UNIT 17 IPM PROGRAMMES-DEVELOPMENT,

ADOPTION AND LIMITATIONS

Structure
Introduction
Objectives
IPM Revisited
Goals of IPM
IPM Strategies
Levels of IPM and Integration
IPM Programme Development
Planning-Essential Component of IPM Programme Development
Research Status Analysis
IPM Programme Implemetltation
Critical Issues in IPM System
IPM Practitioners
Sources of 1PM lnformation
Adoption of IPM Programmes
Limitations to IPM Tactics
Societal Constrainls and Public Attitudes
Environmental Issues
Economics
Summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

17.1 INTRODUCTION
Now after studying four blocks of this coufse, you must have got a good
understanding of IPM, i.e. its concepts, tactics, strategies, decision making. Simple
application of individual tactics for pest management without considering other pests,
their ecology, environment and society is not the goal of IPM. Individual tactics are
the tools that serve i s building blocks to create an IPM programme. In this unit you
will study about goals of IPM and strategies for different pests, various steps involved
in developing an IPM programme and its implementation and adoption. Societal,
environmental and economic constraints to IPM tactics are also discussed at length.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
explain goals and approaches of IPM,
discuss importance of different tactics of IPM to manage different pests,
describe development of an IPM programme,
explain critical issues in IPM programme implementation and its adoption and
describe societal, environmental and economical constraints to IPM tactics.

17.2 IPM REVISITED

After providing you various definitions of IPM in Unit 5, now we are acquainting you
to various approaches of IPM.
i) A systems approach to pest control that utilizes all appropriate strategies to
minimize pest impact while protecting the environment and providing acceptable
economic return.
ii) A comprehensive approach to pest control that uses combinations of tactics to
reduce pest numbers to tolerable levels while maintaining a quality environment.
IPM Programmes- iii) A coordinated, compatible combination of suitable tactics that, in the context
Development,
Implementationand Future of the associated environment and pest population dynamics, results in pest
numbers that do not cause economic injury.

17.3 GOALS OF IPM

It is useful to translate the basic elements of the various IPM definitions into a series
of operational goals.
i) The IPM programme must maintain economic reliability in managing pests.
ii) IPM practices should reduce the risk of crop loss.
iii) Due to the importance of pest resistance in pest management tactics, particularly
with pesticides, an IPM programme must be designed to minimize selection
pressure on pests.
iv) An IPM programme must strive to maintain environmental quality, and must
avoid use of tactics that are unnecessarily disruptive or damaging to ecosystems.

Reducing pesticide use is not stated as an explicit goal of most IPM programmes,
although reduction in pesticide use often results from properly implemented IPM.

Addition of organic forms of
fertilisers such as cow dung,
agricultural wastes that
improve the nutrient status of
the soils is called organic
farming .
Another common misconception is to associate IPM with the principles of organic
farming. Organic farming is not a direct goal of IPM, although organic farming
certainly uses many IPM principles.
The objective of IPM systems with reference to various parameters varies in relation
to other pest management systems (Table 17.1).

Table 17.1: The objective of IPM in relation to other Pest Management systems

( Sr. 1 Parameter I Pest management system

Traditional Industrial Present IPM IPM in
Sustainable
agriculture
Reduce Eliminate Reduce costs of Multiple-
losses due or reduce production ecological,
to pest pest economic and
species social

1 3.
1
2.
1 Diversity
Ecosystem
stability
High
Uncertain
Low
Highly
unstable 1
Low to medium

1
High
Striving towards
stability and 1

r
equilibrium
1 4. Spatial scale Single farm Single farm Single farm or Biogeographic
small region regions
defined by pests
Time scale Long term Immediate Single season Long term steady
state oscillatory
dynamics
Target Single pest Single pest Several pests Fauna and flora
or closely around a crop of a cultivated
related and their natural area and l@ages
group of enemies with non-
pests cultivated
ecologies
Criteria for past Calendar Economic Multiple criteria
intervention experience date or threshold
presence of
pest
 8. Principal Cultural Pesticides Resistant Agroecosystem IPM Programmes-
Development, Adoption
method and varieties, design to and Limitations
mechanical Cultural minimize pest
measures practices, outbreaks and
monitoring, mixed strategies
product including group
substitution, action on area
insecticide wide basis to
resistance, etc. complement pest
management controls aimed at
and multiple individual fields
interventions
9. Research Nil due to Improved More kinds of Minimize need
goal absence of pesticides interventions for intervention
organized
effort
10. Extension Nil Transfer of Complimentarity
technique technology TOT between TOT
(TOT) and Farmer First
(FF) mode (see
Unit 18 for
details)
11. Effect on Usually Highly Moderately Negligible
environment negligible detrimental detrimental
- quality

SAQ 1
How does present IPM differ from traditional system of pest management with
reference to goal, research and development?

