophisticated methods, RBS can distribute the mechanical braking force and
electrical braking force dynamically.
3.2PROPOSEDSYSTEM
 Regenerative braking technology funnels the energy created by the braking
process back into the system in the form of charging the battery for further use
 In a regenerative braking system the energy normally lost in the braking
process is transferred to the generator from the rotating axel
 The power produced in generator is transferred to the battery, thus saving
energy
 The system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the braking

17
 When the driver steps on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle
 These types of brakes put the vehicle's electric motor into reverse mode,
causing it to run backwards, thus slowing the car's wheels
 While running backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator,
producing electricity that's then fed into the vehicle's batteries
 These are done with ANN(Artificial Neural Network) algorithm
3.2.1PROPOSEDSYSTEMBLOCKDIAGRAM

Fig.3.2Regenerative BrakingBlockDiagram

While running backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator, producing
electricity that's then fed into the vehicle's batteries.
PIC MICROCONTROLLER

PIC has only 35 single word instructions. All are single cycle instructions except for
program branches, which uses two-cycle. The Operating speed of PIC in DC is 20
MHz and clock input in DC is 200 ns instruction cycle. The PIC has 8K x 14 words

18
of flash Program Memory, 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM).

CAPTURE/COMPARE/PWM (CCP) MODULE

The CCP (Capture/Compare/PWM) module contains a 16-bit register that can

operate as

• 16-bit capture register

• 16-bit compare register

• PWM master/slave duty cycle register.

Both the CCP1 and CCP2 modules are identical in operation, with the exception
being the operation of the special event trigger.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER (A/D) MODULE

The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter module has eight inputs for 40 pin
devices. The A/D allows conversion of an analog input signal to a corresponding
10-bit digital number. A/D converter has a unique feature of being able to operate
while the device is in SLEEP mode. To operate in SLEEP, the A/D conversion
clock must be derived from the A/D’s internal RC oscillator. The A/D module has
four registers:

• A/D Result High Register ADRESH

• A/D Result Low Register ADRESL

• A/D Control Register 0 ADCON0

• A/D Control Register 1 ADCON1

The ADCON0 register controls the operation of the A/D module. The ADCON1
register configures the functions of the port pins. The port pins can be configured as
analog inputs (RA3).

19
BATTERY

The proposed charging application requires a deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
batteries have larger plates and different chemistry to avoid the corrosive effect of
frequently using the full capacity. The solar energy is converted into electrical
energy and stored in a lead-acid battery. The ampere-hour is the rated capacity of
the battery. There are a few types of leadacid deep cycle batteries: If lead acid
batteries are maintained properly, they will function at 80-90% efficiency. To
extend the life of the battery and maintain efficiency it is important to maintain a
full charge under most condition.

SG3525: Pulse Width Modulator Control Circuit

The SG3525A pulse width modulator control circuit offers improved

performance and lower external parts count when implemented for controlling all
types of switching power supplies the on−chip +5.1 V reference is trimmed to 1%
and the error amplifier has an input common−mode voltage range that includes the
reference voltage, thus eliminating the need for external divider resistors. A sync
input to the oscillator enables multiple units to be slaved or a single unit to be
synchronized to an external system clock. A wide range of dead time can be
programmed by a single resistor connected between the CT and Discharge pins.
This device also features built−in soft−start circuitry, requiring only an external
timing capacitor. A shutdown pin controls both the soft−start circuitry and the
output stages, providing instantaneous turn off through the PWM latch with pulsed
shutdown, as well as soft−start recycle with longer shutdown commands. The under
voltage lockout inhibits the outputs and the changing of the soft−start capacitor
when VCC is below nominal. The output stages are totem−pole design capable of

20
sinking and sourcing in excess of 200 mA. The output stage of the SG3525A
features NOR logic resulting in a low output for an off−state.

