Wiovgrsotï Hb`grrhmkhig Korh `g Bgdhoh

Jhcultï `gs Scogicgs Gcninkoqugs Scogicgs `g Egstoni gt Scogicgs Cnkkgrcohlgs
@ïphrtgkgit `gs Scogicgs  Gcninkoqugs

Kïknorg `g joi `g cyclg

Gi vug `‟nbtgitoni `u `oplðkg `g Khstgr gi Scogicgs Gcninkoqugs

Nptoni4 Gcninkog `g Prhispnrt.

Prhispnrt.

Pmíkg4
L ‟n
‟np
pto ko sh
shtto ni `gs cn
cnut
utss `g tr hisp
ispnnr t phr lg
lgss kïtmnmn`
`gs `
`g
g lh
tmï
mïnnr o g `gs e r hpmg
mgs,
s, ch
chss `g l‟g
l‟git
itrr gpr o sg @ hin
inig
ig

Rïhlosï phr4 Gich`rï phr4

BNW@H@H Shlok Kkg4 KOTO HLLHNWH Lyi`h

BNWHBNW@ Hkhzoem Kkg4 MHKH@NWCMG Ihokh

Kgkbrgs `g dury 4

`git 4  @r KGCMGRO Amgorh

Vrïso`git
Vrïso

gur4 Kllg EMGLHB Jnuzoh

Gxhkoihtgur4
Gxhkoiht

Hiiïg uiovgrsothorg
268:-2685
 

 gkgr ogkgits

Inus tginis æ rgkgrcogr hvhit tnut @OGW lg tnut puosshit 

 pnur inus hvnor `niiï lh vnlnitï gt lg cnurheg hjoi `g rïhlosgr cg
trhvhol.

Inus rgkgrcogkgit lgs plus soicírgs s‟h`rgssgit spïcohlgkgit 

æ ins `gux gich`rgurs Kkg KOTO HLLHNWH gt Kkg
MHKH@NW
MHKH@NWCMG
CMG pnur lgurs
lgurs cnisgols
cnisgols,, lgurs
lgurs nrogith
nrogithton
tonis
is `urhit 
`urhit 
intrg trhvhol.

Intrg rgcniihosshicg s‟h`rgssg husso æ tnus lg pgrsniigl `g

l‟gitrg
l‟gitrgpros
prosgg @HINIG.
@HINIG.

Inus prï
prïsgi
sgitnis ïehlg
lgk
kgit inus rgk
rgkgrcog
rcogkg
kgi
it s hux 
kgkbrgs `g dury quo inus jnit l‟mniigur `‟ïvhlugr intrg trhvhol  .
 

 ï`oc cgs

 Dg `ï`og cg trhvhol  

   H kgs trís cmírg

cmírg phrgits
phrgits quo nit tnudnurs
tnudnurs ïtï prïsgit
prïsgit æ kgs cntïs 
cntïs 
 pnur kg snutgior gt k‟gicnurhegr `urhit tnutg lgs hiiïgs 
`‟ïtu`g.
   H kh trís cmírg ïpnusg Ahtoh quo, erâc
erâcgg æ gllg, d‟ho gu lh vnlnitï 
gt lg cnurheg `g pnursuovrg kgs ïtu`gs.
   Shis nublog
nublogrr kgs erhi`s phrgits khtgrigl,
khtgrigl, qug `ogu vnus rïsgrvg
shitï gt lnieug vog.
   H lh kïknorg `g kgs erhi`s phrgit phtg
phtgrigl
rigl qug `ogu, lgs 
hccugollg
hccugollg `his sni ïtgrigl phrh`os.
  H kgs trís cmírgs s œurs Oigs, Cyroh, Khssoig, Soloh gt sni ïpnux 
Lmh`o gt kni cmírg jrírg Hsshllhs.
   H kh erhi`g jhkollg `u plus pgto
pgtots
ts hux plus erhi`s.
erhi`s.
   H kg
kgss bghux
bghux phrgi
phrgits
ts gt b
bgll
gllgs
gs s œurs pnur lgurs gicnurhe
gicnurhegkgit
gkgits 
s 
   H kgs cmírgs hko
hkoss gt tnus quo nit phrtoco
phrtocopï
pï `g prïs nu `g lnoi æ 
l‟hbnutossgkgit `g cg trhvhol.

Hkhzoem 
 

 ï`oc cgs

  H lh kïknorg `g kni cmgr jrírg Amhlg` puossg @ogu 

luo hccugollor `his sni vhstg phrh`os.
  Gt æ tnutg kh jhkollg gt tnus kgs hkos.

Shlok 
 

Snkkhorg
Oitrn`uctoni eïiïrhlg………………………………
eïiïrhlg………………………………………………………8
………………………8

Cmhpotrg O 4 Eïiïrhlotï………………………………………….………………..3

Sgctoni 8 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug `g lh lneostoqug `‟gitrgprosg………….………………3

Sgctoni 2 4 Lh cmhoig lneostoqug gt lg trhispnrt ……………………….…………80

Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs …………………….2:

Sgctoni 8 4 oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs………………………………...2:

Sgctoni 2 4 lgs kïtmn`gs `‟nptokoshtoni phr lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs……………..37

Cmhpotrg OOO 4 Lg chs prhtoqug…………………………………

prhtoqug………………………………………………
…………….....03
.....03

Sgctoni 8 4 Vrïsgithtoni `g l‟nrehioskg

l‟nr ehioskg `‟hccugol @HINIG………………..…03
Sgctoni 2 4 hpplochtoni `gs hlenrotmkgs `g `odastrh gt Arusahl………………….72

Cniclusoni eïiïrhlg………………………………
eïiïrhlg……………………………………………….……...::
……………….……...::
 

Lostg `gs joeurgs

Joeurg I¶68 4 lgs jnictonis `g lh lneostoqug………………………………………..…..5

Joeurg I¶62 4 lh lneostoqug gi hknit gt gi hvhl `his uig gitrgprosg `g prn`uctoni...…=

Joeurg I¶63 4 lgs `ojjïrgits typgs `g lh lneostoqug…………………………………….86

Joeurg I¶60 4 rgprïsgithtoni `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug…………………………………..87

Joeurg I¶67 4 lg proicopg `u crnss-`ncaoie……………………………………………22

Joeurg I¶6:4 lg cgrclg vgrtugux `u trhispnrt………………………………………….27

Joeurg I¶654 lh vollg `g Anioiesbgre…………………………………………………25

Joeurg i¶6= 4 Lh znig oi`ustrogllg Phmhrhcmt logu `‟okplhithtoni `g @hinig………..07

Joeurg I¶6? 4 Nrehioerhkkg eïiïrhl @hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog (@@H)……………05

Joeurg i¶864 Scmïkh rgprïsgithit lh jhbrochtoni `u yhnurt jgrkg gt brhssï……….....0=

Joeurg i¶88 4  Lgs ehkkgs `g l‟gitrgprosg @hinig @dur`durh ……………………….....0?

Joeurg i¶82 4 Vlhi `g khssg `g l‟gitrgprosg @@H……………………………………78

Joeurg i¶83 4 Vlhi `‟gxtgisoni `u cgitrg `‟gxpï`otoni……………………………… 72

Joeurg I¶80 4  okplhithtonis `gs `ïpðts `g @hinig….………………………………..73

     g
     s
     u
     g
     v
     h
       L
     i
     n
       G       s
       o      s
     s        C       s
      g
      c      s
     g      i       n      g
       2
     s       r
     c
       a
     u     s      g         V
     c
     g     g        t       r
      g      n
     n
     v     s      x         j
        j      r
       t
     h     s        G       u        V
       S        o         B
       L     h
     c      i
     n
       G       s
       o      s
     s        C       s
      g
      c      s
       2      i       n
      r
     g
       a      s      g         V      c
     c      g        t       r
      g      n
     n      s      x         j
        j      r
       t      s        G       u        V
       S       o
     h         B
     c
 

O itr
itr n`uct
ucto ni e ïiïr
iïr hlg
 

Oitrn`uctoni eïiïrhlg

Oitrn`uctoni eïiïrhlg
Lg sgctgur `g lh lneostoqug s‟gst jnrtgkgit `ïvglnppï cgs `grioírgs hiiïgs gt `gvogit ui
hctgur khdgur `g l‟nrehioshtoni ïcninkoqug hctugllg, ol gst `nic c‟gst clhor qug lg bni
jnictoniigkgit `g l‟gitrgprosg rgpnsg gssgitogllgkgit sur lh khotrosg `g sgs jlux pmysoqugs,
 pnur cglh, lh lneostoqug gst `gvgiug `g plus gi plus uig cniihosshicg gt lh khotrosg `g lh
lneostoqug quo vh `ïtgrkoigr sh pgrjnrkhicg.
Cnkkg l‟h gxploquï Dghi-Rgiï G@OEMNJJGR « lh lneostoqug rgernupg l‟gisgkblg `gs
hctovotïs hyhit pnur but lh kosg gi plhcg, hu knoi`rg cnut `‟uig quhitotï `ïtgrkoiïg `g
 prn`uots, h l‟gi`rnot gt hu knkgit nu lh `gkhi`g gxostg ±8
Wig `gs khiojgsthtonis lgs plus ïvo`gitgs `gs hctovotïs lneostoqugs gst lh crnosshicg `u
trhispnrt `g khrcmhi`osgs gi rhosni `g l‟gxphisoni `u cnkkgrcg kni`ohl. Lh kni`ohloshtoni
`g l‟oi`ustrog, inthkkgit `gs hctovotïs `g plhiojochtoni, `‟hpprnvosoniigkgit, `g jhbrochtoni
gt `g cnkkgrcohloshtoni h hbnuto æ uig plus erhi`g cnkplgxotï `u cnkkgrcg gt ui
`ïvglnppgkgit
`ïvglnppgkgit `gs rïsghux `g trhispnrts.
Lh lneostoqug gst lh snurcg `g inkbrgux cnut qug l‟ni hppgllg usugllgkgit cnut
lneostoqug, trhispnrtgr sur `gs erhi`gs gt knygiigs `osthicgs `gs quhitotïs trís okpnrthitgs
`gs prn`uots giegi`rg `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt pnuvhit rgprïsgitgr ui pnurcgitheg okpnrthit `u
 prox `g rgvogit `u prn`uot. Pnutgs vhrohtoni h lh bhossg nu h lh mhussg `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt
vogit okkï`ohtgkgit hkïlonrgr nu `ïerh`gr lh khreg, `‟nÿ l‟okpnrthicg `g lh rï`uctoni `g
cgs cnuts. @g cg jhot, l‟nptokoshtoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt gst `gvgiug ui jhctgur clï `his lh
rïussotg `g tnutg gitrgprosg.
Wi prnblíkg `g trhispnrt gst ui prnerhkkg `g koiokoshtoni `u cnut `g trhispnrt. C‟gst
ui prnblíkg quo s‟oiscrot `his lh loeiïg `g prnerhkkgs loiïhorgs, ol h pnur but `‟hcmgkoigr hu
knoi`rg cnut `gs khrcmhi`osgs `gpuos K nroeoigs vgrs I `gstoihtoni.
Lh prnblïkhtoqug gt lh kïtmn`nlneog `g rgcmgrcmg

Vrnblïkhtoqug

L‟nbdgctoj `g intrg trhvhol gst `‟ïtu`ogr lgs `ojjïrgitgs kïtmn`gs quo inus pgrkgttgit `g
jnrkulgr gt `g rïsnu`rg ui prnblíkg `g trhispnrt hu iovghu `g l‟gitrgprosg `g prn`uctoni
@hinig.
@his cg cnitgxtg, lh prïsgitg ïtu`g h pnur nbdgctoj `g rïpni`rg æ lh prnblïkhtoqug suovhitg 4

8 G@OEMNJJGR D.R, prïcos `g egstoni `‟gitrgprosg, ï`otoni Ihtmhi,2660, p=6.

8
 

Oitrn`uctoni eïiïrhlg

Gst-cg-qug lgs koxtgs `gstoihtonis nit ui okphct sur lgs cnuts `g trhispnrt `his l‟gitrgprosg
@hinig >
@g cgttg qugstoni cgitrhlg, ni pgut `ïehegr `gs qugstonis huxolohorgs 4
-Lh `osthicg vgrs lgs koxtgs `gstoihtonis dnug-t-ol ui rðlg sur lh vhrohtoni `gs cnuts `g
trhispnrt >

- lg rïsghu rnutogr `g `ostrobutoni vgrs lgs clogits pgut-o-ol oijlugicgr lg cnñt `g trhispnrt >
Hjoi `g rïpni`rg hu kogux intrg prnblïkhtoqug, inus hvnis ïkos lgs mypntmísgs suovhitgs 4
Mypntmísg 8 4 lg cmnox phrjhot `‟ui rïsghu `g `ostrobutoni pgrkgt `‟nptokosgr lg cnut `g
trhispnrt.