17.4 IPM STRATEGIES

Tactic means a device to
The pest management stra-y can be considered the optimum mix of pest accomplish an end. Tactics
management tactics for a specific agroecosystem. The mix of control tactics that is are the control methods in
optimum for one category of pest will likely not be optimum for another. The IPM.
optimum mix of tactics will vary depending on the following:
i) Managed ecosystem Strategy means "the art of
ii) Ecosystem and environmental constraints devising or employing plans
toward a goal." Strategies
iii) Production philosophy of the agroecosystem manager are combinations of tactics
iv) Category(ies) of pests in an IPM system.
v) Economics of the agroecosystem

In IPM programmes, to manage different kinds of pests, the importance of different

control tactics varies as you can observe in Table 17.2.

From the table you can observe the relative importance of different control tactics
within an IPM system for each of the major pest categories.

For the management of pathogen resistant crop varieties, cultural management and
use of pesticides are major tactics. Biological and biorational control tactics play a
relatively minor role in the pathogen management.
IPM Programmes- Nematode (thread worms) management tactics are generally applied before planting.
Development,
Implementation and Future Nematicides, nematode resistant varieties, maintenance of general plant health are
more important in nematode management. Biocontrol and the use of biorational
chemicals is general1y low.

Arthropod (insects, spiders, etc.) management tactics are based on cultural,

mechanical, biological control ,and biorational tactics coupled with moderate reliance
on pesticides and HPR.

Table 17.2: Relative Importance of Different Tactics Used in IPM Programmes

to Manage Different Categories of Pests

Key to symbols indicating level of importance

+++ = major
++ = important
+ = minor
- = minimal
NA = tactic not applicable
Blank cell = tactic not used

SAQ 2
Which tactics of IPM are given importance in nematode management and how they
are different from arthropod management?
......................................................................................................
......................................................................................................

17.5 LEVELS OF IPM AND INTEGRATION

Integrated pest management can be considered as a continuum, ranging from cases
where pests are managed individually by species without consideration of the other
pests that are present, to the ideal of totally integrated management that includes
consideration of all pest categories and beneficials simultaneously. I

IPM can be considered at different levels of integration, with each successive level
incorporating the components of the preceding level (Figures 17.1 and 17.2). The 4
most elementary form of integration in pest management occurs when tactics are
integrated for control of a pest or a pest complex within a pest category. This
integration of tactics is called level I IPM. Level I IPM is exemplified by the
paradigms described in the preceding section. This level of pest management involves
the use of scouting and thresholds for decision making, and typically employs a mix
of control tactics. Most current IPM programmes are at level I integration.
 IPM Programmes-
Development, Adoption
and Limitations

Level d IPM integratkn

Threshdd form

Selecthre Same as prevbus + b m e as previous + Same as prwkus +

pesfiades; m a ; all IPM tactics Integration of all muitbop ni,-
pest detecton within a pest class pest categories, ~ p o c e 9 5 e r ,
and thresholds category u*ofwP- and reg- aspseb
or calender Cultural tactio models

I~PsetnunogcmentrlnrPrvingr#lgsofb<#colaonpanrnb
mdkrddinQgrtkn

Fig. 17.1: Diagram depicting the IPM continuum, and showing the relative complexity of different
levels of integration.

Fig. 17.2: Diagram relating different levels of IPM to ecological, socio-economic and agricultural
scales.
IPM Programmes- As you know, pests do not occur in isolation, but rather are present in a mixture of
Development,
Implementation and Future categories that is typical of each ecosystem. To develop a truly integrated
management system, it is necessary to understand the interactions that occur between
pest categories and the tactics for their control (Fig. 17.3). This is called level 11 IPM.
It is functional at the whole-farm scale. This is achieved only in a few current IPM
programmes.

Ultimately it is necessary to place the entire management system for the pest complex
into a broad ecological and socioeconomic framework at a regional scale, termed level
I11 IPM. The overall goal of an IPM programme is thus to integrate the needs of all
the different pest categories in a single comprehensive programme. It is probably not
achieved in any current IPM programme. We can summarise the various levels of
integration as given below:
Level I: Single pest management approach (species/population integration).
Level 11: Integration of multiple species (insects, weeds and diseases) and methods
for their management in a crop (community level integration).
Level 111: Integration of multiple species within the context of the total cropping
system (agro ecosystem level).

Fig. 17.3: Diagram showing pest hexagon placed into ecological and societal framework.

We must develop new systems that reach the highest level of integration while
continuing to manage pests effectively. IPM is being criticised by many people, being
narrow in approach, focused on pests only.