N CHANNEL MOSFET 540

This MOSFET series realized with STMicroelectronics unique STripFET process
has specifically been designed to minimize input capacitance and gate charge. It is
therefore suitable as primary switch in advanced high efficiency, high-frequency
isolated DC-DC converters for Telecom and Computer applications. It is also
intended for any

MOTOR
All motors are generators, the old saying goes, with the caveat that few types
are equally good at both modes of operation, and some are downright awful as
generators (a classic example being the single-phase shaded pole induction type,
used in myriad small appliances the world over). Fortunately, both types of AC
motor commonly used in EVs – the permanent magnet synchronous and the
induction asynchronous – work perfectly fine in generator mode, although each has
its own quirks and practical limits of operation.All that is required to turn any motor
into a generator is to spin its rotor faster than it would spin on its own while field
excitation is present. The very easiest motors to use as a generator are those with a
permanent magnet for their field excitation – whether AC or DC – as they will
obviously have field excitation present at all times; just spin the shaft and connect
an appropriate load and you have a generator (note that the PM AC motor produces
3-phase AC with both voltage and frequency proportional to RPM).

INVERTER
A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry
that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The resulting AC
21
frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the
opposite of "converters" which were originally large electromechanical devices
converting AC to DC.The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and
overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The
inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source.

22
`

CHAPTER IV

SOFTWAREREQUIREMENTS

Software used: MATLAB 2017a

4.1 MATLAB

MATLABis amultiparadigmprogramminglanguageand
numericcomputingenvironment developedbyMathWorks.MATLABis ahigh-
performancelanguagefortechnicalcomputing.Itintegratescomputation,visualization,
andprogramminginaneasy-to-use environmentwhereproblemsand
solutionsareexpressed infamiliar mathematical notation.
Typicalusesinclude:
•Mathandcomputation
•Algorithm development
•Modeling,simulation,andprototyping
•Data analysis,exploration, andvisualization
•Scientific andengineeringgraphics
•Applicationdevelopment,includingGraphicalUser Interfacebuilding.
MATLABisaninteractivesystemwhosebasicdataelementisanarraythatdoesnotrequired
imensioning.Thisallowsyoutosolvemanytechnicalcomputingproblems,especiallythos
ewithmatrixandvectorformulations,inafractionofthetimeitwouldtaketowriteaprogram
inascalarnoninteractivelanguagesuchasCorFortran.ThenameMATLABstandsformatri
xlaboratory.MATLABwasoriginallywrittentoprovideeasyaccesstomatrixsoftwaredev
elopedbytheLINPACKandEISPACKprojects,whichtogetherrepresentthestate-of-the-
artinsoftwareformatrixcomputation.

4.1.1Introduction:

MATLABhasevolvedover aperiodofyearswithinputfrom
manyusers.Inuniversityenvironments,itisthestandardinstructionaltoolforintroductory

23
`

andadvancedcoursesinmathematics,engineering,andscience.Inindustry,MATLABisth
etoolof choiceforhigh-
productivityresearch,development,andanalysis.MATLABfeaturesafamilyofapplicati
on-
specificsolutionscalledtoolboxes.VeryimportanttomostusersofMATLAB,toolboxesal
lowyoutolearnand
applyspecializedtechnology.ToolboxesarecomprehensivecollectionsofMATLABfun
ctions(M-files)thatextendtheMATLAB
environmenttosolveparticularclassesofproblems.Areasinwhichtoolboxesare
availableincludesignalprocessing,controlsystems,neuralnetworks,fuzzylogic,
wavelets,simulation,andmanyothers.
4.1.2MATLABSystem

The MATLABsystemconsistsof fivemain parts:

The MATLABlanguage

Thisisahigh-levelmatrix/arraylanguagewithcontrolflowstatements,
functions,datastructures,input/output,andobject-orientedprogrammingfeatures.
Itallowsboth"programminginthesmall"torapidlycreatequickanddirtythrow-
awayprograms,and"programminginthelarge"tocreatecompletelargeand
complexapplication programs.
The MATLABworking environment

ThisisthesetoftoolsandfacilitiesthatyouworkwithastheMATLAB
userorprogrammer.Itincludesfacilitiesformanagingthevariablesinyour
workspaceandimportingandexportingdata.Italsoincludestoolsfordeveloping,
managing, debugging,andprofilingM-files,MATLAB'sapplications.