Mypntmísg 2 4 nptokosgr lh `osthicg phr lg cmnox `gs plus cnurts cmgkois cnitrobug æ
koiokosgr lgs cnñts `g trhispnrt.

Kïtmn`nlneog
Kïtmn`nlneog `g l‟ïtu`g

L‟ïtu`g sg bhsgrh sur ui cgrthoig inkbrg `‟nutollg gt `g kïtmn`g quo jhcolotgrnit lg rgcugol
`‟oijnrkhtoni vgrs lgur trhotgkgit. OlOl s‟heorh `g lh rgcmgrcmg `ncukgithorg, `gs gitrgtogiig
gitrgtogiig
hvgc `gs pgrsniigs cmhreïgs `u trhispnrt puos `gs nbsgrvhtonis `orgctgs `his lg tgrrhoi .

Hjoi `‟oijorkgr hux `g cnijorkgr inus mypntmísgs, inus hvnis scoi`ï intrg trhvhollg æ trnos
cmhpotrg.

-@his lg prgkogr cmhpotrg sg vgut ui cmhpotrg oitrn`uctoj hu trhvhollg `g kïknorg. Inus y

rglhtnis lgs `ojjïrgits cnicgpts loïs æ lh cmhoig lneostoqug gt supply cmhoi khihegkgit (SCK),
hoiso qug sur lg trhispnrt gt sh plhcg hu sgoi `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug, dueïs utolgs, vnorg
gssgitogls pnur lh cnistructoni prnergssovg `g intrg prnblïkhtoqug gt lgs rïpnisgs æ hppnrtgr.
-@his lg sgcni` cmhpotrg inus hllnis trhotgr lgs intonis `g bhsg `g lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs hoiso
lgs `ojjïrgits kïtmn`gs `‟nptokoshtoni phr lgs erhpmgs, gt lgs `ïthollgs `g lh kïtmn`g cmnosog.

- Lg `griogr cmhpotrg gst l‟hpplochtoni `gs kïtmn`gs cmnosog gt l‟hihlysg `gs rïsulthts.

2
 

C mhpo tr g O 4 E ïiïr hlot

lo tïs sur lh
lneostoqug
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Oitrn`uctoni
Lh lneostoqug gst uig jnrkulg gssgitogl gst proknr`ohl pnur lgs gitrgprosgs, lh khotrosg
`gs `ojjïrgits jlux lneostoqug gst ui jhctgur clï pnur lg bni jnictoniigkgit `g l‟gitrgprosg æ
joi `‟httgoi`rg sni nbdgctoj proicophl quo gst `g lovrgr `gs prn`uots æ sgs clogits gi quhitotï
`gkhi`ïg `his lg logu `gkhi`ï æ lh `htg `gkhi`ï gt hux knoi`rgs cnuts.

Cg prgkogr cmhpotrg sg `ovosg gi `gux sgctonis, lh prgkoírg bhsïg sur lg ch`rg

tmïnroqug `g lh lneostoqug `his l‟gitrgprosg. Lh `guxoíkg sgctoni prïsgitg lh supply cmhoi gt lg
trhispnrt, gi oisosthit sur lh plhcg `u trhispnrt rnutogr gt cgs `ïjïrgitgs njjrgs quo gxostgit.
Sgctoni 8 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug `g lh lneostoqug `‟gitrgprosg

8. Brgj mostnroqug

Pgrk
Pgrkgg lneo
lneost
stoq
oqug
ug vogi
vogitt `u kn
kntt er
ergc
gc << LN
LNEO
EOSP
SPOA
OANS
NS99
99 qu
quoo so
soeeio
iojo
jogg l‟
l‟hr
hrtt `u
rhosni
rhosniigk
igkgi
gitt gt `u ch
chlcu
lcul.l. Ni cotg
cotg snu
snuvg
vgit
it lh `ïjoio
`ïjoioton
tonii `‟nroe
`‟nroeoig
oig kolotho
kolothorg
rg 4 « lg tgrkg
tgrkg
lneostoqug `ïsoeig l‟hrt `g cnkboigr tnus lgs knygis `g trhispnrt, `g rhvothollgkgit, gt `g
8
lnegkgit `gs trnupgs. ±
Cg tgrkg s‟gst gisuotg rïphi`u, `his lg kologu oi`ustrogl inthkkgit, pnur ïvnqugr 
 proicophlgkgit lh khiutgitoni gt lgs trhispnrts `gs khrcmhi`osgs. Dusqu‟hux hiiïgs 56, lh
lneostoqug i‟hvhot qug pgu `‟okpnrthicg `his lh egstoni `gs gitrgprosgs, gllg gst cniso`ïrïg
cnkkg uig jnictoni sgcni`horg, lokotïg hux thcmgs `‟gxïcutonis `his `gs gitrgpðts gt sur lgs
quhos `‟gxpï`otonis. Gisuotg, lh lneostoqug gst cnkprosg cnkkg ui logi npïrhtoniigl gitrg lgs
`ïjïrgitgs hctovotïs `g l‟gitrgprosg, hssurhit lh cnmïrgicg gt lh johbolotï `gs jlux-khtoírgs, gi
vug `g lh quhlotï `u sgrvocg hux clogits tnut gi pgrkgtthit l‟nptokoshtoni `gs rgssnurcgs gt lh
rï`uctoni `gs cnuts.

Lh lne
lneos
ostoq
toqug
ug `g
`gvo
vogi
git,
t, hu kolog
kologuu `g
`gss hiiï
hiiïgs
gs ?6
?6,, ui
uigg jn
jnic
icton
tonii el
elnb
nbhl
hlos
osïg
ïg vn
vnor
orgg
kni`
kni`oh
ohlo
losï
sïgg `g egsto
gstoni
ni `u jlux
jlux pm
pmyysosoqu
qugg `h
`his
is uiuigg vo
voso
soni
ni cn
cnkp
kplílítg
tg `g lh cm cmho
hoig
ig
clogits/jnuriossgurs, gt cnistotug vïrothblgkgit uig inuvgllg `oscoploig `u khihegkgit `gs
gitrgprosgs. « Lh lneostoqug elnbhlg ± rgprïsgitg hoiso l‟gisgkblg `gs hctovotïs oitgrigs nu
gxtgrigs h l‟gitrgprosg quo hppnrtgit `g lh vhlgur hdnutïg hux prn`uots gt `gs sgrvocgs hux
clogits (Cnurtry, 2663).2

8 SNMOGR.D, Lh lneostoqug 4 Cnkprgi`rg lh `ïkhrcmg lneostoqug, sgs rïpgrcussonis sur lh qugstoni, Zuobgrt, 3 íkgï`otoni, phros,
2662,, p. 3.
2662 3.
2 CNLOI.D, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Lh lneostoqug 4 Mostnorg gt pgrspgctovgs, Wiovgrsotï Hox-Khrsgollg OO, 8??:, p. 8-7.

3
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

2. @ïjoiotonis `g lh lneostoqug

@g ins dnurs, plusogurs `ïjoiotonis `g lh lneostoqug nit jhot l‟nbdgt `g lh lottïrhturg.

@‟hprís lg `octoniihorg Lhrnussg, ol gxostg `gux `ïjoiotonis pnur lh lneostoqug 4 ol y h l‟h`dgctoj 
quo cnrrgspni` æ l‟gisgkblg `gs npïrhtonis pgrkgtthit hux hrkïgs `g vovrg, `g sg `ïplhcgr, `g
cnkbhttrg gt `‟hssurgr lgs ïvhcuhtonis gt lg trhotgkgit kï`ochl `u pgrsniigl. Lh `guxoíkg
joihlotï `g lh lneostoqug, soeiojog, quhit æ gllg l‟gisgkblg `g kïtmn`gs gt `g knygis rglhtojs æ
l‟nrehioshtoni `‟ui sgrvocg, `‟uig gitrgprosg, gtc.…... gt cnkprgihit lgs khiutgitonis, lgs
trhispnrts, lgs cni`otoniigkgits gt phrjnos lgs hpprnvosoniigkgits.
 Inus hllnis cotgr quglqugs `ïjoiotonis quo inus phrhossgit lgs plus okpnrthitgs gt quo
khrqugit l‟ïvnlutoni `u cnicgpt `g lh lneostoqug
Lh prgkoírg `ïjoiotoni, quo `htg `g 8?0=, h ïtï jnrkulg phr lg cnkotï `g `ïjoiotoni `g
l‟Hkgrochi Khragtoie Hssncohtoni 4 « Lh lneostoqug cnicgrig lg knuvgkgit gt lh khiutgitoni
`g khrcmhi`osgs `u pnoit `g prn`uctoni hu pnoit `g cnisnkkhtoni nu `'utoloshtoni ±. 3
 Inus pnuvnis `org qu‟h cgttg pïron`g, gt cnkkg lh `ïjoiotoni l‟hjjorkg, lh lneostoqug ig
cnicgrig qug lgs hctovotïs pmysoqugs `g lh pmhsg `g `ostrobutoni.
Gi 8?5?, @hiogl Poxoï h prnpn
prnpnsï
sï lh `ïjoiotoni
`ïjoiotoni suovhitg
suovhitg 4 « Lh lneostoqug
lneostoqug gst O' gisg
gisgkblg
kblg
`gs hctovotïs hyhit pnur but lh kosg gi plhcg, hu knoi`rg cnut, `‟uig quhitotï `g prn`uots, æ
l‟gi`r
l‟gi`rnot
not gt hu knkg
knkgit
it nÿ uig `gkhi
`gkhi`g
`g gxostg.
gxostg. Lh lneos
lneostoq
toqug
ug cnicgri
cnicgrigg `nic
`nic tnutgs
tnutgs lgs
npïrhtonis `ïtgrkoihit lg knuvgkgit `gs prn`uots tgl qug lnchloshtoni `gs usoigs gt gitrgpðts,
hpprnvosoniigkgit, egstoni pmysoqug `gs gicnurs `g jhbrochtoni, gkbhllheg, stncaheg, egstoni
`gs stncas, khiutgitoni gt prïphrhtoni `gs cnkkhi`gs, trhispnrt gt tnuriïgs `g lovrhosni ±. 0
@his
@his lgur
lgur nuvr
nuvrhe
heg,
g, « Lh lneos
lneostoq
toqug
ug `his
`his l‟g
l‟git
itrg
rgpr
pros
osg,
g, vg
vgrs
rs ui khih
khiheg
egkg
kgit
it pl
plus
us
cnkpïtotoj ±, Cnloi, Khtmg gt Poxog (8?=8) nit prnpnsï lh `ïjoiotoni suovhitg 4 « Lh lneostoqug
gst lg prncgssus strhtïeoqug
strhtïeoqug phr lgqugl O'gitrgprosg nrehiosg
nrehiosg gt snutogit sni hctovotï. H cg totrg,
ni pgut
pgut `ït
`ïtgrk
grkoig
oigrr gt eï
eïrgr
rgr lg
lgss jlu
jluxx khtïro
khtïrogls
gls gt
gt oijn
oijnrkh
rkhtoni
toniigl
iglss hjjïrg
hjjïrgits
its,, thit
thit oitgrig
oitgrigss
qu'gxtgrigs, gi hknit qu'gi hvhl. ±7

