Pulse Cocde Mockulation Pcm)

PCm is
S kno as digital pulse Modulation techrigue. Jt is a

method usedl to dligitallu repvesent samplecl analoq siqmals. Je is

the standdavd fovm of oliqital auoio in Computevs, compact olis cs

and other eiajtal auio applicalions

 n PCm, the message signal (Analog signal) is sampled

Yegulavly at uniform intevuals, and the ampltuode of each samnl

is Youndecl off (appvoximate) to the neavest one of a finite set of

discrete levels, so that both time and amplitucle are vepvesened

n oiscrete fovm. i s allouos the messaqe to be tvansmattecl by

-

means
o a disital Ccocledd) cwcveform.
The use of diaital repvesentation of analoq siqnals (eg
Uoice, uideo) offers Gllowing oacluantages

0 Rugaecdness t transmission noise ancd interference

ECicient vegenevatton of the cocled siqnal along the tvansmission

path
)Potentic for communicakion
throu
privacy andl secuvity thvough use

of encryption

Possibility of a anform tovmat for oilfevent kinle

basebanc signals.
Pcm sysle ms ave comple in that the messaqe Siqnal

is Subjecteod to a lavge number of opevaions. Ihe essential

opevakions in the transmitter of a Pcm system ave sampling,

uantizing anol encocinq

Block liagvam

Continuous PCm
time
eave
LPF SampleY Quantizev Encocder
messaqe

signal
Trcnsmuttev
Distovteel
Reg enevcka
Regenevatt ve Pcm
Pcm Reqenevati ve
cwove repeater repeaker wave

vans mission fth

npu

Regenevative ReconstYuctton
Decocle Destinatton
Civcit filtev

Receive

The sampling 9uantizinq onc encaoling operaktons ave usually

per formecd in the same circuit cwich is callet an Analoq-to -

Digital ConvevteYADC).

siqnals occurS at intevmeoliate

Reqeneroation of impairecl

the transmission path (channel) as in dicateo in the

points alonq

micldle pavt
Ar the veceive,
one last staqe of follocwe
reqenevatcon followdA

of tvain oF guantizeol samples

by decoeling (the clemoclulation)
andd reconstvuction
as the bottom pavt he opevations of odecoclinq

civcut eallecd lgutal to analoq

usually pevBovmecl in the
same
ave

Converter (DAc)
 not mocdulation in the conventional sensse.
Pcm is

usually veevs to the vaviatton

on of
ot Some
he tevm moclulakion

n
accovdoance with an
CaYViev waUe
characteristic of a

information -bearinq sqna

)Low pass Filtev (LPF)
Tis lter eliminates
the high reguency components

cwhich is greatev than the ion

present in the input analoq siqal

the message signal, to auoiol aliasing of the

est of
freguency

message signal

Somplin This is the technique cwhich helps to collect the

as
instantaneous values of messaqe siqnal, so

Sample data at

to veconstruct
the oviqinal signal.
rote must be qreater than twice the
The mplinq

Component W of the message siqnal i n

highest vequency
ccovodance with the Sampling theovem).

low pass pre-alias fi lter is useo ak

Jn practice, a

the ront enod of the samplev in ovoler to exclucle teguencies

qveaker than Wbefove sampling. Application of sampling perm

the veduction of the continuously varyingmessage

coave to a

limited number of discvete ualues pev seconck.

3 Qucn ti zing
The convevsion of an analoq (continuous sample of

the siqnal into a

cligital (dliscvete) fovm is called uantizing

process
Jn Samplinq time is discretizec but tn guantization,

amplitucle is disovetizeed. Heve ampitude of the samplecl signal

is quantizecl inko countable and liscvete levels k nown as

uantizat ion levels. Each of these levels vepresents a fiocec

enput amplitucle
the inpub anp itucle is rounc
Duving puanti zation,

off to the neavest guantizecl leuel. This vouncung off isknown as

be reoluuceol bu incveasina
uantizatton evvOv. Quanti 2akion evvov can

levels.
the numbers of 9uanti2ation

A) Encooing
The oligitization of analog signal is elone by the encaclev

Jt olesignakes each guantizecl level by a binoary cocke . Encocling

mnmazes the bandwicdth usecl. In combining the processes of

sampling ano quantizing, the continuous base banol siqnal becomes

limiteed to a discvete set of values , buk it is not suited or

Evansmission over a line, radio path o optical : ber.

Encoclinq process to tvan slate the odiscvete set of

Sample values to a move appropiate fovm of siqnal.