Handle Graphics

24
`

ThisistheMATLABgraphicssystem.Itincludeshigh-levelcommandsfor
two-dimensionalandthree-dimensionaldatavisualization,imageprocessing,
animation,andpresentationgraphics.Italsoincludeslow-levelcommandsthat
allowyoutofullycustomizetheappearanceofgraphicsaswellastobuild
completeGraphicalUser InterfacesonyourMATLABapplications.
The MATLABmathematicalfunctionlibrary

Thisisavastcollectionofcomputationalalgorithmsrangingfrom
elementaryfunctionslikesum,sine,cosine,andcomplexarithmetic,tomore
sophisticatedfunctionslikematrixinverse,matrixeigenvalues,Besselfunctions,
andfastFouriertransforms.
The MATLABApplicationProgramInterface(API)

Thisisalibrarythatallows youtowriteC andFortranprograms thatinteract

withMATLAB.ItincludefacilitiesforcallingroutinesfromMATLAB(dynamic
linking),callingMATLABasacomputationalengine,andforreadingandwriting
MAT-files.
4.1.3MATLAB'sPower of ComputationalMathematics:

MATLABisusedineveryfacetofcomputationalmathematics.Following
aresomecommonlyusedmathematicalcalculationswhereitisusedmost
commonly
•DealingwithMatricesand Arrays
•2-Dand3-DPlottingandgraphics
•Linear Algebra
•AlgebraicEquations
•Non-linear Functions
•Statistics
•Data Analysis
•Calculusand DifferentialEquations
•NumericalCalculations
•Integration
•Transforms
25
`

•Curve Fitting
•Variousotherspecialfunctions
4.1.4 Features of MATLAB:
Followingarethebasicfeaturesof MATLAB−
•Itisahigh-
levellanguagefornumericalcomputation,visualizationandapplicationdevelop
ment.
• It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration,
designand problem solving.
• It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra,statistics,
Fourier analysis, filtering, optimization, numerical integration andsolving
ordinary differential equations.
• It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creatingcustom
plots.
• MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for
improvingcode quality maintainability and maximizing performance.
• It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.
• It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms withexternal
applications and languages such as C, Java, .NET and MicrosoftExcel.
4.1.5 Uses of MATLAB:
MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and engineering
encompassing the fields of physics, chemistry, math and all engineering streams.
It is used in a range of applications including −
• Signal Processing and Communications
• Image and Video Processing
• Control Systems
• Test and Measurement
• Computational Finance
• Computational Biology
4.2 Blocks in MATLAB
4.2.1 PIC MICROCONTROLLER
PICisafamilyofmodifiedHarvardarchitecturemicrocontrollersmadebyMicrochipTe
chnology,derivedfromthePIC1650originallydevelopedbyGeneralInstrument'sMicr
26
`

oelectronicsDivision.ThenamePICinitiallyreferredto
"PeripheralInterfaceController"nowitis "PIC"only.

Table.4.1 PIC Microcontroller Tabulation

PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to
theirlowcost,wideavailability,largeuserbase,extensivecollectionofapplication
notes,availabilityoflowcostorfreedevelopmenttools,andserialprogramming(and re-
programming withflash memory) capability.
FEATURES
HIGH PERFORMANCE RISC CPU
PIC has only 35 single word instructions. All are single cycle instructions
except for program branches, which uses two-cycle. The Operating speed of PIC in
DC is 20 MHz and clock input in DC is 200 ns instruction cycle. The PIC has 8K x
14 words of flash Program Memory, 368 x 8 bytes of Data Memory (RAM).
PERIPHERAL FEATURES
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler.
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler.
Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and

27
`

postscaler.
It has a Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module. Capture is of 16-bit and it
has a maximum resolution of 12.5 ns. Compare is of 16-bit and it has a maximum
resolution of 200ns.Pulse Width Modulation has a maximum resolution of 10-
bit.8-bit,8 channel analog-to-digital converter with 10 bit each.
It has a Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master/Slave) and I2C,
USART with 9 bit detection. It also has a Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-
out Reset (BOR).