3 gkg
0 PO]OGR.@ gtgt hl.
PO]OGR.@ hl. ,, Lh
Lh lneostoqug
lneostoqug hu
`‟gitrgprosg
sgrvocg `g4 l‟gitrgprosg
vgrs ui khihegkgit
4 knygis,plus cnkpïtotoj,
kïchioskgs Vhros, @uin`,
gt gidgux, 2 ï`otoni,8?=8,V.
Vhros, @uin`, 3gkg ï`otoni, 36 .
8?==.
7 gkg
PO]OGR.@ gt hl. , Lh lneostoqug `‟gitrgprosg 4 vgrs ui khihegkgit plus cnkpïtotoj, Vhros, @uin`, 2 ï`otoni,8?=8,V. 32 .

0
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

   Syitmísg `gs
`gs `ïjoiotonis
`ïjoiotonis

Lh lneostoqug
lneostoqug ggst
st uig phrtog `g
`gss hctovotï
hctovotïss `‟uig cm
cmhoig
hoig lneostoqu
lneostoqugg (supply
(supply cmhoi).
cmhoi). Gllg
cnicgrig lh plhiojochtoni, l‟gxïcutoni gt lg cnitrðlg `u jlux gjjocogit `u stncaheg `g prn`uot,
`g lh egstoni `g l‟oijnrkhtoni rglhtovg æ cgs jnictonis `gpuos lg jnuriossgur `g lh khtoírg
 prgkoírg dusqu'æ lh cnisnkkhtoni joihlg.
Gijoi, pnur cniclurg cgttg gxplochtoni `u tgrkg lneostoqug, ol gst gssgitogl `'ïvnqugr qug
lh lneost
lneostoqu
oqugg cn
cnkpn
kpnrtg
rtg `g
`gux
ux `nk
`nkhoi
hoigs
gs `g prï
prïncc
nccuph
uphtoni
tonis.
s. OO jhut
jhut `nic
`nic `ostoi
`ostoieu
eugr
gr gitrg
gitrg
lh lneostoqug `‟hknit gt lh lneostoqug `‟hvhl 4 Lh lneostoqug `‟hknit s‟nccupg `g l‟nrehioshtoni
`gs jlu
jluxx `‟h
`‟hppr
pprnvo
nvoson
soniig
iigkgi
kgitt `g l‟gitrgp
l‟gitrgpros
rosgg (ïi
(ïigre
greog,
og, cnkkhi`
cnkkhi`gg gt hcmht
hcmht `g lh khtoír
khtoírgg
 prgkoírg gt prn`uots sgko-joio) quo snit utolosïs phr lgs cmhoigs `g prn`uctoni. Lh lneostoqug
`‟hvhl, phr cnitrg, h pnur rðlg lh `ostrobutoni pmysoqug `gs prn`uots quo nit ïtï cnkkhi`ïs
huprís `u sgrvocg cnkkgrcohl phr `ovgrs clogits. Gllg oitíerg hoiso lg phcaheoie, lg rgspgct `gs
`ïlhos `g lovrhosni gt sg prnlnieg phr lg sgrvocg hprís-vgitg, quo eírg lg rgtnur `g prn`uots ini
cnijnrkgs.:
3. Lgs jnictonis lneostoqugs

Lh jnictoni lneostoqug prgi` gi cmhreg lh egstoni `gs jlux `g khrcmhi`osg gt s‟oitïrgssg

æ lgu
lgurs
rs gi
givor
vornii
niigkg
gkgits
its.. L‟giv
L‟givorn
orniig
iigkgi
kgitt gt cni
cnistot
stotuï,
uï, pnur
pnur lh lneost
lneostoqu
oqugg lgs rgssnu
rgssnurcg
rcgss
(mukhoigs, chrburhit, ïigreog…gtc.), `gs bogis iïcgsshorgs æ lh rïhloshtoni `g lh prgsthtoni
lneostoqug (khcmoig, gitrgpðts, nutollheg…gtc.), gt `gs sgrvocgs (jnurioturg, trhispnrt, systíkg
`‟oijnrkhtoni, gkbhllheg …gtc.).
Hoiso, gi vug `‟hrrovgr æ sgs jois, gllg gst hppglïg æ nccupgr hu sgoi `g l‟gitrgprosg lgs
jnictonis suovhitgs 45

nrehioshtoni `gs jlux 4 `ïjoior lgs jlux gitrg sni gitrgprosg gt sgs jnuriossgurs `‟uig
  nrehioshtoni
 phrt, sgs clogits `‟hutrg phrt, `ïjoior lgs jlux gitrg lgs `ojjïrgits sotgs (prn`uctoni,
stncaheg, `ostrobutoni, cnkkgrcohloshtoni) hu sgoi käkg `g l‟gitrgprosg.
 plhiojochtoni 4  gi jnictoni `gs bgsnois `gs clogits, `gs cnitrhoitgs `gs jnuriossgurs gt
  plhiojochtoni
`gs knygis `nit `ospnsg l‟gitrgprosg (rgssnurcg mukhoig gt knygis `g prn`uctoni),
 plhiojogr (æ cnurt, knygi, lnie tgrkg) lh prn`uctoni, stncaheg, l‟gxpï`otoni gt lovrhosni
`gs khrcmhi`osgs
khrcmhi`osgs..

:CMHRAHNWO. H, Intgs `g cnurs4 Systíkgs lneostoqugs 4 lh lneostoqug æ trhvgrs sni mostnorg, Gcnlg Supïrogurg `g Egstoni,
Khrrhagcm, 2660.
5

KNWHCO
KNWH CO gt RGKHCO,
RGKHCO, Nptokoshtoni
Nptokoshtoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt chs SNZHC-BN
SNZHC-BNWORH
WORH,, Kïknorg
Kïknorg Khstgr
Khstgr 4 lneostoqug
lneostoqug gt
`ostrobutoni, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 268:.

7
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

   Hcmht 4   o`gitojo
o`gitojogg gt cm
cmnoso
nosorr lgs jnurio
jnuriossg
ssgurs
urs pns
pnssob
soblgs
lgs ph
phrr cn
cnkpn
kpnshi
shit,t, iïenco
iïencogr
gr gt
nptokos
nptokosgr
gr lgs cni`
cni`oton
otonis
is `‟hcmh
`‟hcmhtt (pr
(prox,
ox, quh
quhlotï
lotï,, `ïlhos
`ïlhos),
), giehe
giehegr
gr `gs rglhtoni
rglhtoniss `g
 phrtgihroht hvgc sgs jnuriossgurs hjoi `g lgs jhorg prnergssgr `his lg
l g käkg rytmkg qug
sni gitrgprosg.
 hpprnvosoniigkgit 4  hssurgr lh kosg æ `ospnsotonis `gs cnkpnshits iïcgsshorgs æ
  hpprnvosoniigkgit

l‟nutol `g prn`uctoni, gi jnictoni `gs bgsnois `gs clogits.

   prn`uctoni 4   c‟gs
c‟gstt ui kholln
khollnii `g lh cmhoig
cmhoig lneost
lneostoqu
oqugg puosqu
puosqugg lgs npïrht
npïrhtoni
oniss `g
trhisjnrkhtoni `gs prn`uots kgttgit gi œuvrg `gs knygis mukhois (gjjgctoj), khtïrogls
(khcmoigs) gt tgcmioqugs `nit lgs jlux snit æ plhiojogr.
 `ostrobutoni 4  nrehiosg gt polntgr lh kosg æ `ospnsotoni `gs cnkpnshits hux uiotïs `g
  `ostrobutoni
 prn`uctoni, gt `g prn`uot joios huprís `gs clogits. Cgs jlux pmysoqugs oitíergit lg
trhispnrt (kgr, rnutg, hor, jgr) gt khiutgitoni (khiugllg nu hutnkhtosïg).
 lneostoqug 4  khoitgior cmgz lg clogit lg prn`uot vgi`u gi ïtht `g jnictoniihlotï
  snutogi lneostoqug
hu trhvgrs `u sgrvocg hprís-vgitg, gt `nic kgttrg æ `ospnsonis `gs poícgs `g rgcmhieg,

khotrosgr lg rgtnur `gs cnkpnshits usheïs, hoiso qug lgur `gstructoni hu rgcyclheg.
Ol gxos
gxostg
tg uig
uig oi
oitg
tgrh
rhct
cton
onii trí
tríss jnrtg
jnrtg gitrg
gitrg lh lneos
lneostoq
toqug
ug gt l‟gis
l‟gisgk
gkbl
blgg `g
`gss hu
hutrg
trgss
`ïphrtgkgits `g l‟gitrgprosg. Lh lneostoqug gst `nic kgiïg æ eïrgr `gs oitgrjhcgs gitrg `g
inkbrgusgs gitotïs (æ l‟oitïrogur gt l‟gxtïrogur `g l‟gitrgprosg), hux oitïräts `ovgregits. Sni
rðlg gst cgluo `‟ui kï`ohtgur `gvhit prnpnsgr `gs snlutonis lneostoqugs nptokhlgs `his l‟oitïrät
`g l‟gitrgprosg.

:
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Joeurg I¶68 4 lgs jnictonis `g lh lneostoqug.

Snurcg  4 KNWTHNWO.K gt RHK@HIO.I, Gssho `‟hihlysg `g l‟okphctg `g lh lneostoqug sur lh `ostrobutoni `gs
 prn`uots `g l‟gitrgprosg, Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug
ln eostoqug gt `ostrobutoni, uiovgrsotï
u iovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 2687.

H trhvgrs sgs jnictoni, lh lneostoqug kíig plusogurs hctovotïs hrbotrhorgkgit sub`ovosïgs

cnkkg 4 hctovotïs « hknits ± (`g lh prn`uctoni æ l‟gitrgpðt) 1 hctovotïs « hvhl ± (`g l‟gitrgpðt
æ lh cnisnkkhtoni) gt hctovotïs « rgtnurs ± (`g lh cnisnkkhtoni æ lh prn`uctoni).

