Module 1

Ancalog CAncd Diqital siqnals:

is type of s ignal shich
he analoq signal a

vavies smoo thly andd continuously with time

Analoq Signals
ave odetinecl fov evevy value of time ancl they ake on cont inuous

vakues in a given time intevual. lke vast mojority of Signals in

the cwovdol arounc us ave analoq

fov example, the tempevatuve or the atmas

pheric pressure of a cevtan location may Vavy Ovev a Continuous

anqe anol may assume an intinite number of possible values

Another example is, a speech coave form is

an analoq signal since it has ampi tudles that uary over a

continuous vange

An analoq signal

An altevnative fovm of signal vepvesentakion is that

of a
sepuence of numbers, each number vepresenting the siqnal
magnutuole at an instanb of time . The vesulting siqnal is calleol a

digital siqnal
 language consists of 26
of lettevs
2G letHe
Example: The pvinteol
punctuatton marks.
o numbers, a space and seveval

number System to Yepesen

We generally use binary

3n binary systemn , only two possible uakues

oligita signal.
a
a

two euels
uoltages euels
o and . In binary system , have only
signal ov koqic o anod s
hiah anol low. "ov representinga
o

vepresenting ogic.
x(t)

+5U

Jnfovmakion signals me be eithev anaog ov

clig1tal
Pnalog signals ave smooth, continuous voltaqe variattons such as

uoice ov video. Diqital siqnals ave

binary pulses Cov) cocles. Diqital
circuts ave less subject to distovtion and intev fevence than

are andaloq civcuits.

Convevs(on of analoq sigmals to

digita signals:
Jn communication systems, sometimes cue have to

Conuevt an
analog signal into ligital sig nal. ie; we have to convevt
 continuous time
a
signal in the Form of oligits.
x()
Analoo sianal

Sompleo siana

tot ta tstt,t, t tio

Quantizeol ianal

Quanti accl samples of «(t)

2mP L

-mp
 of this signal accovcuing to
Fivst of all, we get sample
mark the time instants to, t t2 and
Samplinq theovem. Heve we
,

the time axis. At each of

egual time intevvals alonq
soon, at
of the signa. is measureod
these time -

instants, the maqnituode

thak it no
taken. is means
od thus samples of the siqnal ave

tuncton of time ,
but ratkher, it s a
is a continuous
longer
maqnitucde of each sample
can

sinal. Since the

iscrete time

continuous the siqnal is still an ana loa

uakue in vange,
take any

process known
as
sional. Tis dfficulty is resoluecl ya

2uantizakion

3n guanti2ationn, the
total amplitude vange wuch the

number of stanolarol levels

is diuioleol into
a

Signal may occupy

the signal »c(tl lie in the range (-mp m

Jn 3 uve, amplitucdes of
each of maqnituole
which is partitioneod
into L intevvals,

AU 2p

is appvoximateol (ov) voundeok off

Uo, each sample
is approxima-
to the neavest 9uantizecl level. The quantizecl siqnal an

tion of he oviqinal one. We can improve the accuracy of the guantized

Siqnal to any desired dlegvee simply incveasing the number of

levels L.
 Analo andl Digital Communication

com munucatton may be

Depenoling upon the messaqe Signal

classifecl as

Analoq communication:-
commuicakion is t y p e of communicobion
Analoq
to be trans u t t e d
n cwhich the messaqe (o) information sianal
unicatton
comn

is means that in analoq

is analo in natuve
ts an

siqnal, message signal)

the moolulatinq sig nal (base bandl
be obtainel from
(his analog messaqe siqnal may
analog siqnal.