Fig.4.1PIC Micro controller

CAPTURE/COMPARE/PWM (CCP) MODULE
The CCP (Capture/Compare/PWM) module contains a 16-bit register that can
operate as
• 16-bit capture register
• 16-bit compare register
• PWM master/slave duty cycle register.
Both the CCP1 and CCP2 modules are identical in operation, with the

28
`

exception being the operation of the special event trigger

4.2.2 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER (A/D) MODULE
The analog-to-digital (A/D) converter module has eight inputs for 40 pin
devices. The A/D allows conversion of an analog input signal to a corresponding
10-bit digital number. A/D converter has a unique feature of being able to operate
while the device is in SLEEP mode. To operate in SLEEP, the A/D conversion
clock must be derived from the A/D’s internal RC oscillator. The A/D module has
four registers:
• A/D Result High Register ADRESH
• A/D Result Low Register ADRESL
• A/D Control Register 0 ADCON0
• A/D Control Register 1 ADCON1
The ADCON0 register controls the operation of the A/D module. The
ADCON1 register configures the functions of the port pins. The port pins can be
configured as analog inputs (RA3).

Table.4.2Analog to Digital Converter Tabulation

ADVANTAGES OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER
 PIC microcontrollers are consistent and faulty of PIC percentage is very less.
The performance of the PIC microcontroller is very fast because of using
RISC architecture.

29
`

 When comparing to other microcontrollers, power consumption is very less

and programming is also very easy.
 Interfacing of an analog device is easy without any extra circuitry
DISADVANTAGES OF PIC MICROCONTROLLER
The length of the program is high due to using RISC architecture (35
instructions)One single accumulator is present and program memory is not
accessible.
4.4.3. BATTERY
The proposed charging application requires a deep cycle battery. Deep cycle
batteries have larger plates and different chemistry to avoid the corrosive effect of
frequently using the full capacity. The solar energy is converted into electrical
energy and stored in a lead-acid battery. The ampere-hour is the rated capacity of
the battery. There are a few types of leadacid deep cycle batteries: If lead acid
batteries are maintained properly, they will function at 80-90% efficiency. To
extend the life of the battery and maintain efficiency it is important to maintain a
full charge under most condition.
4.4.4. SG3525: Pulse Width Modulator Control Circuit
The SG3525A pulse width modulator control circuit offers improved
performance and lower external parts count when implemented for controlling all
types of switching power supplies the on−chip +5.1 V reference is trimmed to 1%
and the error amplifier has an input common−mode voltage range that includes the
reference voltage, thus eliminating the need for external divider resistors. A sync
input to the oscillator enables multiple units to be slaved or a single unit to be
synchronized to an external system clock. A wide range of dead time can be
programmed by a single resistor connected between the CT and Discharge pins.
This device also features built−in soft−start circuitry, requiring only an external
timing capacitor. A shutdown pin controls both the soft−start circuitry and the
output stages, providing instantaneous turn off through the PWM latch with pulsed
30
`

shutdown, as well as soft−start recycle with longer shutdown commands. The under
voltage lockout inhibits the outputs and the changing of the soft−start capacitor
when VCC is below nominal. The output stages are totem−pole design capable of
sinking and sourcing in excess of 200 mA.
The output stage of the SG3525A features NOR logic resulting in a low
output for an off−state.

Table.4.3 SG3525: Pulse Width Modulator Tabulation

FEATURES:
• 8.0 V to 35 V Operation
• 5.1 V 1.0% Trimmed Reference
• 100 Hz to 400 kHz Oscillator Range
• Separate Oscillator Sync Pin
• Adjustable Deadtime Control
• Input Undervoltage Lockout
• Latching PWM to Prevent Multiple Pulses
• Pulse−by−Pulse Shutdown
• Dual Source/Sink Outputs: 400 mA Peak
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Fig.4.2SG3525 pin diagram