3.8 Lgs hctovotïs gi hknit 4

Gllgs cnkprgiigit 4=
- lg `ïvglnppgkgit gt lh rgcmgrcmg `g rgssnurcg `‟hpprnvosoniigkgit, `his nu æ l‟gxtïrogur `g
l‟git
l‟gitrg
rgpr
pros
osgg clog
clogit
its,
s, phr
phr l‟
l‟ït
ïthb
hblos
lossg
sgkg
kgit
it `g rglh
rglhton
tonii hv
hvgc
gc `g
`gss jh
jhbr
broc
ochi
hits
ts (`
(`ïi
ïink
nkkï
kïss
 prn`uctgurs, oi`ustrogls, jnuriossgur nu snus-trhothits) 1 `gs prgsththorgs `g sgrvocgs (hppglïs
snus-trhothits nu gicnrg cnkkossoniihorgs `g trhispnrt nu trhispnrtgurs).

- l‟h
l‟hpp
pprn
rnvo
voso
soni
niig
igkg
kgit
it qu
quoo oi`u
oi`uot
ot lh inton
intonii `g « cn
cnkk
kkhi
hi`g
`g ±, `g bn
bnis
is cn
cnkk
kkhi
hi`g
`g (æ
l‟gxtïrogur) nu `g « `gkhi`gs, bnis nu nr`rgs `g jhbrochtoni nu `g lovrhosni, …gtc. ± (æ
l‟oitïrogur) gt `g jnuriossgurs.

=  INROEGN
 INROEGNI.V,
I.V, Intgs `g
` g cnurs4Lneostoqug gt g-Busoigss, V.: .
5
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

- lg trhispnrt hknit gt lgs prgsthtonis `g `nuhig pnur hcmgkoigr lgs khrcmhi`osgs (prn`uot
joios
joios nu khtï
khtïroh
rohux
ux,, cnkp
cnkpns
nshi
hit,
t, gtc.
gtc.)) Zg
Zgrs
rs ui pn
pnoi
oitt `g st
stnc
ncahe
ahegg nu ui
uigg pl
plht
htgj
gjnr
nrkg
kg `g
 prïphrhtoni `g cnkkhi`g.

3.2 Lgs hctovotïs gi hvhl

?
Cgllgs-co cnkprgiigit 4
-Lg stncaheg gi gitrgpðt (gitrgpnsheg)
-Lg surgkbhllheg (cnphcaoie), lh cnistotutoni, lg cni`otoniigkgit gt l'h`rgssheg, gtc.
-Lh prïph
prïphrht
rhtoni
oni `g cnkk
cnkkhi
hi`g
`g quo pgu
pgutt pnrtg
pnrtgrr `‟hut
`‟hutrgs
rgs inks
inks 4 « lh rïph
rïphrtot
rtotoni
oni ± pnur lgs
gitrgprosgs `g sgctgur pmhrkhcgutoqug, (gi oicluhit snus cgttg `ïinkoihtoni lg « stncaheg ± gt
lg « trhispnrt
trhispnrt gi hvhl ±) 1 « L'ïclhtgkg
L'ïclhtgkgit
it ± pnur lgs gitrgpros
gitrgprosgs
gs `u sgctgu
sgctgurr hlokgithorg
hlokgithorg jrhos
(quo rgprïsgitg ui sgul phssheg æ quho shis stncaheg, hvgc lh rïphrtotoni gt cmhregkgit
okkï`oht `g vïmoculgs).

Joeurg I¶62 4 lh lneostoqug gi hknit gt gi hvhl `his uig gitrgprosg `g prn`uctoni.

Snurcg  4 intrg prnprg pgrcgptoni

- Lg trhispnrt
trhispnrt hvhl (hp
(hprís
rís lg logu `g stn
stncahe
caheg),
g), quo sg `ïcnkpn
`ïcnkpnsg
sg gi « trhctoni ±,
±, c‟gst `org lg
trhispnrt dusqu‟æ ui pnoit `g rïphrtotoni nu `‟ïc
`‟ïclhtgkgit
lhtgkgit nu `g kosg gi tnuriïgs1 « phssheg æ
quho ±, pnur ïclhtgr, rgphrtor nu kgttrg gi tnuriïgs sur `'hutrgs vïmoculgs1 «`ostrobutoni ±,
c‟gst-æ-`o
c‟gst-æ-`org
rg lg trhisp
trhispnrt
nrt `g `griogr
`griogr aolnkít
aolnkítrg
rg vgrs uig gi
gitrgpro
trgprosg
sg (busoigss
(busoigss tn bu
busoigs
soigss)
s) nu
vgrs ui phrtoculogr (busoigss tn cnisukgr).

?
 INROEGNI.V, Intgs `g cnurs4Lneostoqug gt g-Busoigss, V. 5.
=
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

0. Lgs `ojjïrgits typgs `g lh lneostoqug

Ni pgut
pgut `ostoieug
`ostoieugrr plus
plusogurs
ogurs ty
typgs
pgs `g lh lneostoqu
lneostoqugg sgln
sglnii lgur
lgurss nbdgt
nbdgtss gt lgurs kïtmn`gs 4  86
lgurs kïtmn`gs

H) Lh lneostoqug
lneostoqug `'hpprnvosoniigk
`'hpprnvosoniigkgit
git

Cg typg `g lneostoqug pgrkgt æ l‟gitrgprosg `‟hkgigr `his lgs uiotïs lgs prn`uots `g
 bhsg, cnkpnshits gt snus-gisgkblgs iïcgsshorgs
iïcgsshorgs æ lh prn`uctoni.
B) Lh lneostoqug `g prn`uctoni

Lh lneo
lneost
stoq
oqug
ug `g prn`
prn`uc
ucton
tonii jhot
jhot phrt
phrtog
og `g
`gss jn
jnic
icton
tonis
is trh
trhis
isvg
vgrs
rshl
hlgs
gs hu sg
sgoi
oi `g
l'gitrgpros
l'gitrgprosg.
g. Gllg cnisos
cnisostg
tg æ hppn
hppnrtgr
rtgr hux uiotï
uiotïss `g prn`u
prn`uctoni
ctoni `g khtïrohux
khtïrohux gt cnkpnsh
cnkpnshits
its
iï
iïcg
cgss
ssho
horg
rgss æ lh prn
prn`u
`uct
cton
oni.
i. Lg but
but gs
gstt `g tgi`
tgi`rg
rg vg
vgrs
rs l'n
l'npt
ptok
okos
osht
hton
onii gi hkïl
hkïlon
onrh
rhit
it
lgs pgrjnrkhicgs æ cmhqug ïthpg `g prn`uctoni.
C) Lh lneostoqug `g `ostrobutoni

Cg typg `g lneostoqug cnisostg æ cnitrðlgr lh cnijnrkotï `gs lovrhosnis æ l‟hrrovïg hux

khehsois hoiso qug lh quhitotï gt lh quhlotï `gs phlgttgs hvhit lg `ïphrt `g l‟gitrgpðt, hu`otgr lh
 prïphrhtoni `gs cnkkhi`gs, eïrgr qunto`ogiigkgit lgs stncas, lg cmhregkgit `gs
khrcmhi`osgs,, l‟givno, lh rïcgptoni gt lg cni
khrcmhi`osgs cni`otoniigkgit
`otoniigkgit `gs cn
cnlos.
los. @‟uig khioírg eïiïrhlg
gllg cnisostg æ hppnrtgr hu cnisnkkhtgur joihl lgs prn`uots `nit ol h bgsnoi.
@) Lh lneostoqug `g snutogi

Cg typg `g lneostoqug cnicgrig lg sgrvocg pnstïrogur æ lh vgitg. Ol h pnur nbdgctoj 

`‟hssurgr lg khoitogi gi cni`otoni npïrhtoniigllg `‟ui systíkg tgcminlneoqug cnkplgxg pmhsg
`'
`'gx
gxpl
plno
noth
thton
toni.
i. Ol kg
kgtt gi   œuv
uvrg
rg ui gisg
gisgkb
kblg
lg `g pr
prnc
ncgs
gssu
suss gt `g knyg
knygis
is (n
(npï
pïrh
rhton
tonii
`g khoitgihicg, nutollheg...) inkkgs ïlïkgits `g lneostoqug `g snutogi.
G) Lh lneostoqug `g sgrvocg hprís-vgitg

Cgttg hctovotï
hctovotï gst hssgz prncmg `g lh lneostoqug
lneostoqug `g snutogi,
snutogi, hvgc cgttg `ojjïrgicg
`ojjïrgicg qu‟gllg
gst gxgrcïg `his ui ch`rg khrcmhi` phr cgluo quo h vgi`u ui bogi1 ni utolosg hssgz snuvgit
l‟gxprgssoni « khihegkgit `g sgrvocg ± pnur `ïsoeigr lg polntheg `g cgttg hctovotï 1 ni intgrh
cgpgi`hit qug cgttg jnrkg `g lneostoqug tgi` `g plus gi plus snuvgit æ ätrg gxgrcgr phr `gs
spïcohlotïs `g snutogi.

86VOKNR._ gt JGI@GR.K, lneostoqug 4 Vrn`uctoni @ostrobutoni gt Snutogi, Vhros, @uin`, 7 gkg G`otoni, 8??=, V. 0 .
?
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

J) Lh Lneostoqug
Lneostoqug oivgr
oivgrsg
sg

Lg tgrkg « rgvg
rgvgrsg
rsg lneostoc
lneostocss ± pgut ätrg trh`uo
trh`uott gi jrhiåhos phr « lneostoqug
lneostoqug oivgrsg ± nu
« lneostoqug `gs rgtnurs ±. Gllg cnisostg æ rgprgi`rg `gs prn`uots `nit lg clogit ig vgut phs nu
qu‟ol
qu‟ol vg
vgut
ut jho
jhorg
rg rïp
rïphrg
hrgr,
r, nu gic
gicnrg
nrg æ trh
trhotg
otgrr `gs `ïcmg
`ïcmgts
ts oi`ust
oi`ustrog
rogls,
ls, gkb
gkbhll
hllheg
heg,, prn`uo
prn`uott
oiutoloshblgs.
Ni cnisthtg qug l‟nbdgctoj cnkkui æ tnus lgs typgs `g lh lneostoqug cotïs co-`gssus gt
`‟
`‟ht
httg
tgoi
oi`r
`rgg uig
uig mhut
mhutgg pgrj
pgrjnr
nrkh
khic
icgg `u sy
syst
stík
íkgg cn
cnic
icgr
griï
iï,, gi hs
hssu
surh
rhit
it ui
uigg kgoll
kgollgu
gurg
rg
`ospniobolotï æ knoi`rg cnut hvgc uig erhi`g jlgxobolotï luo pgrkgtthit `g s‟h`hptgr hux
jluctuhtonis ïvgitugllgs `u khrcmï.

Joeurg I¶63 4 lgs `ojjïrgits typgs `g lh lneostoqug.

Snurcg 4  KGI@OL.H gt AG@DHR.L, Lh lneostoqug `g `ostrobutoni4 Nptokoshtoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt, Kïknorg Khstgr 4
Khihegkgit `gs Nrehioshtonis, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 2687.

Lh joeurg I¶62 co-`gssus prïsgitg lgs `ojjïrgits typgs `g lh lneostoqug cotïg co-`gssus hu
sgoi `‟uig gitrgprosg `g prn`uctoni.