SOurces Such as speech, vicleo etc

output
Analog Analog me3s ouae
input sianal
messaae

input output
tvansducer Transmatter channel Receiver
branscluceY

Woise

Ainaloq message signal moclulates some high cavvier fveguency

inside the tvansmitter to produce moodulateol signal. This moclulateol

siqnal is then. tvansmitteol with the help of tvansmittesl anten

mission channel
to tvauel thvoun the tvans

signal is veceived
At the veceiuev, this mocdulatecl

and pvocessec to vecouer the oriqinal message signal

 tvansmussion and TU transm
all the Am fm vaclio
Presently ,

communication
Sston ave examples of analoq

2)Diqital Communicakion: Tvansmutter

Digital Source channel

mocdu latov
Infovmatton encoclev encocder
Source

nJoise E channel

Source Channel
Destinabion Detectov
Cuser) decooler decocler Democlulator

Receivev
D.scvete channe

n digital tommunicakion , the message signal to be transmi ttecd

is iaital in nokure. (his means, digital communication inuolues

the tronsmission o6 informakion in dliqital fovm.

Diqital commuuncation Systems are be comung

incveasinqly attractiue becauSe of the ever growing clemanel tor

data communicakion because digital transmiss ion offers dake

 processing options and flexibili ties not auaulable cwieh analoq

tYansmission.
Is to tvansmat the
he oveval puvpose of the system

message (or) seguences of sumbols comng out of a sour Ce to aa

s possi ble
at hieh vate and accuracy
destinaion point as ca

physicady separatec
The soYce ancl the destination point ave

the source tc
n Srace and a communicautton channel connects

the destination poink

)Dicital Source Jntorm akion Source)

Onformation source may
be classifieA inko

baseol upon the

nature
of their oukput ; te; analaq
tuwo cakacevies
information souYces 3n case of
Sources
andl düserete
inormation

infovmatton souYce is analoq 3n case of

the
analbq communicateon,
informakion souce procuces a mess age
ciqitod communication, the
cuith time
wich is not Continuously varuinq
signal
informakion sources ave a
The owput of

symbols ov lettevs. An analog infor mation source

seuence
of eliscrete
souYce throuch
into a
discvete infovmation.
tvansfor meot
may be
ano uantizinq
the process of
sam ping

2) Sour(e cncodev and decodev

the intormation
The sqmbol proclucecl by
source are

cannot be tvansmu ttecl

9ven to the source encoder Tkese symbols
 oivectly. They ave irst convevteol into digital lovm, (ie, binavy

s and os) by the souvce encodev. Each binavy

Sequence of

of bits called codpovd

bit he group s a
anol o is known as a

the symbols. fov each

ke Source encodev agsiqns codewovcls to

unigue codeuwovo.
istinct symbol, there is an

(ov) 12
The colewovcl coan be of 4,3,1G
incveased each coodeword
As the number of bits
in
ave
bits lenath
are also incveased.
the symbols that may be represenbecl

te; 256 distinct Codeuovds.

Example : s bits avoulol have 2

s means that s bits may be used to represent

anod similarly IG bits may Yepresent

25G symbols

symbols ano So o n .
2 G5536

Some typically source encocers ave pulse cocle moclulakors, delta

mocdulators etc

The souYce encodlev vemoves vedundant informaton

vom the message signal and is vespons.ble fov the

efficien use of channel. The resultinq Seguence of

symbols is callecl source codleword

HE the veceivey enmd, decoder is usecd to

pevform the ve vevse opeahor
 encoclev. 3e conuerts the binavy output of the
to that of source

channel olecocler into a symbol seguence.

Channel enco lev ond Aecocdev

of channel encocung (ov) decocdn
The puv pose.
ts to oletect ancl covvect errors in noisy channel. oevvov contvol is
thak consist of
accomplishecd by the channel coding opevakon
ncceler
the output of the channel
e

Systematically adoinq extva bit to

information. hey make it

while these extra bit carry no extra.