 Repvesentinq each member o tus dsc vete et of

values as a avvanqemen of discvete events ts cale

pavticulav
a coode. One of the discrete events in a code is called a

code element (o) symbol. Fov example, the presence (ov) absence

of apulse is a symbol
-

A porticular avanqement of Symbols used ina cooA

to vepvesent a single value of the discvete set is callecl a code

COvcd Cov) chavacter

Jn a inary cocde, each symbol may be two dustinct

values such as presence Co) absence ofa pulse. The two symbols

of a binavy cocle ave oand

and Each coclecoord consists

o f n b i t s . lhen usinq such a cocle, cwe may represent a total

of 2 clistinct numbers
For example, 4 bit codewovol, 2" IG listinct

numbevs are present.

Theve ave seveval tovmats evaveforms) fov the

vepresentation of binavy sequences.

Amplitucde
o o

lime
 Ginovy symbol veprese nted by o pulse of

constant amplitucde fov the duvoktom of one oit, symbol o

vepvesented by Switching off the pulse for the same oduvakion

This formaE s caed a nonveturn -Eo zero unupolar signal (or)

on off siqnad.

Amputude
O
ne

Symbol and o ave vepvesentecd by pulses of positiue

ano neqatiue anpli tucle , respecttve ly, with each puse occupyinq

one complete bit duratton. his fovrmat is callecl nonreturn - to -

2evo polar siqnal.

5) Reqenevation Reqenevative repeatev )

i s section incveases the signal strength ke output

of the channel also has one eqenerattue repeaker civcuit, to

and veconstruct the siqnal anol also

compensake the sianalloss

increases the strenqth.

Distorted Pcm Regeneated pcm cwaue

Regenevative
repeatev

oLPCm + noise
O
NM-

ckean Pcm
 he poth betueen Pcm tvansmattev andl pcm
veceivev
over uhich the pem signal troavel, is
colled pem transmuss ton
pah
ke ability to control ehe effects of distovtion and

noise producedl oy tvansmu tting Pcm a v e

throuqh a channel coith
the help of chain of
veaenmeroiue vepeakers ocoted at
suffectently
close spacinq alonq the transmis5ion route

Three osic functions ore

per formec by veaenerakiue
Yepeokey : eguolizokion, tiranq and decision making

Distorted
Pcm Regenerate
Amplifier Deciscon Pcm
wave
Equalizer making Cwaue
device

Timing
circut

Eguali zer
Jt shapes the receiuec pulses $o as to
compen sate
fov the effects of amplitucle ondl phase clistovtions procucecl in

the transmussion charactevistics of the channe.

liming circut.
The timina circut procluces a
perioolic pulse tvain
which is deriveol from the input Pcm pulses. This pulse train i5
 then appliedd to cdecision making device. The decision makinq leuice

uses this pulse train for samplinq the egualizecl pcm pulses instant

of time. The decision deuice olececles its oukput based on cohether

the ampltude of the egualized. pulse + noise, exceecds a pre-detev-

level. The cdecision device makes decision about

mine voltaqe ce, a

at its input has a o value o

cwhethev the eguali zeol pcm wave

value at the instant of samplin9

Such a decision is macle by com paring egualizecA

Pcm ith a veference level called deciston threshol.

VinVh>
Vin Vh 0
Decision
bounclavy
ov)
MM
w
Threshole
Escample the vepeaker makes a decision in each bit

interual as to whether or not a pulse is pvesent. 3F the decision

is yes Cor) a cAean new pulse is tvensmi ttecd to the nect

is no (or) o clean base ine is

vepeater. 3F the decision a

tvansmittecl

6) Decooing
he irst operaution in the receiuer is to vegenerate (te.

veshape and ckean ue) the receivel pulses These clean pulses arce

then vegvoupecl into coclecoorcds and decockecd into a guantized signal.

7 Reconstructton:
The inal operation in the recerver 1s to recouev the

This done by passing the olecooker

output throug
analog Signal. is

l o w pass reconstruction filter cohose cutote reguency

t5
gual to

message banoeuiolth w.

Aodvantoges of Pcm

DPCm provioles hiqh noise immunity

a)We con stove the Pcm siqnal due to its oliqital nature

that only the desired

3 Cwe can use varies coclinq technigues so

person can odecocle the veceivedl siqnal.

of the siqnal, eve can
place vepeakers
4) Due to oligi tal natuve

tvansmitter anol veceiuer.

Jnfact, the repeaters
between the
his can not be possible
the veceiveol Pcm sianal.
reqenerate

vecluce the effect off

analoq systems. Repeatevs kurthe

Drawbacks of Pcm

The encoolinq, decocling

onol 9uanti2inq circutry of PCm is

complec
a) Pcm reguires a large bancluwiclth as compavecl to the other systems

Applications of Pcm

Diqital aucio in computers

3) Jn space communu Cak ton, space craft tvansmuts signals to

earth. Heve the tvansmitteck powev is 2uite small andd the

distances ave vevuy lavgc. TDue to high noise tmmunity only Pcm

systems can be usecl n such applicottons

Classificak ion of 2uantizokion process

Gasically quantizaeion pvocess may be classifiecd. os,

Quantizatton

Unitorm quantization
Don untorm quant2.akton

Symmetvi c guantizer
Symmetvic guantizer
of the mioltreacd of the midvise

type ye
Basedt on step size, they are untovm anl nonunitovm 2uantizer.

nilorm quantizev
A umtovm guantizev is thak type of 2uantizer

in cwhich the step sige emauns Same thvoughout the input ranqqe.