86
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

7. lgs knygis
knygis lneostoq
lneostoqugs
ugs

Lnrsqug lh prn`uctoni pgut ätrg hcmgkoiïg `orgctgkgit vgrs lg logu `g cnisnkkhtoni,

shis cnistotutoni `g stnca, lg jlux gst `ot « tgi`u± 1 æ l'oivgrsg, lg jlux gst `ot «stncaï ± so lh
 prn`uctoni `ïco`g `g lh quhitotï `g khrcmhi`osg trhispnrtïg gt prn`uotg, lg jlux gst `ot
« pnussï ± hu cnitrhorg, so lh cnisnkkhtoni `ïco`g `g lh quhitotï `g khrcmhi`osg trhispnrtïg
gt prn`uotg, lg jlux gst `ot « torï ±. 88
Hprgs lg trhispnrt `gs prn`uots, ol jhu`rh lgs stncagr. Lh cnistotutoni `g stnca pgut
s'hppuygr sur `ojjïrgitgs rhosnis 4 lh spïculhtoni, `ug æ lh vnlnitï `'hcmgtgr uig khrcmhi`osg
khrcmhi`osg
hbni`hitg, puos `g lh rgvgi`rg gi rïhloshit uig plus-vhlug, lnrsqug s'oisthllgrh lh pïiurog
(`gkhi
(`gkhi`g
`g su
supï
pïrogu
rogurg
rg æ l‟n
l‟njjrg
jjrg)) 1 lgs nbl
nbloeh
oehton
tonii rïe
rïelgk
lgkgit
githor
horgs
gs,, c'gst
c'gst æ `org rgspg
rgspgctg
ctgrr lgs
`u
`urï
rïgs
gs `g qu
quhr
hrhi
hith
thoi
oigs
gs,, phr
phr gxgk
gxgkpl
plg,
g, cnkk
cnkkgg `h
`his
is lh pr
prn`
n`uc
ucton
tonii pm
pmhr
hrkh
khcg
cgut
utoq
oqug
ug nu
cnskïtoqu
cnskïtoqugg lgs cn
cnitrhoit
itrhoitgs
gs cn
cnkkgrc
kkgrcohlgs
ohlgs,, phr gx
gxgkplg
gkplg,, httgi`rg
httgi`rg lh vgiug
vgiug æ khturotï
khturotï `'ui
jruot, `'uig
`'uig jlgur, `'ui hiokh
hiokhll hvh
hvhit
it qu‟ol `gvog
`gvogiigi
iigitt cnkkgr
cnkkgrcohlos
cohloshblg
hblgs1
s1 lgs cnitrhoitgs
cnitrhoitgs `g
 prn`uctoni, phr gxgkplg l‟nbloehtoni `g rgernupgr lgs `ojjïrgits cnkpnshits `'ui prn`uot
joio, hvhit
hvhit `g prncï
prncï`gr
`gr æ sni hssgkblhe
hssgkblheg,
g, lgs iïcg
iïcgssotï
ssotïss joihicoírg
joihicoírgs,
s, quo togii
togiigit
git æ cg qug
lg trh
trhis
ispn
pnrt
rt gst
gst plus
plus cnut
cnutgu
guxx s'
s'ol
ol gs
gstt jrï
jrïqu
qugi
gitt gt s'ol
s'ol pn
pnrtg
rtg su
surr `g
`gss tho
thollg
llgss `g ln
lnts
ts pl
plus
us
 pgtotgs1 `his cg chs, ol cnivogit `g vïrojogr s'ol gst knois cmgr `g stncagr, gi cnistruoshit
`gs gitrg
gitrgpðts
pðts gt gi lgs jhoshit jnict
jnictoniig
oniigr,
r, nu s'ol gst knois cmg
cmgrr `g trhispnrtgr
trhispnrtgr phr lnts `g
 prn`uctoni.
Lgss kny
Lg knygis
gis `os
`ospni
pniobl
oblgs
gs pnur
pnur uig nptokos
nptokoshto
htoni
ni `g lh lneost
lneostoqu
oqugg `‟gitr
`‟gitrgpr
gprosg
osg sni
snitt
gssgitogllgkgit `gs oijrhstructurgs (gitrgpðts, trhispnrts gt `g vnogs `g cnkkuiochtoni), lgs
systíkgs gt nutols `'gxplnothtoni gt `'gxtgrihloshtoni.
7.8 L‟oijrhstructurg
L‟oijrhstructurg lneostoqug

Gllg h pnur nbdgt

nbdgt `g knuv
knuvgkgi
gkgitgr
tgr lgs jlux khtoírg
khtoírgs,
s, pnur lgs hcmgkoi
hcmgkoigr
gr `gs logux
logux `g
 prn`uctoni dusqu'hux logux `g trhisjnrkhtoni, puos `gs logux `g trhisjnrkhtoni
t rhisjnrkhtoni hux
logux `g cnis
cnisnkkht
nkkhtoni.
oni. Cgs trnos logux snit eïi
eïiïrhl
ïrhlgkgi
gkgitt `osdnoits.82
`osdnoits.
Ni pgut `ostoieugr lgs gitrgpðts gt lgs plhtgjnrkgs sglni lgur rðlg `his lh cmhoig lneostoqug.
•Lg khehsoi `‟usoig 4 ol rgånot lgs lovrhosnis `gs jnuriossgurs `g khtoírgs prgkoírgs gt
cnkpnshi
cnkpnshits
ts gt lgs stncas vgrs lgs htglogrs `g jhbroch
jhbrochtoni.
toni. Ol cnisgr
cnisgrvg
vg gi nutrg `gs quhitotïs
quhitotïs
lokotïgs `'gi cnurs `g jhbrochtoni nu `g prn`uots joios.

88
82
GBG@G.G, Intgs `g cnurs4 Oiotohtoni æ lh lneostoqug, p. 88-87.
KNWHCO.K
KNWH CO.K gt RGKHCO.S,
RGKHCO.S, Nptokos
Nptokoshtoni
htoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt chs SNZHC-BN
SNZHC-BNWORH
WORH,, Kïknorg
Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug gt
`ostrobutoni, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 268:.

88
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

•L'gitrgpðt `u jhbrochit 4 ol rgånot `gs prn`uots joios `g l‟usoig nu `u ernupg gt lgs `ostrobug hu
iovghu `‟ui phys.
phys. Cgrthois prn`uots pguvgit `nii
`niigr
gr logu æ `u «pnst khiojhcturioe± hc
hctovotï
tovotï `g
cni`otoniigkgit nu `‟h`hpthtoni `u prn`uot quo hdnutgit æ l‟gitrgpðt `gs htglogrs.
• Lg jhbrochit 4 ol pgut `ospnsgr husso `g plhtgjnrkgs nu `'gitrgpðts rïeonihux käkg so lh
tgi`hicg gst pnur l‟oisthit æ lgur `osphrotoni prnergssovg. Ni phrlg phrjnos `g « cgitrgs `g

`ostrobutoni ±.
• Lg `ostrobutgur 4ol pgut hvnor `gs plhtgjnrkgs `g rïcgptoni `gs gxpï`otonis gt `g sgs
jnuriossgurs gt `‟nrehioshtoni `gs tnuriïgs `g lovrhosni hux surjhcgs `g vgitg, lh plhtgjnrkg
 dnug qu‟ui rðlg `g trhisot gt l‟ni phrlg `g « crnss-`ncaoie ±. Lg `ostrobutgur pgut sur uig
 plhtgjnrkg rïeonihlg rgernupg lgs cnkkhi`gs `g sgs surjhcgs `g vgitg `'uig rïeoni gt lgs
hllnto
hllntorr luo-
luo-käk
käkgg hpr
hprís
ís rïcgpt
rïcgptoni
oni `gs giv
givnos
nos `gs jnuoss
jnuossgur
gurs.
s. Ol lovr
lovrgg gisuotg
gisuotg lgs Erh
Erhi`s
i`s
Khehsois Spïcohlosïs (EKS).

•Lg trhispnrtgur 4 ol trhispnrtg lh khrcmhi`osg `gpuos l‟gitrgpðt `u jhbrochit dusqu'æ lh

surjhcg
surjhcg `g vgitg pnur lg cnkp
cnkptg
tg `u jhbrochit nu `u `ostrobutg
`ostrobutgur.
ur. OO phssg
phssgrh
rh hssgz snuvgit
snuvgit phr 
`gs plhtgjnrkgs `g rhkhssheg puos `g `ostrobutoni lnrsqug lg cmhregkgit gst `g knois `‟ui
chkoni.
chkoni. Cgpg
Cgpgi`hi
i`hitt pnur `gs prn`u
prn`uots
ots cnisn
cnisnkkïs
kkïs gi erhi`g quhi
quhitotï,
totï, lh lovrhosni pgut sg
jhorg `orgctgkgit `gpuos l'usoig.

• L‟gisgoeig pgut hvnor `gs gitrgpðts spïcohlosïs nu ini 4 jrhos, sureglïs, loquo`gs, ïpocgrog,
 bhzhr, tgxtolg, Sgrvocg Hprgs Zgitg (SHZ), mmyeoíig
yeoíig gt bghutï, okpnrt. Cgs gitrgpðts rgånovgit
lgs khr
khrcmh
cmhi`o
i`osg
sgss `gs jhb
jhbroc
rochi
hits
ts gi quhito
quhitotï,
tï, snu
snuvg
vgit
it pnur
pnur prnjotg
prnjotgrr `g pro
proxx hvhith
hvhitheg
egux
ux
(p
(prn
rnkn
knto
toni
ni).
). Gllg
Gllgss sn
snit
it gisu
gisuotg
otg lovrïg
lovrïgss hux
hux Erhi
Erhi`s
`s Kh
Kheh
ehso
sois
is Sp
Spïc
ïcoh
ohlos
losïs
ïs (EKS
(EKS)) sn
snot
ot
`orgctgkgit snot phr l‟oitgrkï`ohorg `gs plhtgjnrkgs rïeonihlgs.

7.2 Lgs systíkgs gt nutols `‟gxplnothtoni

Gi plus `gs hcquos oijrhstructurgls, l‟gitrgprosg `not, gi vug `g lh kosg gi   œuvrg

 prhtoqug `g sh `ïkhrcmg lneostoqug, `ïvglnppgr `gs systíkgs `‟gxplnothtoni hoiso qug `gs
nutols gt rgssnurcgs
rgssnurcgs iïcg
iïcgsshorgs
sshorgs æ uig rgithbolotï nptokhlg `g sni systíkg lneostoqug.83
lneostoqug.
• Lg systíkg `'gxplnothtoni 4 c'gst lh kosg gi plhcg `g systíkgs `g trhisotg quo gst uig scogicg
ïtu`oh
ïtu`ohit
it lgs kny
knygis
gis `g lneosto
lneostoqug
qug oitg
oitgrig
rigss h ui sotg `g prn`uc
prn`ucton
tonii nu `g `os
`ostrob
trobuto
utoni.
ni. Gt
cnisostg gi ui suovo `gs vïmoculgs phr shtgllotgs gt cnkprgi`s `gs systíkgs oijnrkhtoqugs `g
egsto
egstoni
ni `gs cnkkh
cnkkhi`g
i`gs,
s, `gs prn`uct
prn`uctoni
onis,
s, `gs stnca
stncas,
s, `g
`gss gkplhc
gkplhcgkg
gkgits
its `g stnca
stncaheg
heg 1

83
KNWHCO.K gt RGKHCO.S,
KNWHCO.K RGKHCO.S, Nptokos
Nptokoshtoni
htoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt chs SNZHC-BN
SNZHC-BNWORH
WORH,, Kïknorg
Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug gt
`ostrobutoni, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh, 268:.

