Lead (Helix) Deviations

Typically measured on 4 evenly spaced teeth or gaps. Left and right flank measured
for each tooth or gap. Analysis region Lß is typically 80% of the gear face width b.
Fß
Total Lead Deviation
Distance between the highest and lowest points on the flank trace within the analysis
region Lß measured perpendicular to a zero-error reference line. When working to ISO or
DIN standards any high point outside of the analysis region is included.

fHß
Lead Slope Deviation
Positive or negative deviation of a best-fit reference line through the flank trace. Measured
perpendicular to the start point of a zero-error reference line over the analysis region.
When given the symbol fHß’ the value is from the reference lines over the full face width of
the gear.

ffß
Lead Form Deviation
Distance between the highest and lowest reference lines that touch the flank trace and are
parallel to the best-fit reference line. Measured perpendicular to a zero-error reference
line. When working to ISO or DIN standards any high point outside of the analysis region is
included. 
Profile Modifications

Typically used to compensate for tooth deflection under load and influence load
and transmission error TE of gear systems. Modifications can be the same or
different on left and right flanks.

Cα
Crowning
Increasing reliefs of the tranverse tooth profile from a point typically central over the
usable profile length LAF, in an arc like progression.

fKo
Tip and Rooth Relief
Increasing reliefs of the transverse tooth profile either from the tip, tip form diameter or
root form diameter. Can be linear, arc like or parabolic in shape.

CHα
Pressure Angle Modification
A linear relief is applied over the full length of the usable profile length L AF. As per ISO
21771 a positive value removes material at the tip and increases the effective pressure

angle.

Lead Modifications

Typically used to compensate for system deflection and influance load distribution
over the face width of the gear.
Cß
Lead Crowning
Constantly increasing relief of the flank line in an arc like progression. Typically central over
the face width of the gear.

CßTop CßBottom
Lead End Relief
Contantly increasing relief of the flank line applied over a short distance at one or both
ends of the face width of the gear. Can be linear, arc like or parabolic in shape.

CHß
Lead Slope Modification
Constantly increasing relief of the flank line applied over the full face width of the gear. It is
not necessarily linear.
Pitch Deviations
Measured in tooth gaps left flank pitch and right flank pitch.
fp
Single Adjacent Pitch Deviation
Adjacent pitch error is the difference between the actual and nominal individual circular
pitches in the transverse section of a right or left flank.
Fu
Difference of Successive Pitches
Difference between successive actual individual circular pitches in the transverse section of
a right flank (RF) or left flank (LF).

Fp  Fpz/8
Cumulative Circular Pitch Deviations.
Fp Cumulative circular pitch erros from the accumulating summation of adjacent pitch
errors fp.
Fpz/8 Largest cumulative circular pitch error over ≈ z/8 pitches.

Fr
Radial Runout
From gear axis this is the range of radial positional deviation of all the tooth gaps. Defined
by a ball in all tooth gaps.
 Tooth Thickness

Tooth thickness is measured over physical teeth but our gear inspection machines
are also able to measure tooth spaces on request.

Mdk MdR
Mdk = over two rollers  MdR = over two balls
Distance over two balls or rollers of diameter Dm sat in a tooth gaps at, or as close to, 180
degrees as possible.
sn
Tooth Thickness
Circular tooth thickness in normal section at reference diameter d.

Wk
Base Tangent (Span)
Base tangent (span) over k number of teeth. Linear distance in normal section over k
number of teeth which is tangent, or as close as possible, to the cylinder formed by base
daimeter db. For an internal gear k is number of gaps.

da df
Tip and Root Diameter
Measured da tip diameter and the df root diameter.

z  -z
z = number of external teeth. eg. 20z = 20 external teeth.
-z = number of internal teeth. eg. -60z = 60 internal teeth.

Profile Deviations:

If you hear the word "profile" of a gear, you should relate it to the arc that goes from the bottom of the
tooth to the top of it, basically up to the tip or outside diameter of the gear.
In general, deviations in the profile, are only measured at the 92% of the active length, and it is called
"profile evaluation range".
As it is defined by the ISO 1328, "Profile deviation is the amount by which an actual profile deviates
from the design profile. It is in the transverse plane and normal to the involute profile."

The image describe how the profile is obtained from the roll angle of the gear tooth.

Type of Profile Errors:

Three important types of errors are related to profile, Profile Form Deviation, Profile Slope deviation
and Total profile deviation.
Profile Form Deviation (ffa):
Distance between two involutes of the actual base circle, that enclose the actual involute profile within
the profile inspection range
Can also be defined as the divergence of the measured profile from a best fit line or curve.