corect Some of the errors

detect anc or
possible for the veceiver to

bits.
infovmakion bearinq
ti's stage, message ov information scqnal
At

is convevtecd in the form of binavy seguence. he communic atton

tansmutted
channe adds noise ancl interfevence to the signal being
se guence vece ue
Thevefove evrovs ave entrocducecl in the binary
evvoYs ave also tntvocduceol in the symbols
the receivev. Hence
at

these binaYy
cocleserels. lo auoiol these errors

aeneraked from
adels some redun olant
is done. he channel encocler
channel cocing
Tkese reclun clant bits are
to the nput seguence.
binarybits

with some properly delined logic

aclede od
Fzomple
encoder to make
Consider that the codew0 vol fvom the
souvce it

adeleel (either ) such that number

4 bitlong. This 4h bit is o ov
ofs in the en cooedd. sovel vemain euen ( also called. even
pavit
Folloewing table gives output of Souvce encoclrv, the
b i t olepcncinq upon the pavity, anc oukpuk ok channel encoodev

even p0vitu cocding

oukput of source Bit to be acddecl by channel Output of

encocder encocler fov even pavity ehannel encooler
b3 b2 b bo b3b2 b bo

O O
O

At the receiver, if odol number of 's are detecteol then veceiue

,

Comes to know that there is an error in the receiveol siqnal. The

channel odecodder at the veceiue is thus able to veconstru ct error free

accuvate bit seguence, ancl veduce the effects of channel noise ancd

istortion
The channel encocley and decoolev sevue to increase the

reliability of the receiued siqnal. The extva bits cwhich are aclodeo by

the channel encoders carry no information,rather, they ave usecd by

the channel lecoler to cdetect ancd covwect evrors.

4) Moolulators andl democdulators

Why mocdulation is veguivecd

Recduce the height of antenna

2lo increase range oF communacak on
3) Alloc multipleing

To ausiel interfevence
3o mproue the quality of signals.

Amplitucle shilt keying (nSK), Phase shist keying (PsK),eguency

shist keying (rsk), diflevential phase shist keying Corss) anol

minimum sift keyingmsK) ave the examples of various

modulakors
hese mocduletors use a continuous caYrier wave, therefore
they ave also known as dliqital continuous coaue moolulators
the endd,
veceiver the digital democdulato conuevts the moolulated
Signa into the seguence of binavy bits
 5 Communi calkion channel:
tvansruttev ancd vecei ve is
between
he connection

communucahon
establishel through a commuricat ion channel. |he

cuiveless or iber optic channels.

can
Can take place thvough wirelines,
The othev meclia
such as optical isks, maqnet tapes and

calleot Communúcation channe

may also be
as a
isk etc:-

Since they can adso carvy olata thvoua them

cotion
Acduantages ancl lisaoduantages of ligital Commuu

Aduantages
ave simplev anc cheape
The ciajtad communicakton sustems
to analoq Communication sustems
compareck
the speech, video anc other edata
2 In diaita communicakion,
may be merqed anol transmu ttel ovev a common channel using

multiplecing
3) Using data encryption , only pevmittecl veceivevs may be alloweol

to detect the tvoansmutted lata. This property is of its mest

impovtance in military applications.

) Since the vansmittec signal is

okigital in natuve , thevefove a lavaeae
amoune ot noise inter erence may be tolerateod

)Since in digjtal communucation, channel cooing is useo thevefove

the evrors
may be dletecteck ancl cowecteol in the recei uers
 is adaptive to other advancec branches
G) Diaitah communication

such as diqita signal processing, mage processing

of dara processing

ano daka. com pression etc.

channel encocLng is
diaital and the
7 Since the tvansmission is

to
usec, theve fore the noise does not accumulake from repeater -

mmunicckion
vepeakeY in lonq ois tomce co

isaduantages
the daka rate becomes
DDue to analoqto dgital conversion ,

Thevefore more transmission banokwid th is reguired for

high.
d i g it a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n

Data vate -

Wo. o bits thak are conveyecl Co) pro cesseo

u n t of time
per

Diaital communicakion needds synchronization in case of

smchonous mocdulation
communi caion
Compavison of Analog anol ligital

Analoq Communi cation Diital Communucatcon

DAnaloq signal is used for inlormation )Digital signal is useol for

EranSmission informatton transmuss con

2) Ainaloa signal euhose omplitucle uavies ) Digital signal ashose amp ituele
Continuously with time is of tawo levels either low Co) ov

highC)
3) Uoise immuuty S
pooY 3) Doise immunuty S oocl
 Analog Communication Diaital Communi cation