82
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

`gs systí
systíkgs
kgs ïlg
ïlgctr
ctrnio
nioqug
qugss (sy
(systí
stíkg
kg hit
hitovn
ovnl)
l) 1 gt `g
`gss sys
systík
tíkgs
gs kïchio
kïchioqug
qugss (rn
(rnbnt
bntoqu
oqugg
oi`ustrogllg, gtc.)
• Lgs nutols gt lgs rgssnurcgs pnur gxgrcgr l‟hctovotï lneostoqug oitíergit huthit lgs nutols tgls
(`gs kn`ulgs
kn`ulgs spï
spïcohlos
cohlosïs
ïs `gs lneoc
lneocogls
ogls oitíerg
oitíergs,
s, Uhrgm
Uhrgmnusg
nusg Khihegkgi
Khihegkgits
ts sys
systgks
tgks gtc.) Xug
lgs rgssnurcgs mukhoigs (spïcohlostgs gi rgcmgrcmg `g tgrrhois strhtïeoqug pnur cnistruorg `gs

znig
znigss oi`u
oi`ust
stro
rogl
gllg
lgss lneo
lneost
stoq
oqug
ugs1
s1 sp
spïc
ïcoh
ohlos
lostg
tgss gi ok
okkn
knbo
bolo
logr
gr gt gi cncnis
istru
truct
cton
onii nu gi
hkïi
hkïihehegk
gkgi
gits
ts `'gi
`'gitr
trgp
gpðt
ðtss `g stnc
stncah
aheg
eg nu `g kgss
kgsshe
hegr
grog
og 1 sp
spïc
ïcoh
ohlos
lostg
tgss `gs
`gs sysyst
stík
íkgs
gs
oijnrkhtoqugs, spïcohlostgs gi egstoni `g rgssnurcgs mukhoigs 1 spïcohlostgs gi khtïrogl `g
trhispnrt, `g khiutgitoni, `g stncaheg, `‟gkbhllheg, gtc.) gt lgs rgssnurcgs joihicoírgs.

:. L‟gxtgr
L‟gxtgrihlo
ihloshto
shtoni
ni

Lgs prgsththorgs lne

lneostoqugs
ostoqugs gt lgs gitrgprosgs clogitgs ppguvgit
guvgit husso ätrg hrbotrhorgkgit
clhssïs gi jnictoni `u thux `'gxtgrihloshtoni nu `g prosg gi cmhreg `g lh jnictoni lneostoqug
 phr ui togrs, ni `ostoieug 480

• Lgs « lVL ± (Jorst Vhrty Lneo

Lneostocs
stocs)) 4 snus-trhoth
snus-trhothicg
icg `u trhispnrt
trhispnrt 1
• Lgs « 2VL ± (Sgcn
(Sgcni`
i` Vhrty Lneo
Lneostocs
stocs)) 4 gxtgrihlosh
gxtgrihloshtoni
toni `u trhispnrt
trhispnrt gt `g l'gi
l'gitrgpns
trgpnsheg
heg
• Lg
Lgss « 3VL ± (Pmor` Vhrty Lneost
Lneostocs
ocs)) 4 gxt
gxtgri
grihlo
hlosht
shtoni
oni clhssoq
clhssoqug
ug cnisostg
cnisostg æ cn
cnijog
ijogrr æ ui
spïcohlost
spïcohlostgg lh rïh
rïhloshto
loshtoni
ni `gs npïrh
npïrhtonis
tonis lneos
lneostoqug
toqug lh kosg gi plh
plhcg
cg `gs
`gs nutols,
nutols, cnkp
cnkpïtgi
ïtgicgs
cgs
gt systíkgs iïcgsshorgs, hvgc ui nbdgctoj `‟hkïlonrgr lh pgrjnrkhicg (rïhloshtoni `g thcmgs `g
 plus gi plus vhroïgs) 1
• Lgs « 0VL ± (Jnurtm Vhrty Lneos
Lneostocs)
tocs) 4 jnrkulg l‟gxtgrihloshtoni
l‟gxtgrihloshtoni plus pnus
pnussïg
sïg 1 lg prgsththorg
i‟h plus gi cmhreg
reg lh `os
osttrob
robutoni
oni `'ui prn`uot sur uig rïeon
onii `niiïg, khos
l'nptokoshtoni `‟uig cmhoig oitïerhit sni clogit (lg knt clogit h plusogurs hccgpthtonis, lgs

clogits `u clogit gt lgs jnuriossgurs).

Gi rïsukg, ni pgut `org qug lh lneostoqug cnrrgspni` æ lh egstoni `gs jlux joihicogrs,
oijnrkhtoniigls, pmysoqugs qug vh rgicnitrgr l'gitrgprosg. Lh lneostoqug gst gssgitogllg pnur lh
jorkg, chr c'gst cgttg `grioírg quo vh pgrkgttrg l‟nptokoshtoni `gs rgssnurcgs gt lh rï`uctoni `gs
cnuts.
Lh lneos
lneostoq
toqug
ug gs
gstt uig
uig jnic
jnicton
tonii gs
gssg
sgit
itog
ogllg
llg pn
pnur
ur l‟git
l‟gitrg
rgpr
pros
osgg so gl
gllg
lg vg
vgut
ut rgst
rgstgr 
gr 
cnkpïtotov
cnkpïtotovg.
g. Gi gjjgt, c‟gst lh cniih
cniihosshi
osshicg
cg gt lh khotrosg
khotrosg `g cgllg-co
cgllg-co quo vh `ïtgrkoig
`ïtgrkoigrr sh
 pgrjnrkhicg.

80
@ONKHI@G.I, Lg trhispnrt `his lh strhtïeog `g prn`uctoni `gs erhi`gs gitrgprosgs, @oplðkg `‟Oieïiogur `gs trhvhux
 publocs, Bnoeiy, 2665.
266 5.
83
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Lgs oitgrvgihits gi lneostoqug snit `gvgius plus `ospgrsgs gt plus inkbrgux. H joi
`'ätrg plus pgrjnrkhit, lg systíkg lneostoqug
lneostoqug h cmgrcmï æ oitïergr tnus cgs hegits.
hegits. C'gst hoiso
qu'gst iïg lh intoni `g Supply Cmhoi quo sgrh trhotïg `his lh sgcni`g sgctoni.

Sgctoni 2 4 Lh cmhoig lneostoqug gt lg trhispnrt

Lh egstoni `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug suppnsg `g plhiojogr gt `g cnitrðlgr lgs stncas gt lg

trhispnrt cnkkg uig gitotï uioqug gt oitïerïg, gt cg, `gs jnuossgurs dusqu'hux utoloshtgurs
joihux.
8. Lh cmhoig
cmhoig lneostoq
lneostoqug
ug

Vlusogurs
Vlusogurs hutg
hutgurs
urs nit tgitg `gpuos
`gpuos `g inkb
inkbrgus
rgusgs
gs hiiïgs
hiiïgs `g rïpni`rg
rïpni`rg æ cgttg qugstoni.
qugstoni.
Lgs inkbrgusgs
inkbrgusgs `ïjoiotonis prnpns
prnpnsïgs
ïgs `h
`his
is lh lottïrhturg snit læ pnur
pnur gi tïknoeigr.
tïknoeigr. Cmhcuig
Cmhcuig
`'gllgs gst eïiïrhlgkgit nrogitïg phr lh sgisobolotï `g l'hutgur, gt lg `nkhoig `‟ïtu`g cnicgriï.
Vnurr cgttg rho
Vnu rhosni
sni,, ol i'gxos
i'gxostg
tg phs uig `ïjoiot
`ïjoiotoni
oni uio
uioqug
qug `g lh cmho
cmhoig
ig lne
lneosto
ostoqug
qug,, khos `gs

`ïjoiotonis `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug. Inus gi prnpnsn

prnpnsnis
is quglqugs-uig
quglqugs-uigss 4 Gi 8??3 lh `ïjoiotoni
 prnpnsïg gst lh suovhitg 4 « Wi rïsghu `'oisthllhtoni quo hssurg lgs jnictonis
`'hpprnvosoniigkgit gi khtoírgs prgkoírgs, `g trhisjnrkhtoni `g cgs khtoírgs prgkoírgs gi
cnkpnshits puos gi prn
prn`uots rn`uot joio vgrs lg clogit ±87.
`uots joios, gt `g `ostrobutoni `u pprn`uot
Gi 8??7, lh cmhoig lneostoqug prïsgitïg cnkkg ïthit 4 « Wig succgssoni `'hctovotïs `g
crïh
crïhton
tonii `g vhlgu
vhlgur.
r. Cg
Cgttg
ttg crïh
crïhton
tonii rgpn
rgpnsg
sg su
surr ui gi
gisg
sgkb
kblg
lg `‟
`‟gi
gitrg
trgpr
pros
osgs
gs qu
quoo hs
hssu
surg
rgit
it
l‟gxtrhctoni `gs khtoírgs prgkoírgs, gt lh prn`uctoni, lg ernssostg, lgs `ïthollhits gt gijoi lg
clogit joihl ±8:.

87
RN@ROXWG.P, Kïtmn`gs `g kn`ïloshtoni gt `g `‟nptokoshtoni phr rgcmgrcmg æ vnosoihegs vhrohblg pnur lg
 prnblíkg `g cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit, tmísg `g `nctnrht 4 Scogicgs pmysoqug, uiovgrsotï `g
 bnr`ghux,
8: 2680,p. 5.
KNWHCO.K
KNWH CO.K gt RGKHCO.S,
RGKHCO.S, Nptokos
Nptokoshtoni
htoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt chs SNZHC-BN
SNZHC-BNWORH
WORH,, Kïknorg
Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug gt
`ostrobutoni, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 268:.

80
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Joeurg I¶60 4 Rgprïsgithtoni `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug

Snurcg  4 @WVNICMGL.@, L‟okphct `g lh cotnygiigtï sur lh egstoni `g lh Supply Cmhoi, Kïknorg Khstgr 4
lneostoqug, uiovgrsotï Vhros 8, 2686.

Lh joeurg I¶60 co-`gssus ollustrg uig rgprïsgithtoni `gs jlux `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug. Gllg

 pgrkgt `g kgttrg gi ïvo`gicg lgs `ojjïrgits jl

jlux
ux gitrg llgs
gs hegits `g lh
l h cmhoig lneostoqug. Vnur 
cglh, ol gst gssgitogl `g cnkprgi`rg lh corculhtoni `gs oijnrkhtonis, `g cnisthtgr qug lgs
ïcmhiegs sg jnit husso bogi `his ui sgis qug `his l‟hutrg sgis.
Gi `gmnrs `gs jlux `‟oijnrkhtonis, ol gxostg `‟hutrgs jlux, gux husso iïcgsshorgs pnur qug
lh cnllhbnrhtoni sg phssg phrjhotgkgit 4 lgs jlux joihicogrs gt lgs jlux pmysoqugs. Cgs `griogrs,
snit ïehlgkgit æ `nublg sgis, sg `ïcnkpnsgit gi plusogurs ïthpgs proicophlgs tgllgs qug 4
l‟hpprnvosoniigkgit, lh trhisjnrkhtoni gt lh `ostrobutoni. Cgs jlux rgprïsgitïs gi `nublg sgis
knitrgit qu‟ol pgut y hvnor `gs rgtnurs `his lg chs `‟ui `ïjhut nu gicnrg `‟uig hinkhlog sur 
lg prn`uot.