Profile Slope Deviation (fHa):

Distance between two nominal profiles that intersect the average profile at start and end points of the
profile range or Profile slope deviation is the amount of deviation from a nominal involute profile over
the evaluation range.

Total Profile Deviation: (Fa):

Is the total amount of profile error, including slope and form errors or the distance between two
nominal profiles enclosed within the profile test range.
Helix deviations:
AGMA’s current inspection handbook defines “helix deviation” (formerly tooth alignment variation and
lead variation) as the difference between the measured helices to the design helices. In practice an
appropriate measuring machine aligns the measuring probe on the test gear at the pitch circle diameter
and the “lead” is traced and recorded graphically, with a correct unmodified helix being represented as
a straight line on the chart. Helix measurement is used to determine correct face contact between
mating gears. Incorrect helix will create uneven loading and noise.
The ISO 1328 explained in the following terms:
" Helix deviation is the amount, measured in the direction of the transverse base tangent, by which an
actual helix deviates from he design helix ".
Type of helix errors:
Helix Form Deviation (ffb):
Distance between two helical lines that enclose the actual lead within the lead inspection range. Helix
form deviation is the divergence from a best fit curve along the helix

Helix Slope Deviation (fHb):

Helix slope deviation is the amount of deviation from a nominal helix over the evaluation range.
Distance (in transverse plane) between two nominal leads that intersect the average lead (helix) at start
and end points of the lead inspection range.

Total Helix Deviation (Fb):

Distance between the two nominal leads enclosed within the lead inspection range.The total amount of
error including angle and form errors.

This picture is quite helpful because it gives you an idea bout the way the tooth is measured and what is
the meaning of the traces showed in the right side.

Pitch Deviations:
The notation pitch, should make you think about tooth location, and the effect that this type of
deviations would have into the gear motion and torque transferring. It is related to, backlash, contact
ratio variation...
It is looking at the location of a gear tooth with respect to the others, as well as the global location
between all gear teeth. Measures, the difference between the actual position of the tooth and the
"should be here" position.
The application calculate the values of the pitch error (fu), the single pitch deviation (fp) and total pitch
deviation (Fp).

Types of pitch deviations:

Single pitch deviation (fp):

It is the difference between two adjacent teeth index values (+,-) or the algebraic difference between
the actual pitch and the corresponding theoretical pitch in the transverse plane, defined on a circle
concentric with the gear axis at approximately mid-depth of the tooth.

Pitch Error (fu):

It is the difference between adjacent pitches.The difference between actual dimensions of
two successive right or left flank transverse pitches.

Total cumulative pitch deviation (Fp):

Maximum cumulative pitch deviation of any sector of the corresponding flanks of a gear. It is
represented by the total amplitude of the cumulative pitch deviation curve .

Pitch deviations

Gear index and pitch definitions.

Transmission error deviations (tangential composite deviations):
In this case, those deviations are related to the gear motion. You need to look at the gear in touch with
a master gear and how the center of the gear changes when it revolves one complete turn. That will
affect load transferring, and bearing cycle load reactions.
The application gives two different values:
Two flank working deviation( f´´i):
Maximum difference between the effective and theoretical circumferential displacements at the
reference circle of the gear under inspection, when meshing with a master gear, testted product gear
being turned through one complete revolution.

Single flank working deviation (f´i): 

Value of the tangential composite deviation over a displacement of one pitch. It is a true tangential
measurement and is indicative of the functional characteristics of the gear.The non uniform motion is
called "transmission error"
Figure 1: Measurement over pins

If excessive size change occurs during production, check the following items:

1) Size changes from a “cold” morning startup to normal operating temperature. The machine system may be

thermally unstable. Record the size change over time versus temperature of the machine and/or cutting fluid. A

“warm up” period may be required for your particular machine. Also, certain gear machines have thermal sensor(s)

for automatic adjustment of the machine size, and this system may have failed.

2) Size changes during hob shifting. Check that the cutter has been properly sharpened without gash lead error.

Due to the cam relief in a hob, any gash lead error will create a conical shaped hob. This will cause a size change

in the part as the hob is shifted from one end to the other. The gash lead error will be approximately 2.5 times the

taper error. Measuring the outside diameter of the hob at several points across the face is a quick way to

determine if gash lead error is present. (Figure 2)

Figure 2: Hob gash lead error

3) Size changes from part to part. On a mechanical hobbing machine this can be cause

d by an error in the positive stop for center distance. With a long travel indicator measure the actual center

distance from piece to piece and look for variation. Another cause of this problem could be a hob slide that is

normally clamped after hob shifting that has failed to clamp.