IV 2V 3V AV 5V
Analog input
 o n uutovm guantizey -

An non unifovm 9uantizer s that type ot quan

on
zev in cwhich the stepsi2e uavies nq to the tnput signal

values

on uniform

raphica ly, the guantizing pvocess meons that a stvaight (ine

epvesentinq the relation between the input andl the output of a

Aineov analoq sustem is replacec by atrans fer characteristics, that

S Stoivcase -like in appearance.

Uwlorm guantizer can be elassifed
classitieo into two midtreacd

and mid vise type. he 2uantizing process has a two foll ettect:

The peak to peak vange of inpuk s ample values is suboivicleol

)

into afinite set ofdecision levels (or) decision thvesholels

thak ave alig neo cwith the viseYs of the staivcase

2) The ouwput is assigneo a duscvete values selectecd bvom a hnte

set o
vepresentakion leuels (ov) econstvuction values that ave
aligned coith the " tveads of the stavcase

Jn of unitovm the
case
quantizev, sepavotion between
he clecision thvesholeds and the sepavat ton betuween vepve sen totion.

evels of the 2uanti zer have a

common value callec step se

Accovcling to a staircaSe - like transfer chavacteristiCS

the odecision tvesholds of the

quanti zer ave
locakeol at sA
-
and the vepvesentation levels ave Xocakeck at O; tA;
wheve a is the step size

A unu form quantizev chavacterczed in this cwau S

vefevveol to as a symmetric quantizev of the mcdtveacd type, because

the onigin lies in the middle of a tvead of the staivcase

out put
34
2A

nput

-2At
-3A

Anothev staircase -like tvonsfer chavacteristics, in cohich the

decision thvesholds of the quantizer ave locateol at o,t4,t2A,

and the
vepvesentation leuels ove
locakcd at t 4 3A, t
wheve A is the step size
 Aun tovmm quantizer hauing thas chavacteristics i

ve fevvecd to os a symmetvic quantizev of the miclviser tupe , beause

in this cose the oviqin lies in the micdle of a iser of the

he stoy
stouv

case
Output

-4 3A -2A -Aa 2A 3A 4A (npuut

A quantizer of the micltveacl (or micdriser type is memoryles

in that the quontizev output is odetev minecd only by the vaue of

eavler Cor) later

covresponcling input sample, indepenclently of
analogsomples applied to the input

The memovyless 2uantizer is the Simplest ano

most often usedl quantizev. Quantization evroY is intvockuceel, the

value of awhch eguals the dlfevence between the output ancl nput

values of the qucntizev.

Quantization evvov

midtreac type
nput
 Quanmtizatton ervor

igviser ype
nput

Jeshows the Variation of

quantization errov with the <nput. Heve
the macimumn instantaneous value of this is halF
erov of on step

size, and the total range of vavi ation is from minus halt a step

to plus halt a step

Non unitovm uanttzation

The key oitfevence beteoeen unifom ancl non uniform. quantization

is that unitorm quantization khas egual step sizes cohile, in

non unu kovm 2uantezatcon, the step sizes ave net egual

Another impoytant point that, in the unform

quanti2atton , some amourk of ouantization evvor can

happen,
but
but non untorm 9uantization reduces the guanti zation evrov

Quanti2ation errov
After the guantizaton , the olittevence between

an inpuk value and its quantizecl value is callecl the quanti aation

evvor.

Ouput nput
uanti2ation noise .

Jt is a type of quanti2ation
evov wch us ua I
Occuvs n analoq sianal, whule guantzingit to oigital. Exam
"Ple

cwhere
sienals keep chanqing continuously,
a
In music, the
errov Create a hoISe
in erros.Such
vegularity is not Foun

calle guanti2ation noise

.oukput level

Jnput level

o n uu lorm uantizato

2uantizecl signal

Quantizakion errov
Oviginal síg nal

Evror

Companodinq
Don unifovn. quantizev can be difficult to desiqn .
Non umtovm
quantizevs ave dtficalt to make andt expen sive. he on unitovm
 auantiz at ion is
practi cally achievecl thv ough a
pro cess callecd
compancling E ffect of noise andd cvoss talk ave veduced by usinq

this technigue. Companoinq 5 atech nuque ot acevinq noon

J

ufovm quantization. Jt is a wovc fovmect. by the combinat ion

of woveds compressiom and expandinq

Compancunq compressinq + Expanodinq

nor unitovmm quantizatton, the step size vavies

accorcing to the sionalevel . 3¬ the signal level is low then

skep sige twill be smal. So step size will be low fov weak

Sianal. Ihus
signal. hus quantiz2ation noise will also be lou

So in orcler to maintain proper signal to quantiza

tion noise vakio, the step size must be vavia ble accoveing
to the signal level. Thus in order to acheve non unifovn

quantizakion the process o compan olinq s useot.