Pin 1 is a inverting pin and pin 2 is a non-inverting pin. If the voltage on
inverting pin is greater than voltage on non-inverting pin, duty cycle increases and if
voltage on non-inverting pin is greater than inverting pin , duty cycle decreases. So
you can use one pin for feedback through voltage divider and one pin for setting of
reference voltage. Pin 3 is used for synchronization of two waves. pin 4 is output of
oscillator. Pin 5, 6 and 7 is used to set frequency of PWM. Frequency can be
calculated by using following formula:
f= 1 / CT (.7 * RT+ 3 * discharge)
By adjusting values of CT capacitor, RT resistor and discharge resistor you
can adjust the frequency of PWM. Pin 8 SS is a used for soft starting for enabling
output after some time. Greater the value of capacitance connected to pin 8, greater
the soft start time. pin 9 is a compensation pin used with feedback to avoid from
rapid fluctuations in output voltage with the  change in load or input voltage. Pin 10
is shut down pin. IF shut down pin = 0 it will work and if shut down pin = 1 means
connected with 5 volt it will remain in shut down mode. pin 11 and 14 are output
pins. These pins provide input to mosfets and as I have already mentioned, there is
no need to connect any mosfet driver because sg3525 have built in mosfet driver
circuit. Pin 13 and 15 are power pins. Vc should be between 5-35 volt and Vin
should be between 8-35 volt. Pin 16 is a reference pin and it is used to set reference
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voltage through pin 1 or 2. 

4.4.5. N CHANNEL MOSFET 540

Table.4.4N Channel MOSFET 540 Tabulation

This MOSFET series realized with STMicroelectronics unique StripFET
process has specifically been designed to minimize input capacitance and gate
charge. It is therefore suitable as primary switch in advanced high efficiency, high-
frequency isolated DC-DC converters for Telecom and Computer applications. It is
also intended for any applications with low gate drive requirements.
APPLICATIONS
■ High-Efficiency Dc-Dc Converters
■ Ups and Motor Control
4.4.6 LIQUIDCRYSTALDISPLAY(LCD)

Fig.4.3 LCD Display

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material

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sandwitched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated
withtransparentelectrodeswhichdefinethecharacter,symbolsorpatternstobedisplaye
d polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the
liquidcrystal,whichmakestheliquidcrystalmoleculestomaintainadefinedorientation
angle.
One each polarizes are pasted outside the two glass panels. These
polarizeswould rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a
particulardirection. When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the
twopolarizes and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the
LCDwithoutanyorientation,and hencetheLCDappearstransparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid
crystalmolecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing
throughtheLCDwouldberotatedbypolarizes,whichwouldresultinactivating/
highlighting the desired characters. The LCD‟s are lightweight with only a
fewmillimeters thickness. Since the LCD‟s consume less power, they are
compatiblewithlowpowerelectroniccircuits,andcan bepowered forlongdurations.
Crystalloidsdot–matrix(alphanumeric)liquidcrystaldisplaysareavailable
in TN, STN types, with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCDcontroller
and driver ICs result in low power consumption. These modules can beinterfaced
with a4-bit or8-bitmicroprocessor/Micro controller.
Thebuilt-incontrollerIChasthefollowingfeatures:
 CorrespondtohighspeedMPUinterface(2MHz)
 16x 2bit displayRAM(40 Characters max)
 9,920-bitcharactergeneratorROMforatotalof240characters
 208Characterfonts(5x8dots)32Characterfonts(5x10dots)
 64x 8bit charactergeneratorRAM 8charactergeneratorRAM
 8Characterfonts (5x8dots)4characterfonts (5x 10dots)

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 Programmabledutycycles
 1/8 –foronelineof5x8 dots with cursor
 1/11–foronelineof5 x10dots with cursor
4.2.7 TRANSFORMER

Fig.4.4 Transformer
12-0-12 5Amp Center Tapped Step Down Transformer is a general purpose
chassis mounting mains transformer. Transformer has 230V primary winding and
center tapped secondary winding. The transformer has flying colored insulated
connecting leads ( Approx 100 mm long ). The Transformer act as step down
transformer reducing AC - 230V to AC - 12V.
4.2.8 MOTOR