17.6 IPM PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT

The basic tools for developing IPM systems include: cultural control, mechanical
control, HPR, biological control, reproductive manipulation, chemical and regulatory
control. You have studied in detail about these methods in Block 3 and Block 4. For
most cropping systems, an ecologically-based IPM approach will emphasise cultural
practices, biological control and HPR.

Individuals typically do not develop IPM programmes. Due to the complicated nature
of IPM programmes, teams of specialists in the various pest disciplines typically
 cooperate to develop them with agronomists, meteorologists, ecosystem ecologists, IPM Programmes-
' and economists. Once the programme has been developed and tested, it is
Development, Adoption
and Limitations
implemented by IPM practitioners. The advent of microcomputers has allowed the use
of effective, predictive phenological and disease forecasting models. Similarly,
microcomputers combined with modern electronic communications systems,
particularly the World Wide Web (WWW), have greatly facilitated diffusion of IPM
information and the use of decision-making tools.
Key Aspects of IPM Programmes
IPM systems are knowledge intensive. An IPM programme is based on the
understanding of the biology and ecology of the system, the economics, and the
sociological implications. The following information is essential to develop an IPM
programme.
1 i) Identification of key pests
ii) Pest biology and ecology
I iii) Characteristics of the regional crop-production
iv) Cost-benefit information on control tactics
v) Regional management components
/ vi) Scouting and monitoring system
vii) Resistance management '
viii)Environmental and social constraints

A schematic diagram for development of an IPM programme is given in the following

1 fig. (Fig 17.4).

Establish economic thresholds and monitoring processes

I

Poor

,
I
Supplementation

I I
- - - -

consider cultural control

'(I
Identify partial plant resistance in commercial cultivars
I

-
Pesticide programme Screen chemical including pathogens

Screen application method 1

I
*?y
! Modify pesticide programme Dose reduction

Fig 17.4: Conceptual framework for developing an IPM system.

IPM Programmes- SAQ 3
Develepraent,
Implementation a d Future List the four important aspects of IPM programmes.
......................................................................................................

17.7 PLANNING-ESSENTIAL COMPONENT OF IPM

PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT
Good planning must precede implementation of any IPM programme, but is
particularly important in a biointensive programme. Planning should be done before
planting because many pest strategies require steps or inputs, such as beneficial
organism habitat management, that must be considered well in advance. Attempting to
jump-start an IPM programme in the beginning or middle of a cropping season
generally does not work.

When planning an IPM programme, some considerations include:

Options for design changes in the agricultural system (beneficial organism habitat,
crop rotations),
Choice of pest-resistant cultivars,
Technical information needs and
Monitoring options, record keeping, equipment, etc.

Some considerations for IPM planning are given in the following table (Table 17.3).

Table 17.3: IPM Planning considerations

TechnicaYInformation Comments and Considerations

Need
Agricultural Ecosystem What effects does soil quality has on plant attractiveness and
Management susceptibility to insect pests and damage? (For example, are
(Proactive pest "dead soils" creating a pest problem through lack of balanced
management options) plant nutrition?)What are options for better soil management
(cover crops, green manures, adding compost, reduce tillage,
etc)
What cultural or habitat options can be implemented before
the crop is planted?
What are crop rotation options and their effect on pest
management (insects, weeds and plant pathogens)?
What are cover crop options and their effect on pest
management?
Pest-resistant cultivars Cultivars should be resistant to major pest(s). I
(Proactive pest Cultivars should have appropriate mode of resistance. L
management options) Cultivars should be appropriate for the area.
Cultivars should be commercially available.
Cultivars must have a market (a concetn with some
genetically modified crops)
IPM Technical Develop sources for biointensive IPM information and
Information information about cropping systems ecology, farmscaping, and .
ecological soil management..
Check with state or county Extension for the latest IPM
programme for a particular croplpest complex.
 IPM Programmes-
IPM programme should establish an Economic Injury Level Develo~ment.Ado~tion
(EIL) for major pests, including (ideally) weeds. 'and Cmi&tions
How do majorpest EILs change with time and how does this
influence management practices?
Monitoring options Will scouting be done in-house, by independent pest control
advisors (PCA) , or by chemical salesmen? Compare estimated
cost per acre, expertise, potential conflict of interest, etc.
What is the purpose of monitoring: To determine number of
pests present? To determine stage of development? To
determine type of damage being done? To determine injury
levels? To time treatments? -
Which pests & beneficials will be sampled? What are the key
pests and their natural enemies?
What sampling method will be used?
What other factors should be monitored? Consider conditions
that may increase or decrease severity of pest problems, such
as soil moisture, soil nutrient status, temperature, humidity,
stage of crop development.
Keep field maps, and record the history of fields, the
problems that recur every year and most problematic fields or
sections of fields.
Develop a record-keeping system that is user-friendly and
"field-friendly." Evaluate available software options.
Develop a method of displaying monitoring information that
will facilitate decision-making. Evaluate available hardware
and software options.
Pest identification: who Help can be obtained from PCA's, countylstate Cooperative
can help? Extension, nurseries, universities and websites.
Pest monitoring Determine types of equipment needed: pheromone traps,
equipment sweep nets, hand lens etc. A PCA will have much of this
information.
Determine sources of equipment.
Reactive pest Pest management options and "fallback" positions (what if
management options first option fails?) should be planned in advance.
What are least-toxic alternatives to "hard" chemicals that can
inhibit pests? What are commercial sources for these
alternatives?
If "hard" pesticides are necessary, what are the best times for
treatment in order to decrease pest populations while
conserving beneficials?
What weed-free period does the crop require?
What are the costshenefits of tillage vs. herbicide use for
weed control?
IPM programme All components of the IPM system - soil management,
evaluation habitat management, pest/beneficial monitoring, decision-
making (including EIL's), and treatments - should be evaluated
for overall efficacy. Are the most recently-developed EIL's and
action thresholds being used?
The IPM system should be modified and continually fine-
tuned after evaluation.
Farm equipment What specialized equipment is needed - mowers, cultivators,
no-till drills, flamers, beneficial organism application
equipment, etc.? Is it more economical to own, rent, or
I
contract?
IPM Programmes-
Development,. Availability of pesticide spray equipment? Keep in mind that
lmpkrnentation and Future timing of applications is often critical for good pest control. Is
equipment grower-owned or contracted?
Will IPM increase or decrease equipment use and
maintenance?