Lgs jlux joihi

joihicogrs
cogrs,, quhit æ gux, ig jnit qug rgknitgr lh cmhoig
cmhoig chr cmhcui
cmhcui `gs hctgurs
hctgurs
vh ätrg tgius `g phygr l‟oitgrvgihit prïcï`git sur lh cmhoig `g l‟njjrg.

87
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

@g cg jhot, ol hpphrhot qug l‟oitgrcniigxoni gitrg lgs `ojjïrgits khollnis gst gssgitogllg hu
 bni jnictoniigkgit `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug. Gi gjjgt, lh snrtog `‟ui khollni nu ïtheg `g lh
cmhoig
cmhoig gst eïiïr
eïiïrhlg
hlgkg
kgit
it l‟g
l‟gitr
itrïg
ïg `‟u
`‟uii hu
hutrg
trg kholln
khollnii quo hppnrt
hppnrtgrh
grh sh cnkpï
cnkpïtgi
tgicg
cg æ lh
rïhlosh
rïhloshton
tonii `u prn
prn`uo
`uott joih
joihl.l. Vnu
Vnurr rgi
rgi`rg
`rg cglh pns
pnssob
soblg,
lg, ol gs
gstt iï
iïcg
cgssh
sshorg
org `g trhispnr
trhispnrtgr
tgr lh
khtoírg
khtoírg `‟ui khollni æ ui hutrg. Lg trhispnrt
trhispnrt hpphrh
hpphrhot
ot cnkkg ui prncgss
prncgssus
us gssgi
gssgitogl
togl `g lh

cmhoig lneostoqug.
cmhoig lneostoqug. Lg trhispnrt
trhispnrt `his lg cni
cnitgxtg
tgxtg `g lh cmhoi
cmhoigg lneostoqug
lneostoqug cnisostg æ plhiojogr,
plhiojogr,
 polntgr gt nptokosgr l‟hcmgkoigkgit `g lh khtoírg gitrg lgs logux `'hpprnvosoniigkgit
`'hpprnvosoniigkgit gt `g
`ostrobutoni hvgc `gs ïcmhiegs pnssoblgs gitrg lgs `ojjïrgits sotgs `g prn`uctoni.
2. Lg rðlg
rðlg `u trhispnrt
trhispnrt `his
`his lh cmhoig
cmhoig lneosto
lneostoqug
qug
Lg trhispnrt `gs khrcmhi`osg
khrcmhi`osgss dnug ui rðlg khdg
khdgur
ur `his uig cmhoig
cmhoig lneostoqug, gi gjjgt
gjjgt
lgs gitotïs proicophlgs (jnuriossgurs, usoigs `g `ostrobutoni gt clogits joihux) quo sg trnuvgit
`his uig cmhoig lneostoqug snit rgloïgs gitrg gllgs phr `gs cniigxonis okploquhit `ojjïrgits
kn`gs
kn`gs `g trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrt.. Vnur
Vnur V.@
V.@gvg
gvgrih
rihyy quo cn
cniso`
iso`írg
írg lg trhisp
trhispnrt
nrt cnk
cnkkg
kg ui knt
kntgur
gur `g
rg
rgcm
cmgr
grcm
cmgg ol h hihly
hihlysï
sï cnkk
cnkkgg su
suot
ot « lg chs
chs `g l‟n
l‟nre
rehi
hios
osht
hton
onii `g
`gss trhis
trhispn
pnrt
rtss gi
gitrg
trg lg
lgss

jnuriossgurs, lgs gitrgpðts gt lgs gitrgprosgs. Ol h hdnutï qug lg trhispnrt cnistotug lg vïrothblg
"kntgur" `g cgttg lneostoqug 4 shis uig nrehioshtoni `g trhispnrt johblg, rïhctovg, jlgxoblg gt
ïcninkoqug, lh lneostoqug `gvrhot jhorg hppgl æ `gs knygis cnutgux gi surjhcgs, khiutgitoni,
khehsoiheg gt systíkgs `‟oijnrkhtoni, pnur shtosjhorg lgs gxoegicgs `g sgs cnisnkkhtgurs. So
cgrthoigs `g cgs cmhoigs rgstgit oitgrigs hux ïthblossgkgits bïiïjocohit `g lgurs prnprgs uiotïs
`g prn`uctoni, bghucnup rgknitgit vgrs `gs jnuriossgurs kultoplgs gt vhrogs, æ trhvgrs `gs
l gs trhispnrtgurs ±85.
 prgsththorgs, `nit lgs plus cniius snit lgs
2.8. Lh plhcg `u trhispnrt rnutogr
Lh cnitrobutoni `u trhispnrt rnutogr `g khrcmhi`osgs hu jnictoniigkgit `g lh cmhoig

lneostoqug gst prïsgitïg `his cgttg phrtog suovhit `gux hxgs 4 sh `nkoihtoni phr rhppnrt hux
hutrgs kn`gs `g trhispnrt gt sni rðlg khdgur hu iovghu ïcninkoqug.  8=
Lg trhispnrt rnutogr `g khrcm
khrcmhi`osgs
hi`osgs `nkoig lgs hutrgs kn`
kn`gs
gs `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt quo snit 4 lg
jluvohl, lg khrotokg, lg rhol, gt l'hïrogi,
Cglh s‟gxploqug phr lg jhot, qug lgs hutrgs kn`gs `g trhispnrt `g phr lgur ihturg ig snit
 pgrtoigits qug pnur lg trhispnrt
tr hispnrt `g lnieugs `osthicgs khssojoïgs.
Phi`o
Phi`oss qug lg
lg trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrt rnu
rnutog
togrr gst eeïiï
ïiïrhl
rhlgkg
gkgit
it lg sgul
sgul `g phr
phr sh ihtu
ihturg
rg æ pnuvn
pnuvnor 
or 
`gssgrvor tnut ui tgrrotnorg lnrsqug lgs oijrhstructurgs `g cg rïsghu nit ïtï prïhlhblgkgit
`ïvglnppï
`ïvglnppïgs.
gs. L‟ïv
L‟ïvnluton
nlutonii tgcm
tgcminlne
inlneoqug
oqug h husso pgr
pgrkos
kos `g `ïvglnppg
`ïvglnppgrr `gs chkonis
chkonis knois
85Nrehioshtoni `g Cnnpïrhtoni gt `g @ïvglnppgkgit Ïcninkoqugs , Lneostoqug `gs trhispnrts, 2662, p. 7: .
8=
PHANW@DN
PHAN W@DNW.P,W.P, Kïtmn`gs
Kïtmn`gs `g kn`ïloshtoni
kn`ïloshtoni gt `‟nptokoshton
`‟nptokoshtonii phr rgcmgrcmg æ vnosoihegs
vnosoihegs vhrohblgs pnur lg prnblíkg `g
cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Vrn`uctoqug, uiovgrsotï `g Bnr`ghux. 2680, p. ? .
8:
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

ïigreovnrgs
ïigreovnrgs `g thollgs h`hptïg
h`hptïgss pnur lgs `ojjï
`ojjïrgits
rgits gsphc
gsphcgs
gs urbhois. Hoiso, `his uig sotuhtoni
`g jlux tgi`u, `g rï`uctoni `g stnca, `g trhispnrt æ lh `gkhi`g, gt `g trhispnrt pnrtg-æ-pnrtg,
lg trhispnrt rnutogr s‟hvírg ätrg kogux h`hptg qug lgs hutrgs kn`gs `g trhispnrt.
2.2 Lgs njjrgs `g trhispnrt

Vlusogurs
Vlusogurs crotí
crotírgs
rgs pgrkgt
pgrkgttgit
tgit `g chtïe
chtïenrosg
nrosgrr lgs `ojjïrgitg
`ojjïrgitgss njjrgs `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt rnutogr 
rnutogr 
`g khrcmhi`osgs.
Cgs crotírgs pnrtgit inthkkgit sur 4 lh thollg `gs cnlos trhispnrtïs, lh cnkplgxotï `gs
 prgsthtonis `g trhispnrt njjgrtgs, lh rhpo`otï `u trhispnrt, lg kn`g `g chlcul `u prox `g
trhispnrt
trhispnrt gt lh prhtoq
prhtoqug
ug `g ruptu
rupturg mhreg8?. Xuglqugs
rg `g ccmhreg Xuglqugs njjrgs `g trhisp
trhispnrt
nrt snit prïs
prïsgitïg
gitïgss
gt hihlysïgs co-`gssnus 4
2.2.8 L'hjjrít
L'hjjrítgkg
gkgit
it

@his lg chs
chs `g l‟hjjrí
l‟hjjrítgkgi
tgkgitt nu trhisp
trhispnrt
nrt `g lnt cnkp
cnkplgt,
lgt, l‟oitïerhlo
l‟oitïerhlotï
tï `g lh chphcotï
chphcotï µ
`‟ui vïmoculg
vïmoculg gst utolosï pnu
pnurr shtosjhorg
shtosjhorg lh `gkhi`g `g trhisp
trhispnrt
nrt `‟ui clogit. Ol i‟y h phs `g

rupturg `g cmhreg `urhit l‟hcmgkoigkgit gt lg trhispnrt s‟gjjgctug `orgctgkgit `'ui pnoit æ ui

hutrg.
2.2.2
2.2.2 Lg ernuph
ernupheg
eg

Lg trhispnrt hvgc ernupheg h lh spïcojocotï `'gxoegr `u trhispnrtgur qu'ol hot rgcnurs æ `gs
 plhtgjnrkgs pnur gjjgctugr lg ernupheg gt lg `ïernupheg `gs khrcmhi`osgs. Lg ernupheg
cnisostg æ rhkhssgr `gs cnlos prnvgihit `g plusogurs gxpï`otgurs pnur plusogurs `gstoihthorgs
`ojjïrgits
`ojjïrgits.. Hprí
Hpríss cgttg pmhsg, ui trhispn
trhispnrt
rt phr lnt cnkplgt gst gjjgc
gjjgctuï
tuï pnur trhispnrtgr
trhispnrtgr lgs
 prn`uots cnllgctïs `g lh plhtgjnrkg `g ernupheg æ lh plhtgjnrkg `g `ïernupheg.
`ïernupheg. @his lh
 plhtgjnrkg `g `ïernupheg, l‟nrehioshtoni `g lh lovrhosni `gs khrcmhi`osgs hux `gstoihthorgs
joihux gst gjjgctuïg.

2.2.3
2.2.3 Lh kgssh
kgsshegr
egrog
og

Lh kgsshegrog gst hxïg sur lg trhispnrt `gs cnlos `g knois `g trnos tniigs. Lgs prn`uots
snit gilgvïs, ernupïs, `ïernupïs gt `ostrobuïs æ lgurs `gstoihthorgs rgspgctojs. Lh kgsshegrog
`ojjírg `u ernupheg phr lg jhot qug lgs gilívgkgits ig snit phs gjjgctuïs æ lh `gkhi`g, khos æ
mgurg joxg.