All motors are generators, the old saying goes, with the caveat that few types
are equally good at both modes of operation, and some are downright awful as
generators (a classic example being the single-phase shaded pole induction type,
used in myriad small appliances the world over). Fortunately, both types of AC
motor commonly used in EVs – the permanent magnet synchronous and the
induction asynchronous – work perfectly fine in generator mode, although each has
its own quirks and practical limits of operation.All that is required to turn any
motor into a generator is to spin its rotor faster than it would spin on its own while
field excitation is present. The very easiest motors to use as a generator are those
with a permanent magnet for their field excitation – whether AC or DC – as they

35
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will obviously have field excitation present at all times; just spin the shaft and
connect an appropriate load and you have a generator (note that the PM AC motor
produces 3-phase AC with both voltage and frequency proportional to RPM).

Fig.4.5 Permanent magnet DC Motor

Slightly more difficult to use as generators are motors with an externally-

excited field – such as the wound-field synchronous AC or separately-excited DC
as they require a DC power source to supply their field windings (though often
there will be enough residual magnetism in the field structure to bootstrap
generator operation). This does allow for a degree of control over the magnitude of
the generated voltage at a given shaft RPM, however. The asynchronous induction
motor is a bit more difficult still to use as a generator, mainly because its field is
excited indirectly, so it needs a source of 3-phase AC present before it can
generate; this issue is easily overcome as long as an inverter drives the motor,
which is always the case in an EV.
4.2.9 INVERTER
A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry
that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).The resulting AC
frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the
opposite of "converters" which were originally large electromechanical devices
36
`

converting AC to DC.The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and

overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry.
The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC
source.A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of
mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static
inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process. Power inverters are
primarily used in electrical power applications where high currents and voltages
are present; circuits that perform the same function for electronic signals, which
usually have very low currents and voltages, are called oscillators.
Circuits that perform the opposite function, converting AC to DC, are
called rectifiers. An inverter may produce a square wave, modified sine wave,
pulsed sine wave, pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on
circuit design. Common types of inverters produce square waves or quasi-square
waves. One measure of the purity of a sine wave is the total harmonic
distortion (THD). A 50% duty pulse square wave is equivalent to a sine wave with
48% THD.[4] Technical standards for commercial power distribution grids require
less than 3% THD in the wave shape at the customer's point of connection. IEEE
Standard 519 recommends less than 5% THD for systems connecting to a power
grid.

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CHAPTERV

SIMULATIONRESULTANDDISCUSSION

5.1 SIMULATIONSCREENSHOT

Fig.5.1SimulationScreenshot

Regenerative braking technology funnels the energy created by the braking

process back into the system in the form of charging the battery for further use. In a
regenerative braking system the energy normally lost in the braking process is
transferred to the generator from the rotating axel and then transferred to the battery,
thus saving energy.The system that drives the vehicle does the majority of the
braking. When the driver steps on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle,
these types of brakes put the vehicle's electric motor into reverse mode, causing it to
run backwards, thus slowing the car's wheels. While running backwards, the motor
also acts as an electric generator, producing electricity that's then fed into the
vehicle's batteries.
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5.2 RESULTANDDISCUSSION

Fig.5.2 Result of regenerative braking

In regenerative braking the generator output which is current value and

voltage value in starting voltage value gets oscillates and the current strategy gets
saturates and then gets increased. The speed level is gradually increases and the
speed decreases with respect to the load. In starting the current value gets peak,
oscillates and then the current value gets constant.
 It gives more efficiency than the previous one.
 The charging time has been reduced.
 The efficiency of the motor has been increased.

39
`

Fig.5.3 Wave form of speed

Fig.5.4 Wave form of current

40
`

Fig.5.5 Wave form of generator

41
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CHAPTERVI

CONCLUSIONANDFUTUREENHANCEMENT

6.1 CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new RBS based on utilization of HESS is proposed for EVs
driven by BLDC motor. During regenerative braking and/or energy regeneration,
the kinetic energy of the vehicle is harvested by the super capacitor using
appropriate switching template of the inverter. Hence, the need to additional
power electronics interfaces is eliminated. Moreover, the PI controller is used to
control the duty cycle of the PWM in the inverter to realize constant torque
braking. In comparison with other similar types of the regenerative braking
schemes, the proposed method has the superiorities of being simple and being
high-efficient.