17.8 RESEARCH STATUS ANALYSIS

Diagrams of research
pathways provide a simple,
visual means of describing
the research process and in
addition allow a systematic
appraisal of progress.
Part of the process of programme design requires an analysis of the current status of
research, in order that a programme of R & D can be properly defined and built on
existing know-how. A good understanding of the research process enables R & D to
be directed more effectively towards the successful development of IPM systems.
Research on especially well established forms of control, e.g. pesticide development
and host plant resistance, tend to follow a roughly similar sequence or pathway.
Research pathways are available for pheromone monitoring systems, classical
biological control, host plant resistance and biopesticide development.

Research pathway Socio-cognitive

frame work
k
Conceptual
model

Definition
phase - Re-evaluation - Negotiation and
group learning

Acceptance of - Modeling
model

Allocation of Modeling and leadership

tasks

Carrying out Leadership

Experimental of tasks
research
phase
Analysis and
interpretation
of results Modeling
Group learning
Leadership
Model
validation

I
I.

Fig. 17.h A scheme for the type of socio-cognitive framework appropriate for each stage of a
research pr&mme.
-
** -.-
A scheme as depicted in Fig. 17.5 may be c<n~ideredgenerally appropriate ~ Q F
combining different frameworks within an R & D programme. Firstly a conceptual
model could be produced by a few members of the programme, e.g. the team leader, a
 of the system. This model should then be discussed by the group to eliminate basic IPM Programmes-
Development, Adoption
.differences and misunderstandings and then each should take the general model away and Limitations
and consider it carefully in the light of their own knowledge and experience. They
should make any alterations they consider necessary. The model is now openly
discussed and everyone attempts to explain their own components as well as to
understand those of the others in the team. Thus the model is eventually accepted as
the common paradigm of the group. It is used to both define the problem and its
boundaries and to promote individual and group participation in its formulation,
aiding the process of integration. During the research phase the model defines the
research and data requirements and hence can be used to direct the research effort.

17.9 IPM PROGRAMME IMPLEMENTATION

You will be really curious to know as to who actually carries out IPM programmes?
There is no uniform, absolute answer to this question. All farmers carry out some
form of control, as they try to protect their crop from losses caused by pests. Hence
they must manage all pests that attack their crops.

Several important issues must be addressed in relation to IPM decision making. What
are the critical issues that should be considered when determining who is responsible
for decision making in IPM? Which groups of people are actually involved in IPM
decision making? You will study about these aspects in the followiw subsections.

17.9.1 Critical Issues in IPM System

i) Knowledge. All IPM systems, especially those that do not rely solely on
pesticides, are said to be knowledge intensive. Computer-based knowledge
systems are helpful in this regard as information can be assessed rapidly from
stored databases.
ii) Conflict of interest. From a societal viewpoint, there is a fundamental question
regarding who should make the decisions.
iii) Personnel. Who should develop and provide pest management information. What
is the role of the pesticide industry, biotechnology industry, growers' cooperatives
and similar organizations, institutions of higher learning, or government? In
reality, implementation of IPM programme probably involves a combination of all
of these groups.
iv) Cost of IPM. As the use of IPM is more people intensive than scheduled pesticide
application, certain questions exist about who pays for the extra costs that are
incurred.