nput Uniformm out put

compressor
2uantizer
Expander

of acompvesso, a unitorm quantizev anod an

Consists

expancdev. Jitialak the transmittev side, the signal is

in
COmpressed and further at the veceiver siode expandecl
ovodev to have the oviginal signal
he compressov unit
ampalies the low ualue (o

ovoler to increase the signal leuel of the applieod

weak signal in

euel Sige
inpuk signal.wle if the input signal is a
igh
then compre5soY attenuakes thok Signal before
ovstronq sianal

provioing it to the un orm quantizev.

his is done in oroder to have an appropriate

to the unitorm 9uantizev. We know a

signa level as the input

bancdwidth and is move

hia ampituole siqnal neecls move

associakecd coith locu

olrawbacks are
olistort. Simularly, some

such ant.
thus there exist neecl For a

amplitucle signals an
unib is callecl compressor
Ihe opera.tion pret performeo by
he oukput of the compressor is provioke

to unilorm quantizer where Ehe quantizatto of the applecd

Signal 1s per formec

AE the veceiver encl, the output of he. unorm

izer is feol to the expanckev. Jt pevfor ms the veverse

of the pvocess erecu tec by the puter Compressov. his unut

when receives a loo value siqnal then it attenuates it. while ik a

Stvong signal is achieveck then the expancler ampfiesit

 havactevistics of om pandev

CompreSSor ch Gvactevistics
Cnwaphical vepvesentation of chavactevistics a Out put

of the compressor The graph cleavly

vepresents that the com pressor prouiodes

ain to weak siqnal and low gain

to high input signal Jnput

Expancdev characterds tics: Oukput

Expancler performs reverse operation

of the compancler. So it is cleav from

the above gure thak artifictally boosteol

Siqnals is attenuatel to haue the npu

Original transmittecl signa. oukput

The dotteod line vepresents the linear expanson

chavactevistics of the com panolev

nput
indicating that the oviginally

transvmitte signal is vecoueve c

Com pyesS ( o n

at the veceivev

Difevenk types of compressov chara.ctevi

vistics

heve types of
are two com pancinq techrigues
 )lauw compan cing
A law companolinq
law companodinq
M law is the acceptecl stanclavol in the Unitecd

states and Japan. Jt is approscimately ineav tov smallev Ualues

input Aeuvels ancd loqavithmic fov high input leuels. The p law

is mathema.ti cally expresse as

cOmpressor characteristic

zc-(sgn) I (1+pl«l/
Tn Cit)
where os |x ma <1

Heve 2 ( ) vepvesents the oukput and x is the input to the

compressor. Icl/c,mas vepresents the normalizecl value of input with

vespect to the maaimum value X maax $gn c) term represents 1

e positive anol neqalive values of inpub anod output

M:255
M:s
M:o
Compressov chavactevistics of a u law
Compressor with dilfevent

yalues of he practicoally usec value of u is 2.55. Ihe law

compancling is useol for speech and music sianals Jt is usecd f6

Pcm telephone systems in Uniteol States anod Jepan

A law com panoling

A law is the accepteol Europeon stanolavol. n a

A law ompanolinq, linear seqment fov low level inputs andl a

logevitnmic segment fov igh level inpuks

A 8 7 5 6

A : 2

This iqure shous the A law compressov characteristics tor elittevent

values of A. The practically usedl value of A is 87.56 Je is

useel for Pcm telepkhone systems in Europe. Je is mathematically

expressec as unoder-

z () Azl/ma
+Tn A ma

+In A mat
 Dittevence between aw and A aw companoding

A law

Unifovm quanti2akion is DUnifovm 9uantizotton 1

achieveol at : 0 ,, uwhere the achievec ak A 1 where the

chava.cteristics cuvve is lineav

charactevtstics curve is linear

and theve is no Compresston there is

an no
compress ion

2) law has micd tveacl at the 2)A law has micl vise at the
ovigin Hence i t contains a zero Hence it contauns
oriqin , a

value hon z evo value

3 lauw compancling is use 3) A law

Companoling is used
For Speech ancl music signals For Pem telephone system
4)
-law is usecl in united A law is useo in many
states and Japan
parts o Europe