6.2 FUTURESCOPE
Regenerative braking with ESS, the efficiency of the regeneration is
improved about 20%. Moreover, it is shown that the drive range of the EV is
increased about 5 cycles. It can be concluded that the presented scheme is able to
capture the braking energy with appropriate efficiency and ensures the safe
deceleration of the EV.

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REFERENCES

1. S. Geraee, H. Mohammadbagherpoor, M. Shaei, M. Valizadeh, F. Montazeri,

and M. R. Feyzi, ``Regenerative braking of electric vehicle using a modied
direct torque control and adaptive control theory,'' Com- put. Electr. Eng., vol.
69, pp. 8597, Jul. 2018.

2. C. Qiu, G. Wang, M. Meng, and Y. Shen, ``A novel control strategy of

regenerative braking system for electric vehicles under safety critical driving
situations,'' Energy, vol. 149, pp. 329340, Apr. 2018.

3. K. Itani, A. De Bernardinis, Z. Khatir, and A. Jammal, ``Comparison between

two braking control methods integrating energy recovery for a two-wheel front
driven electric vehicle,'' Energy Convers. Manage., vol. 122, pp. 330343, Aug.
2016.

4. Deepak Ravi, BandiMallikarjuna Reddy, Shimi S.L., Paulson Samuel,

„Bidirectional dc to dc Converters: An Overview of Various Topologies,
Switching Schemes and Control Techniques“, International Journal of
Engineering & Technology, 7 (4.5) 360-365, 2018.

5. Q. Xu, X. Jiang, J. Sun, and S. Cui, ``Comparison analysis of power

management used in hybrid electric vehicle based on electric variable
transmission,'' in Proc. UKACC 11th Int. Conf. Control, vol. 2, Belfast, U.K.,
Aug./Sep. 2016, pp. 17.

6. Power Topics for Power Supply Users: Constant Voltage, Constant Current
Battery Charging. Available online:
43
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http://power-topics.blogspot.com/2016/05/constant-voltage-constant-
current.html (accessed on 12 November 2018).

7. N.Kandasamy&R.Sankarganesh (2016),“A New Resonance Modulator

Multilevel Step Down DC to DC Converter With Reduced and Balanced
Output” in International Journal of Emerging Technology in Computer Science
&Electronics,vol 21, issue 2, pp. 243-246, ISSN: 0976-1353.

8. Dr.P.Selvam, “Optimal Wireless Power Transfer for Electrical Vehicle Battery

Charging” in Journal of Applied Science and Computations” Volume VI, Issue
V, pp 3641 - 3647, May 2019, ISSN No: 1076-5131.

9. Dr.P.Selvam, Mr.D.Anandan, “ Optimal Power Improved Method For Induction

Heating Application With High Resonant Boost Inverter”, in Journal of Power
Electronics and Devices , Volume 5, Issue 2, pp 17-23, May 2019 , ISSN No:
1076-5131

10.Dr.P.Selvam, Mr.N.Stalin, “Power Transfer efficiency Analysis of Double

Intermediate Resonator for Wireless Power Transfer”, in International Journal of
Advances in Engineering and Emerging Technology, Vol 9 , issue 3, pp 130-
141,July 2018, ISSN 2321- 452X.

11.R.Sankarganesh&N. Tamil selvan (2019), “Enhancing The Power Quality Of

Grid Connected Wind System Using STATCOM Based On Intellectual Power
Control Algorithm” in Journal of Applied Science and Computations,Volume 6,
Issue 5, pp. 579-587, ISSN NO: 1076-5131.

12.Dr.P.Selvam, M.P.Sakthivel , “Power Quality Renewable energy effective use

of Grid by Wind Intelligent Technique, in International Journal of Innovative

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Research in Computer and Communication Engineering , Vol 5 , issue 11, pp,

Nov 2017, ISSN 2320- 9801.