17.9.2 IPM Practitioners

The people who make pest management decisions or are involved with any other
phase of IPM are referred to as IPM practitioners. Any person who works in the area
of IPM decision making for hire is called a pest control advisor (PCA). Others who
participate in IPM decision-making process are as follows:
i) Farm ownerlmanager. When pest control was simply a process of sgraying a
pesticide, many farmers carried out their own decision making duties but
implementing IPM programmes need expertise. Hence large firms hire pest
management experts (PCA) to do the specialized work.
ii) Chemical industry. The use of pesticides is a component of many IPM
programmes, but pesticide industry cannot implement the total concept of IPM.
iii) Pesticide sales. It is unlikely that persons involved in selling pesticides can
participate in applying IPM concept.
iv) Full-service companies. Such companies typically sell pesticides and fertilizers,
can provide specialized equipment and have trained PCAS.
v) Cooperatives. Farmers operating small farm form a cooperative that hires a PCA
to do their IPM advising.
IPM Programmes-
Development,
Implementation and Future
A manager wants to minimize
risk while maintaining
adeouate economic return, ~f
an IPM programme improves
economic return or is
perceived as less risky* then it
will be adopted.
vi) Independent consultants. This type of advisor charges fee for providing IPM
expertise, such as designing pest management strategies, scouting and monitoring
pests, decision making and recommendations.
vii) Public agencies. Various public agencies develop the information that supports
IPM programmes. The public agencies involved in IPM are as follows:
a) Agricultural universities.
b) Cooperative extension services.
c) Federal departments or ministries of agriculture.
d) State departments of agriculture.
17.9.3 Sources of IPM Information
The information on IPM can be obtained from the following source:
i) Printed sources: Text books, regional publications prepared by government
agencies and universities.
ii) Professional organizations
a) Pest discipline professional organizations.
b) Organizations representing integrated pest management.
iii) Public meetings.
iv) Field days and demonstrations.
v) Mass media: Magazines and TV are used to market pesticides.
vi) Electronic. The availability of microcomputers has provided several
improvements to the way that pest management information can be stored,
retrieved, delivered, and utilized. The internet allows for widespread availability
of pest management information via the WWW.
IPM data available on the WWW:
1. Pest identification 5. Forecasting models
2. Pest biology and ecology 6. Phenological models
3. Field records 7. Weather data (historic and current)
4. Pesticide label information 8. Control recommendations
17.10 ADOPTION OF IPM PROGRAMMES
A worldwide review of the IPM literature suggests that there is little ado~tionof IPM
ww
on a global level. Certainly pest management in many agroecosystems has changed
dramatically since the 1960s, and the IPM philosophy has made major contribution in
that regard. IPM should probably be considered as a work in progress; and because the
adoption of IPM is contingent on many unpredictable factors, including commodity
prices and societal attitudes, adoption might change considerably at any time, and
over a relatively short time.
Reasons for low adoption of IPM programmes are as follow:
i) Adoption of IPM is difficult in low-value crops because of cost of population
monitoring and use of alternative tactics to pesticides.
ii) Growers perceive that IPM programmes are more risky than conventional pest
management.
iii) Many farmers note that most IPM programmes to date have focused on arthropod
management. IPM programmes must address the integrated management of all
major pest categories if the programmes are to be widely adopted.
iv) Adoption of IPM programmes is often more expensive than conventional
pesticide-based management, due to the increased need for population assessment
and record, societal standards and feelings play a role in the adoption of IPM.
V) Certain IPM programmes can only be effective if adopted regionally. These have
been known as area-wide programmes. Most current IPM programmes have been
 developed for implementation at the farm level. IPM is difficult to implement at a IPM Programmes-
Development, Adoption
regional level because it requires cooperation of different segments of society. and Limitations

Why people are adopting pesticides at a faster rate as compared to IPM? The reasons
for same are provided in Table 17.4.

Table 17.4 Contrasting features of pesticide technology and IPM as possible

reasons for rapid adoption of the former and slow adoption of the latter.