4) 3e gets affectecl by roise highly 4)Jegets affectecl by noise less

duving tansmission hrough luring transmiss (on throuqh

Communication channel. Communicakcon channe

n analsg communicatton only limec 3 Jt can breaolcast larqe numbe

number of channels can be broaclcasted of channels
simultaneously
simultaneously
Evror probability is high Error probability is low
7) Cooling is not passible Ceclinq is possible Dferent
Coeling technigues can be use
to detect and correct rrors
8) Separating out noise ancl
siqnal 8)
in
Sepaatinq out naise anc
anaoq communicatton is mot

pessi ble signal in ligitalcommunncatron

is possible

Compkez hardlusare ancl less flexible )Less complesc havckecave ancd

move flexible

o) Banduwidth reguuved is locwer thon that to) Due to hicher bit

for the diajtal mocdulatton methocds higher channel bancwicdth is

eguirec

) o t suutable fov tvansmi'ssion of

Due to Cocling tecouigues
secret information in military appi cakion it is sitable for mulitary Ap
cations
 Digital Communucation.
Analoq Communicatton

2) Example : am, Fm, Pm a)Example PCm,Dm, ADM, DRm

ome mpovtant tevms

) Block size
number of distinct
Block size ddescvibes the macimum

encooler. s
codewovcls cohich can be vepresenteol by a souYce

bits in the cocdeovd.

the number of
depencls on

cwill
size of b i t s Source encooker
Esxample- Block

be 2 2s6 codewovcls

Coodewovol length:
number of bits usecd to
Cocdecwovd ength is the

repvesent each codleuorcl.

to each coclecwcrel,
thenn
Example: s bits are assignecl

the cocdesovel length will be 3 bits

3) Aueraqe data vate: -

conoA
Auerage daka rate is the autput bits per se

encacler. lhe source encocler assiqns multiple number

Fvom the Souvce

Hence the olata vake is generallyhigher

of bits to each input symbo.

than the symbol vate

Daka vake Symbol rate x codeword Aength

Cbits /seconds)
4) Sumbol vate
Jt is the vake ak wich the in tarmabion souvce

genevakes Source alpha.bets

S)Source alphabet
special charac ters
Thesc ave the lettevs, digits or

ovailable from the information source

ntovnakion Souvces -

Jt is a device wick procduces messages, Cnol it can

be either analoq (ov) discvete. Analog

sources Can be transfovmec to

discrete souvces through the use of samplinq andd quantization technugu

Discvete information source is a Source uhich has only o.

he set of saurce ymbols is calleol the source

set of symbols.
the letters, digits or special characters avaulable
alphabet These ave

Frorn the inovmation Source]

Jnformation sources can be classitieol as memor

A Cith memory is one for twhich a current

Y memoryless. Source

A memoryless source is
symbol lepenels on the previous symbols. one

is independent of the
for which each ymbol preelucecl pveuious

Symbols
Souvces

Analoinfomation surces Discrele intovmation Sources

 naloq tovmalio souvces'

take a vaviety of lllevent

Snfovmation Sources may

is
bvoccl casting the
source
TU
for exampke in the vacdio anol
fovms ,

mouing mages.
he out put
qenerauy an auouo (uoice (ov) music) or

these sources are

analoq siqnals and there.fove,
of these. Sources are

Called analo souvces

souvces -
Di sCrete intovmatio computev (or)
of information is a ddiqital
JE Sou ce

olisk then their

a stovage
device such a s maqnetic tape Co) optical

is in the discvete fovm Such as ASCII OY

binary
binavy
Output
American Stancdarcd Coode for Jntomakion
AsCIl
standarol fov electronic
Jnterchange J e is a chavacter encocling stopat
27 bybb7
obba ba b4
communication ((128 symbols start L56 ms6 Panty
bit
proclucing a discrete output ave
The sources