13.Dr.P.Selvam, , “Static VAR Compensator with Minimized – Equipped

Capacitor for and Grid Applications, in International Journal of advanced
Research in Electrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering , Vol 5 ,
issue 6, pp, Jun 2016, ISSN 2278-8875.

14.Dr.P.Selvam, Mr.R.Thilagar, “Design and Implementation of a Solar PV-

Battery Grid – Tied system in Fixed and Variable Power Mode”, in Journal of
Applied Science and Computations” Volume VI, Issue V, pp 342-352, May
2019, ISSN No: 1076-5131.

15.P. Loganathan, A.Sathya, “A Modified Renewable Energy Integration System

Using Fuzzy Logic Controller Technique for Grid System”. Journal of Applied
Science and Computations May 2019, Vol.6, Issue 5, 5.8.

16.P. Loganathan, P. Gunasekar,“ Fuzzy Logic Controlled with Reactor and

Regulator of HVAC with CLC”. Journal of Applied Science and Computations,
May 2019, Vol.6, Issue 5, 5.8.

17.P. Loganathan, T. Nirmala, P. Selvam, “Improved Dynamic Behavior of DFIG

based Wind Turbines Under Low Voltage Ride Through Conditions”.
International Journal of Scientific Research and Review, May 2019, Vol.6,
Issue 5, 5.8.

18.R. Devarajan, & R. Mayilsamy, “ Design and Implementation of Neuro-Fuzzy

Logic Control Based Maximum Power Point Tracking for Solar System” Journal
of Applied Science and Computations 2019 Volume-6 PP:333-341, 5.8.

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19.R. Devarajan ,Elayappan, “ Design of single PV source asymmetrical diode

clamped multilevel inverter”. International Journal of intellectual advancements
and research in engineering computations 2019, ISSN-2348-2073, 4.2.

20.R. Sathish, D. kishorekumar, M. Asokan, M. jagathesan , C. Thangavel ,

“Evaluation of a New Nine-Level Cascaded Multi level-Inverter with reduced
No.of Components” International Journal of Recent Technology &
Engineering , Volume-7, Issue-5S3, feb 2019.

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APPENDIX

function [y_min,y_max,idx,distance] = euclidean(x,cb)

% Initialize minimum distance as distance to first element of cb
% Initialize maximum distance as distance to first element of cb
idx(1)=1;
idx(2)=1;

distance(1)=norm(x-cb(:,1));
distance(2)=norm(x-cb(:,1));

% Find the vector in cb with minimum distance to x

% Find the vector in cb with maximum distance to x
for index=2:size(cb,2)
d=norm(x-cb(:,index));
if d < distance(1)
distance(1)=d;
idx(1)=index;
end
if d > distance(2)
distance(2)=d;
idx(2)=index;
end
end

% Output the minimum and maximum distance vectors

y_min=cb(:,idx(1));
y_max=cb(:,idx(2));

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end
% Load test data
loadeuclidean_data.mat

% Determine closest and farthest points and corresponding distances

[y_min,y_max,idx,distance] = euclidean(x,cb);

% Display output for the closest point

disp('Coordinates of the closest point are: ');
disp(num2str(y_min'));
disp(['Index of the closest point is ', num2str(idx(1))]);
disp(['Distance to the closest point is ', num2str(distance(1))]);

disp(newline);

% Display output for the farthest point

disp('Coordinates of the farthest point are: ');
disp(num2str(y_max'));
disp(['Index of the farthest point is ', num2str(idx(2))]);
disp(['Distance to the farthest point is ', num2str(distance(2))]);
% Load the test data
loadeuclidean_data.mat

% Use coder.typeof to specify variable-size inputs

eg_x=coder.typeof(x,[3 1],1);
eg_cb=coder.typeof(cb,[3 216],1);

% Generate code for euclidean.m using coder.typeof to specify

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% upper bounds for the example inputs

codegen -report -config:libeuclidean.m -args {eg_x,eg_cb}

49