Pesticides
Compact technology from acquisition to
application. Easily incorporated into regular
farming operations.
Promoted by the private sector.
Strong economic interests; large budgets for
research and development.
Aggressive sales promotion supported by
professionally developed advertising
campaigns.
Skillful use of mass communications media.
Ability to provide incentives for adoption
(free advice, glossy publications, bonuses,
and small gifts).
Results of treatments immediately apparent.
Consequently, pesticide technology was
rapidly adopted.
IPM
Diffuse technology with multiple
components. At times difficult to
reconcile with current farming
operations.
Promoted by the public sector.
No economic incentive; limited
budgets for research and
development.
Promoted by government and
extension services personnel who
are trained as educators not as
salespersons.
Limited support for use of mass
media or for hiring communications
media personnel.
No material incentives. Technical
support provided by limited or
inadequate staffing.
Benefits often not apparent in the
short run; may be difficult to
demonstrate (e.g., biological
control).
Consequently, adoption of IPM
has been slow.

Education, economics, and societal perceptions influence the rate of adoption of any
new technology. In order to increase the rate of adoption for IPM, farmers must be
satisfied that, when implemented properly, IPM does not increase risk in their
operation.

Now we will djscuss several key attributes that must be satisfied if IPM adoption is to
proceed. These include: relative advantage of the technology, compatibility with
current technologies, perceived complexity, ease of application, and observability.

Relative advantage-The relative advantage of the programme should be readily

documented and demonstrated to farmers. If the technology has a relative advantage
such as profit, it will achieve rapid, widespread adoption. Hutchins described IPM as a
business opportunity within the context of farming operations and stated that:
i) Value is the key concept of IPM, but it can only be defined by the user.
ii) If true value is present, it will be exploited in a business enterprise.
iii) IPM is input-dependent and a11 control tactics need to be considered based on
their abilid to add value to the pest management decision.
 IPM Programmes- iv) Free enterprise must apply to agriculture as it does with any other business. In
Development,
Implementation and Future other words, there must be a competitive benefit for early adopters and a penalty
for those who fail to adopt.

Compatibility-New pest management approaches must be compatible with existing

production systems. Producers should be able to integrate their pest management
programme into their machinery management, harvest management, tillage, and other
existing operations.

Perceived complexity-Scientists often present detailed information to potential

adopters about the biology of the pest, the ecology of the system, and monitoring
techniques used in developing the IPM system which makes it seem complex. The
final product placed in the hands of producers must be designed as user-friendly as
possible. IPM is replete with computer-assisted decision support systems that were not
adopted extensively because they were too difficult to use. This attribute is negatively
related to the rate of adoption; however. complex technologies can be "reinvented"
and presented differently (i.e., as a series of steps) emphasizing the ease of application
and observability. In addition, crop consultants can serve as liaisons for many new
I
technologies, thereby increasing adoption of methods that farmers may be hesitant to
incorporate into their present operation.

Ease of application and observability-How producers may often select different

components that best fit their production system. The components must be
"displayed" in a way that convinces growers that: 1) the tactic works, and 2) it can be
incorporated into their present system. An IPM system can be implemented over time,
through increased exposure to new tools and familiarity with their practical use.
I

Observation is a key reason demonstrations are established and field days organized.
I
I
To improve adoption, clientele gain a better appreciation and familiarity by physically
observing the systems or approaches. Because of the importance of observation, most
agricultural and urban service companies use extensive demonstrations and clearly
identify the activitylproduct by placing signs on variety trials, pesticide evaluation and
machineryltillage displays.

The typical pattern of adoption begins slowly. During initial attempts, early adopters
I experiment, then implementation increases through personal transfer of information
(Table 17.5). Rapid transfer of technology occurs when most of the five key
I requirements are met and a group of key community leaders is willing to implement a
new technique.

Table 17.5: Point System Assignment for IPM implementation

Value of Approaches for IPM

I

0 0.5 1.0
I
Low Medium High
Preventative treatments Resistant varieties Long-term planning
Limited use of . Scouting Focus on ecologically-
ecologically based based approaches
approaches Uses consultant Uses advanced disease
Advisories
i Uses applicator Some integration of Full integration of
biological control biological control
I
Cultural tactics of pest Cultural and mechanical Using cultural, mechanical
management used tactics of pest management and biological tactics of
used pest management where
applicable
Some key reasons for measuring IPM adoption include: IPM Progrsmmes-
Development, Adoption
Better targeting of research needs and educational delivery. and Limitations
Documenting progress for commodity, state and federal funding support.
Data support for quantifying and qualifying federal and state cost-share
programmes.
Quantifying economic return for use in marketing efforts.
SAQ 4
List four important differences between features of pesticide technology and IPM.
......................................................................................................

17.11 LIMITATIONS TO IPM TACTICS

The three basic forces that shape the design of IPM programmes are sociology,
environment and economics. These factors will be discussed in this section.