Composite Inspection Error

During gear hobbing a composite inspection is normally conducted throughout the production run as a process

control by the operator. This is accomplished on a simple rolling machine using a master gear with the product

gear. (Figure 3)

Figure 3: Schematic of gear

rolling process
Composite error will occur as two conditions. First as a tooth-to-tooth error, and second as a once per revolution

error of the test gear. The once per revolution error is commonly known as TCE, Total Composite Error, and is

defined by the AGMA as the Radial Composite Variation. (Figure 4)

Figure 4: Graphical record from composite

inspection

Composite Error condition #1: Large ƒi” and Uniform Tooth-to-Tooth Errors

1) The large ƒi” is typically a dirty condition or a nick on a gear tooth. Nicks are normally caused by material

handling problems. Adding a tip chamfer to the design of the gear tooth profile, and hob, will reduce this type of

damage. (Figure 5)

Figure 5: Dirty or nicked tooth on gear

Figure 6: Total composite variation, Fi”

Composite Condition #4: Once per Revolution Non Uniform Error

1) The index change gears are damaged or installed improperly on a mechanical hobbing machine.

2) The hobbing machine work spindle or index drive system is worn or has runout.

Profile Inspection Error

The following examples show the different types of profile errors that can occur, with an explanation of the
probable cause. (Figure 7) Figure 7: Profile

inspection with negative tip tooth Figure 8: Hob sharpened with

positive rake

1) Incorrect hob sharpening. The hob has been sharpened with positive rake error making the hob tooth larger

toward the outside diameter and the gear tooth smaller. (Figure 8)

2) Incorrect swivel angle setting on the hobbing machine.

3) Bad hob.

Figure 9: Profile inspection with positive tip

1) Incorrect hob sharpening. The hob has been sharpened with negative rake error, making the hob tooth smaller

toward the outside diameter with gear tooth larger. This is the opposite of the condition shown in Figure 8.

2) Incorrect swivel angle setting on the hobbing machine.

3) Bad hob.
 Figure 10: Profile inspection with leaning teeth

1) Incorrect hob sharpening. A hob sharpened with gash lead error will cause both a leaning profile and size

change as the hob is shifted. See Figure 2.

2) Loose hob head swivel on the hobbing machine.

Figure 11: Profile inspection with uniform wave

1) Hob had runout when mounted. The hob runout can be caused by a bad cutter, damaged arbor, or dirty

mounting conditions.

2) Incorrect hob sharpening. The hob was sharpened with runout during the mounting on the sharpening machine

or sharpening arbor. Extreme gash to gash spacing error on the hob.

3) A loose or worn hob arbor end support on the hobbing machine.

4) Excessive backlash in the hob spindle system on the hobbing machine.

5) Excessive backlash in the work spindle system on the hobbing machine.

Figure 12: Profile inspection with non-uniform wave

1) A loose or worn hob arbor end support on the hobbing machine.

2) Excessive backlash in the hob spindle system on the hobbing machine.

3) Excessive backlash in the work spindle system on the hobbing machine.

4) Hobbing machine system in poor overall condition.

Helix Deviation Inspection Error

Helix error can be caused by the gear blank, the fixture, the machine setup, and machine damage or

misalignment. The following examples show the different types of helix errors that can occur, with an explanation

of the probable cause.

Figure 13: Helix inspection

with wobble

1) Part blank bore not perpendicular to the face of the blank.

2) Part blank faces not parallel.

3) Fixture not accurate, or misaligned.

4) Tailstock misaligned, or center loose or damaged on the hobbing machine.

5) Inspection arbor problem.

6) Worm spindle bearing problem on the hobbing machine.

Figure 14: Helix inspection with taper

1) Tailstock misaligned on the hobbing machine.

2) Hobbing machine misaligned.

Figure 15: Helix inspection with angular

error

1) Tailstock misaligned on the hobbing machine.

2) Hobbing machine misaligned.

3) Incorrect differential change gears or helix value (CNC).

4) Loose or work hob arbor end support on the hobbing machine.

5) Incorrect helix checking machine settings.

Figure 16: Helix inspection with breakout error

1) Tailstock loose or worn.

2) Part slipped in the fixture.

3) Fixture not clamped properly.

4) Hob arbor end support improperly installed or worn on the hobbing machine.

5) Hob saddle gibs out of adjustment.

6) Backlash in the cutter spindle drive system on the hobbing machine.

7) Backlash in the work spindle drive system on the hobbing machine.

Figure 17: Helix inspection with periodic error

1) Runout of multiple thread hob.
2) Thread to thread spacing error on multiple thread hob.
3) Feed screw or bearings of the feed screw on the hobbing machine

14.02.22