the di screte scurces

known as

Discrete Snformation Sources

Discrete memoryless sources CDms) Stationary souvces

or)
So a r ces
memov
SoUYCes p m s
Dsvete memore
For a discvete. souwce, if the cavvert out/out

letter (or) symbol is statisticall indepencdent rom all the past arel
 futue outputs, then the source is calleck as iscrete memovylessS So
Scuvce

eg- Loin toss expeviment

Stationaru SoUYCees

1F the output of a discrete source is statisticall,

odepencen on its past o futuve out puts ,

then it is calleot oliscrebe

sOUrces
stationary sources (o*) memory

eg Sourte generaking the English Text

Analoq in formakion source

Speech music Picture

)Speech
Speech inuolues transev of informahion rem the

speaker to the listener. he bandl of fvequencies essential fov th

communicakion is 30o Ha 3100H2. This banol is utilizeck for the commavticl

telephonic communicakton
)muse
Jt is crginated from the instruments such as the

etc J t regwres banclwiclth of about IskHz.

vielin flute, piano
a

the transmission music

Channel banlwidlth regure& for of signal is

much lavqev than that reguvecl

tor the transmus5 ion of speech signal

P.ctuve
he pictuve can be ether Static (or) dynamuc
 Ezample of static picture is the pictuve sent by fa machne

and the dynamuc pictuve is procduce d on TU. The banduidthh

eguveck fov video signal is o t o s H 2 . The video signal consists

ofa luminance siqnal (y) andd chrominance siqnal. lke luminance

Signal conueys the briqhtness infovmation wule chrominance siqnal

conveys the colour infovmakion

ommunucatton Channel: -

The medium over cuich the information is pass eol

to the veceiver is called as a commuu catton

rom the transmutter

channel
communicakton channel

Open wive Coaxial Optical Microwave Satel lite

Transussion Cables ber Channel Channel
Line

)Open - wive Ivansmisson Line'. -

conductors

Spacers

Jt compvises of two pavalel oives, closely spaceol anod sepavatecl by

air. Uonconoluctiue spacevs are placed. at egual interuals for support

andd to keep the sepavation distance between the two conductors

The sepavation distance inches anct

constant is genevally between 2
 between and around the tuwo porc
s inches. The cielectvic
transmusstonine
Aines is aiv The aoluantage of this type oE

Theve is no sh elunq, raddcic

Simple constvuction, low
cost.
its

anol it is susceptible to noise pickup.

losses ave igh

swtable fov low vecguency arpcations

EXectron in an atom can shueld each other ver
ielclinq effect:

the nucleus. This effect called the shuelding effect

he pull of
Distance of electvon from nucleus
increases its shelding effect

decreases
2Coasxial cables Concentric cables

Jnner Protectiue
condluctov CouRrin
nsulating Graided
matevial outer concluctor

The open wive transmu ssion lines are sutable for lo reguency ppca
At high fvequencies, fov open ive tvans mussion lines, their vacuation and

ielectvic losses and their susceptibility to extenal inteference

CAre
ryigHence coaxial cables ave usecl inuariably for high
 fveguency applications to minimize the aboue mentioned losses

Jt consists of a centval copper awive survo unded

bya olielectric ( Pvc) insulation and then is coueved by a coppev

wive mesh. A tinnecl coppev coive mesh (braided sield) is coveve c

by an outer sheld of thick PUC material. The siqnal is transmu tted

coile the outer condluctor is
through the central copper awive

connecteol to the qrounod. lke ouker PUC jacket prevents inner copper

wire from racliating signal power. hus it veduces losses.

Communication throuqh a coaxial line is more

efficient than two wive lines as the attenuatton of the Stanal

is low. hey are expensive as com pave to two cwive lenes cheaper

than the optical (iber cables. The coaxial cable is useol tor its

lage Gaclwidth ancd h noise tmmunity

Attenuakion: t is the loss of signal strenqth in netwovking cables

(or) connections

3) Opticol ber-
he mode of communication which uses light ewaves for

transmuission of infovmation from one place to another is called

Optical communication. The ability ofa coave to tvonsmut informahion

depencds upon its trequency Higher the freguency of the carrier oaue,

the greater is the amount of in tormakton transrutLeol in agiven

2 C
time. The fregueny of Aight caaves vange between 10 H to 10 H

wich are verylarge as compared. to that of racuo and mucroAvS.