17.11.1 Societal Constraints and Public Attitudes

In agricultural and urban settings, social issues affect the acceptability of pesticides as
a management tool. Some central concerns include endangered species, safety of farm
workers and food quality protection. IPM is a socially acceptable approach as it is
comprehensive and flexible enabling farmers, urban dwellers and municipalities to
develop more sustainable, environmentally sound and economically viable systems.
However there are some societal constraints that affect IPM programme development.

Public policies, both federal and state or regional, that affect IPM may be developed
under the pressure of public expectations or perceptions. There is a risk that such
policies may be unduly influenced by emotion or limited information rather than
science, and so perhaps can be detrimental to the advancement of IPM (Fig. 17.6).
You have already studied about myths and beliefs about pest management in unit 9 of
this course.

Dread
of exposure
J

Benefits V Familiarity
with the risk

Risk perception
Equity of risks
throughout risk
society

Level of
knowledge
AI
I
Threat to future
generations

Fig. 17.6: Factors that influence public perception of risk.

IPM Programmes- Involvement in Agricultural Production
Development,
Impleyotation and Future In agrarian societies, the majority of the people are directly involved with food
production and most people realize that a reliable food supply is determined by their
ability to control pests. Because most people are not involved in agriculture, the
general public in industrialized countries has little appreciation for the significance of:
i) Crop losses caused by pests.
ii) Costs of food production.
iii) Role that pesticides play in IPM programmes in maintaining the quality and
quantity of food produced.
iv) The complexity of managing pests, especially the enormous difficulty of
implementing true IPM because of the detailed information required.

Pest Invasions
Many people do not consider the introduction of a nonnative organism a very serious
problem. The general public needs to be aware of the concept of exotic species, and
the consequences of their introductions.

World travel has increased over the past century. In the modem globetrotting society,
international or unintentional movement of pests has increased. People should abide
by the laws regarding the transportation of organisms in soil or plants, plant parts, and
animals between regions and countries. Legal, or illegal, importation that results in the
introduction of an exotic pest creates enormous problems for regulatory authorities.

Pesticides and Public Health Pesticides are poisons and should be used in
accordance with the proper safety protocols. Carelessness in handling pesticides may
result in severe injury or even death. Due to enactment and enforcement of laws
regarding pesticide use in industrialized nations, there are relatively few deaths caused
by pesticides in those countries.

There is always a need for awareness of pesticide-related illness, particularly in less

developed countries. The World Health Organization reports many cases of poisoning
and death from pesticides in less-developed countries mainly of farm workers. This is
attributed to lack of education and training on the hazards involved, lack of proper
protective equipment, and lack of regulations.

Food Safety Pesticides are toxic compounds and there are risks associated with their
use. Chronic long-term exposure to traces of agricultural pesticides is a concern, but
the risk from such exposure is generally considered to be low.

Pest Management Alternatives to the Use of Pesticides

IPM strives to promote ecologically sound and economically feasible approaches to
pest population regulation.

17.11.2 Environmental Issues

The basic principle of IPM emphasizes protection of land, water and wild life species.
Environmental risks associated with pesticides include detrimental effects to
beneficial and non-target organisms.

Concerns about environmental quality or function can impact control tactics employed
in IPM programmes in several ways.

Soil Erosion
Cultivation, the most widely used management tactic causes soil erosion. But reducing
tillage has been proved to result in much lower levels of soil erosion.
 Dust Hazards IPM Programmg-
Development, Adoption
Soil cultivation can lead to wind erosion and airborne dust. and Limitations

Smoke
Burning crop residues creates air pollution. IPM systems that use alternative tactics to
manage pests have been developed.

Volatile Organic Compounds

Many pesticides are formulated in volatile organic solvents. These combine with
nitrous oxides and result in production of ozone.

Drift
Spray applications of insecticides are susceptible to drift.

Endangered Species
An IPM programme should not harm rare nontarget organisms. Protection of
endangered species is important; thus, IPM programmes must resolve the pest
problems without impacting any endangered species in the region.

Food Chain Considerations

If a chemical or chemical compound has characteristics that make it poorly
metabolized and poorly excreted by animals and if the chemical accumulates in fat,
then the potential exists for biological magnification or biomagnification to occur.

Significance of Release of Genes

Society has not traditionally been concerned about the development of pest-resistant
crop plants through conventional plant breeding. However, the use of genetic
engineering to develop crops that either resist pests or pesticides has generated
concerns.

Significance of Release of Biological Control Agents

The introduction of biological control agents i.e. pathogens, predators, or parasitoids
has potential to influence the population dynamics of nontarget organisms.

Impact on Biodiversity
Many human activities impact biological diversity. There is groqdiig awareness about
the benefits of preserving the biological diversity of ecosystenis.

17.11.3 Economics
Chemical pest control appears to be a break even proposition. Pest control represents
13 to 34% of a farmer's variable crop production costs, yet pests are responsible for
crop losses of 10 to'30%.