 Hence,light coaves ave better substitukes for communcahon of

ae infovmahon in a shork interval of time.

Constructton-

Pro tective covenng

Glass cove Glass clacleing

Jt consists of an inner slass cove surrou nole cl by a lass clacdAing

which has o lower re ractive inolex.Refractive Inodesc: Je is a

measuve of how much speecl of lient chanqes cohen it enter the

meium rom airDigital signals are evansmittecd in the form o f

intensity- mocdulatedl light signal

which is trappeod in the lass
cove. Liht is launchec into the iber using a licht source such as

aligh emitting ciocle [Les) or laser. 3tis letectesl on the

other side usinq a photo detector Such as pho totvansistor. he optica

iber cables are costlier than the other ttoo types.

chavacteristics of optical iber- ( Aduantaqes)

Hiaher banddewicdth therefove can operate ab higher data vates

2 Reduce d losses as the signal attenuation is low
5) Distortion is vecluceck hence better quality is assuv eA.

Small size ancl light cweiqht

s) t a s y v a i a bility Qnd los cost

h e y ave immune to electvomaqnetic interfevences

bers
to cross talk. This is because qlass Co) p lastic
7) Dmmumty
odo not have maqnetic
are nonconoluctovs of electvicity anol hence,

fields associatecl with them

J h a v e ex cellent enuionmental immuty compaveol to coaxial

cables. They ave unaffectecl by wider tempevatuve uariations

in cùr etc-
humuolity

Optical Fbev ave safer because theve is no electvie cuvvent (or)

associatecl cwith them

veltage
+)micYoave Channel:-
Repeater

IYansmtter Receiuer
antenna antenna

Towev

Earth Sur face

micvowave (iGHh -30CH2) propagake through earth s atmosphe re

between transmi tters anol veceivers that ave often locaked on

top of masts spacel aboub 2skm to 4o km apavt. Micvocwave

stems have the inherent aduantaqe of hauing the capacity

 to thousands of incivicd uad informakcon channels betes
cavry

two points without hauing any physica facilities such as coaiol

are best suitedecl tor trauell..

cables Cov) optical bers. mierowave

uer high mountains.

oveY lavae boclies of waker, goin

Aduantages
microwaves ave of high freguencies, conseguently reguuve small

antenmgs

microwave signals re comfortably propagakeot ao uno physicel

obstacles such as cuatev and hich mountains.

3) Fewev reqenerative repeakers are

vequireol for amplfication
4) Less maun tenance as compaved to cables

5 Satellite Channel:
satellite

Tronsmitter Receivey
Antenna ontennc

Sakellite micvousave systems transmits signals between civectional

porabolic antennas Ihey use low gigahert2 freguencies anod line

of signk com munication he sate llites act as

repeaters uith
veceiving antenna, tvansponder andd tvansmutting antenna 5atellite

Systemns can reach the most vemote places on earth. i s sysens

wovks in the followinq way signal is sent thwouq cable media

to an antenna cohich beams the Siqnal to the atellite. TLe

satellite then transmits the siqnal back to another location on

eath
uses eguency vange between GH2 to

GH2. Attenuation depenols on fveguency, power, antenna size

andd atmosphevic conclition. he cost of buildin9 ano launching

is vevy hiqh. he message signal tvansmittecl by the earth

the sakellite is calleol an

uplink signa. Jt is
station to

ond down convertecl in trequency by the transponcder

ampfieod
ampilieold

And then retransmittec back to uariouS earth stations. The

siqnal rom sate lite to eovth station is callecl as the downlink

signa The uplink signal reguency is GGHz andk oloconink

is 4GH2
signal equency