Economics represent the cornerstone of a rational approach to pest management. IPM

' has consistently focused on balancing inputs with returns to maximize profits. Early
IPM efforts focused on development of criteria for economic decisions such as
economic injury levels and economic thresholds. Future comprehensive economic
i thresholds will integrate dynamic marketing strategies and economic values with
j variable control costs to make better choices for long-term economic return. The
1 power of computers, coupled with specialized decision support software that is
available from both public and private sectors, lets users estimate cost: benefit
relationships for most management inputs.
IPM Programmes- Economic risk is often identified as the major factor that prevents adoption of IPM
Development,
Imphaentation and Future approaches. IPM practitioners need detailed information on partial budgets,
production costs, and potential profits to provide the services that producers will
demand.

Marketing is a critical but often neglected component of IPM decision support

systems. Market price and demand may fluctuate 50 to loo%, depending on
conflicting customer demands such as the quality of the product, presence of pesticide
residues, or the product availability during peak market demand.

An example of a pest management system that reflects the needs of a changing market
place was reported by Owen (1996) and Suter (1995) in the areas of fresh fruit and
vegetable production where:
i) Consumers demand produce that is cosmef cally prefect and without pesticide
residues.
ii) Food processors who purchase fresh produce are concerned about pesticide
residues (over 50% of processors have changed purchasing contracts to minimize
residues in their products).
iii) Surveys indicate that more than 50% of grocers test fresh produce for pesticide
residues, yet 98% indicate that they have not heard of IPM.

Societal, political and economic pressures are forcing production systems to integrate
Best Management Practices (BMPs). The greatest challenge that IPM consultants face
is the sustainable management of agricultural production system in conjunction with
preservation of natural resources.

SAQ 5
List three basic limitations of IPM tactics.
......................................................................................................

17.12 SUMMARY
After studying this unit, you have learnt that:
The various approaches of IPM are systems approach, comprehensive approach
and a coordinated, compatible combination of suitable tactics.
The major goals of IPM are to maintain environmental quality, economic
reliability and reduce the risk of crop loss.
The present IPM system differs form traditional and industrial pest management
systems with respect to goal, principal methods, target, research and extension.
The relative importance of different control tactics within an IPM system varies
for management of pathogens, nematodes, arthropods and vertebrates.
There are three levels of IPM i.e. level I, level I1 and level 111. Level I IPM is
elementary form of integration where tactics are integrated for control of a pest, in
level I1 IPM interactions occur between pest categories and the tactics for their
control. The entire management system into an ecological and socioeconomic
framework is called level I11 IPM.
IPM systems are knowledge intensive. Many steps are involved in developing an
IPM programme.
Analysis of current status of research is an important component for development
of IPM system. Definition phase and experimental research phase are important
components in formulating a research pathway.
Farm owners, chemical industry, pesticide sales, cooperatives, public agencies
and independent consultants are IPM practitioners.
 One can get information about IPM through print, mass media and electronic IPM Programmes-
Development, Adoption
media. and Limitations
IPM programmes are adopted slowly as compared to pesticides as they are
confined to arthropod management and are expensive. The most critical
determinants for adoption of IPM are demographic and sociological in nature.
The adoption of IPM programmes can be increased if the relative advantage of
IPM, its compatibility with other technologies and ease of its application is
demonstrated to farmers.
Society, economics and environment are three basic limitations to IPM tactics.
IPM consultants must consider the environmental costs of pest management.
Balancing environmental and economic aspects of pest management decisions are
to be stressed upon.

17.13 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Why the importance of different tactics varies to manage different categories of
pests?

...................................................................................................
2. Explain the different levels of IPM with suitable diagrams.
................................................................................ .................

3. What are the steps involved in the development of an IPM programme?

4. Why the adoption of IPM programmes is low and what measures can be taken to
improve the adoption of IPM programmes?

5. How society plays an important role in shaping the design of IPM programme?
...................................................................................................

6. Draw a schematic diagram for the socio-cognitive framework appropriate for

research programme.

17.14 ANSWERS
Self-assessment Questions
1. Refer Table 17.1
IPM Programmes- 2. Refer Table 17.2
Development,
Implementrition and Future
3. i) Identification of key pests
ii) Pest Biology and Ecology
iii) Resistance management
iv) Environmental & social constraints

4. Refer Table 17.4

5. Society, Economics and Environment

Terminal Questions
1. Refer Sec. 17.4
2. Refer Sec. 17.5 and Fig. 17.1, 17.2
3. Refer Sec. 17.6
4. Refer Sec. 17.10
5. ReferSec. 17.11.1
6. Refer Fig. 17.5