8?PHANW@DNW.P, Kïtmn`gs `g kn`ïloshtoni gt `‟nptokoshtoni phr rgcmgrcmg æ vnosoihegs vhrohblgs pnur lg prnblíkg `g
cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Vrn`uctoqug, uiovgrsotï `g Bnr`ghux. 2680, p. 86-88 .
85
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

@‟hutrg phrt, lg trhotgkgit `gs khrcmhi`osgs hu sgoi `gs plhtgjnrkgs gst gjjgctuï shis
stncaheg.
2.2.0 Prhispnrt
Prhispnrt gxprgss
gxprgss

Lg trhispnrt gxprgss hssurg lg trhispnrt `gs cnlos `'ui pno`s oijgrogur h trnos tniigs,
@his sni nrehioshton
nrehioshtoni,
i, ol gst trís prncmg `g lh kgsshegrog
kgsshegrog.. OO gi `ojjí
`ojjírg
rg proicophlgkgi
proicophlgkgitt phr lh
ehrhitog `‟gxïcutoni `u trhispnrt `his ui `ïlho cnitrhctugl gxprokhblg gi mgurg nu gi `gko-
 dnuriïg.
3. Lh egstoni
egstoni `g
`g lh cmhoig
cmhoig lneostoq
lneostoqug
ug

L'nbdgctoj `g lh khxokoshtoni `gs pgrjnrkhicgs `‟uig cmhoig lneostoqug giegi`rg lh

iïcgssotg `‟ui polntheg h`hptg `g cgllg-co, Cg polntheg husso hppglï egstoni `g lh cmhoig
lneostoqug gst `ïsoeiï `his lh lottïrhturg hielhosg phr lg tgrkg SCK pnur « supply Cmhoi
Khihegkgit ±. @g inkbrgusgs gt `ovgrsgs `ïjoiotonis gxostgit pnur lh egstoni `g lh cmhoig
lneostoqug.

Gllgs
Gllgs `ïp
`ïpgi`
gi`git
git `u `nkhoi
`nkhoigg ``‟ït
‟ïtu`g
u`g huqug
huqugll gll
gllgs
gs sg rhp
rhppn
pnrtg
rtgit.
it. Inu
Inuss prïs
prïsgi
gitni
tniss
quglqugs `ïjoiotonis ossugs `g lh lottïrhturg.
Lh egstoni `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug gst « lh `ïkhrcmg pgrkgtthit l‟oitïerhtoni `‟uiotïs
nrehioshtoniigllgs lg lnie `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug gt lh cnnr`oihtoni `gs jlux pmysoqugs,
oijn
oijnrk
rkht
hton
onii
iigl
glss gt joih
joihic
icog
ogrs
rs `his
`his lg butt `g sh
bu shto
tosj
sjho
horg
rg lg cn
cnis
isnk
nkkh
khtg
tgur
ur jo
joih
ihll gt
`‟hkïlonrgr lh cnkpïtotovg `g lh cmhoig `his sni gisgkblg ±26.
« Wi gi
gisgk
sgkblg
blg `‟h
`‟hppr
pprnc
ncmgs
mgs utolosï
utolosïgs
gs pnur
pnur oit
oitïe
ïergr
rgr gjjoch
gjjochcg
cgkgi
kgitt lgs jnurio
jnuriossg
ssgurs
urs,, lgs
 prn`uctgurs, lgs `ostrobutgurs gt lgs `ïthollhits `g jhåni æ ehrhitor lh prn`uctoni gt lh
`o
`ost
stro
robu
buton
tonii `gs
`gs prn`
prn`uo
uots
ts joio
joioss hu bni
bni kn
knkg
kgit
it,, hu bn
bnii gi
gi`r
`rno
not,
t, gi bn
bnii
iigg qu
quhi
hitot
totï,
ï, gi
28
rgspgcthit lgs gxoegicgs `gs clogits joihux, gt cg æ knoi`rg cnut ± .
L'oitïrät `u Supply Cmhoi Khihegkgit (SCK) gst `g jhcolotgr lgs vgitgs gi pnsotoniihit
cnrrgctgkgit lgs prn`uots gi bniig quhitotï, hu bni gi`rnot, hu knkgit nÿ lg clogit gi h
 bgsnoi gt gijoi æ knoi`rg cnut. Lg proicophl nbdgctoj `u SCK gst `'hllnugr gjjochcgkgit lgs
rgssnurcg
rgssnurcgss `g prn`uct
prn`uctoni,
oni, `ost
`ostrobuton
robutoni,
i, trhis
trhispnrt
pnrt gt `‟oijn
`‟oijnrkhton
rkhtoni,
i, gi prïsgicg
prïsgicg `‟nbdgctoj
`‟nbdgctojss
cnijloctugls, `his lg but `‟httgoi`rg lg iovghu `g sgrvocg `gkhi`ï phr lgs clogits hu plus bhs
 prox.

26 SPH@PLGR.M gt AOLEGR.C,
stu`ogs, 3gkg g`otoni, 2686, p. 83. Supply cmhoi khihegkgit hi` h`vhicg` plhiioie4 cnicgpt, kn`gls, snjtwhrg, hi` chsg
28
SOKCMO-LGZO.@ gt AHKOISAG_.V, @gsoeioie hi` Khiheoie tmg Supply Cmhoi4 cnicgpts, strhtgeogs, hi` chsg stu`ogs,
2663, p. 82.
8=
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Cgs `ïjoiotonis pgrkgttgit `g kgttrg gi gxgreug uig chrhctïrostoqug proicophlg `g lh

egstoni `g lh ccmhoig
mhoig lneostoqug gi thit qug
qug knygi `‟oitïerhtoni `g l'gisgkblg `gs phrtgihorgs
qug snit 4 lgs jnuriossgurs, lgs prn`uctgurs, lgs `ostrobutgurs gt lg clogit joihl. Cgttg oitïerhtoni
vosg æ l‟nptokoshtoni `gs `ojjïrgitgs jnictonis `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug `his lg but `'hkïlonrgr lh
cnkpïtotovotï `gs gitrgprosgs.

3.8 Lh jnictoni `ostrobutoni/trhispnrt

`ostrobutoni/trhispnrt

Lh phr
phrtog
tog `ostrob
`ostrobuto
utoni
ni `his
`his lh jnicto
jnictoni
ni trhispn
trhispnrt/`
rt/`ost
ostrob
robuton
utonii cn
cniso
isostg
stg æ ïcnulg
ïcnulgrr lgs
 prn`uots joios vgrs lgs clogits joihux. Gllg iïcgssotg l‟gxïcutoni `‟ui gisgkblg `'hctovotïs gt lh
egstoni
egstoni `gs rïsgh
rïsghux
ux `g `ostrob
`ostrobutoni
utoniss tgllgs
tgllgs qug lgs plhtg
plhtgjnrkgs
jnrkgs `g ernupheg/
ernupheg/`ïer
`ïernuphe
nupheg.
g. Lgs
hctovotïs cnicgrigit rgspgctovgkgit lh rïcgptoni `gs cnkkhi`gs, lh `ïjoiotoni `gs `ïlhos `g
lovrhosni, lh plhiojochtoni `gs lovrhosnis gt l'gxpï`otoni.
Lh phrtog
phrtog trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrt `his
`his lh jnicto
jnictoni
ni `ostrob
`ostrobuto
utoni/
ni/trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrt sg `ï
`ïcnk
cnkpns
pnsgg gi trn
trnos
os
 proicophlgs hctovotïs 4 lg `okgisoniigkgit
`okgisoniigkgit `u rïsghu `g trhispnrt, lh plhiojochtoni `gs

tnuriïgs, lh egstoni `g lh jlnttg `g vïmoculgs.

- Lg `okgisoniigkgit `u rïsghu `u trhispnrt cnisostg phr gxgkplg æ `ïtgrkoigr lgs i œu`s nu
snkkgts succgssojs `u rïsghu `g trhispnrt æ vosotgr.
- Lh plhiojochtoni `gs tnuriïgs h pnur nbdgt lh `ïtgrkoihtoni `gs tnuriïgs `‟uig jlnttg `g
vïmoculgs
vïmoculgs mnkneíi
mnkneíigg nu mïtïrne
mïtïrneíig
íig hjoi `g shtos
shtosjhorg
jhorg lh `gkhi`g
`gkhi`g `‟ui gisgkblg
gisgkblg `g clogits.
clogits.
Lh `gkhi`g pgut cnisostgr gi ui trhispnrt pnoit æ pnoit `'ui nbdgt æ ui hutrg, nÿ `'uig
`gkhi`g
`gkhi`g `‟oitgrvgi
`‟oitgrvgitoni
toni (khoi
(khoitgih
tgihicg,
icg, rïph
rïphrhtoni
rhtoni),
), gtc. L'nbdgctoj
L'nbdgctoj gst `g `ïtgrkoig
`ïtgrkoigrr pnur 
cmhqug vïmoculg `g lh jlnttg uig jguollg `g rnutg quo pgrkgt, tnut gi shtosjhoshit lgs `gkhi`gs
`gs clogits, `g rï`uorg lgs cnuts `g trhispnrt. Lh plhiojochtoni pgrkgt hoiso `g jhorg `g khioírg

hitocophtnorg `gs hrbotrhegs gt ïquolobrhegs iïcgsshorgs gi jnictoni `g lh chphcotï `g trhispnrt

`ospnioblg gt `u thux gjjgctoj `u rgkplossheg `gs vïmoculgs.
Vnur jhorg `u trhispnrt ui vïrothblg vgctgur `g cnkpïtotovotï gt `g pgrjnrkhicg, lgs
`ïcosoniihorgs `novgit prgi`rg plusogurs `ïcosonis quo snit `‟nr`rgs strhtïeoqugs, thctoqugs,
npïrhtoniigls gt tgkps rïgl.22
3.2 Lg iovghu `g `ïcosoni npïrhtoniigl
Lgs `ïcosonis
`ïcosonis `‟nr`rg npïrhtoniigllgs rglhtovgs hu polnthe
polnthegg `gs `ojjïrg
`ojjïrgitgs
itgs jnictonis `g
`g lh
cmhoig lneostoqug gi eïiïrhl gt `u trhispnrt gi phrtoculogr cnuvrgit ui mnrozni `g quglqugs
 dnurs h givorni uig sgkhoig.

22PHANW@DNW.P, Kïtmn`gs `g kn`ïloshtoni gt `‟nptokoshtoni phr rgcmgrcmg æ vnosoihegs vhrohblgs pnur lg prnblíkg `g
PHANW@DNW.P,
cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Vrn`uctoqug, uiovgrsotï `g Bnr`ghux. 2680, p. 80 .

8?
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

OO s‟heot oco `gs `ïcosonis quo pnrtgit sur lgs tnuriïgs quo sgrnit gjjgctovgkgit eïiïrïgs
 pnur shtosjhorg lgs `gkhi`gs `g trhispnrt. Suotg æ l'nccurrgicg `‟ui hlïh nu æ ui ïvíigkgit
 pgrturbhtgur quo gkpäcmg l'gxïcutoni inrkhlg `'uig tnuriïg oiotohlgkgit prïvug, ol pgut ätrg
iïcgsshorg `g rgcnijoeurgr uig tnuriïg `g trhispnrt pnur ehrhitor uig cgrthoig pgrjnrkhicg.
Lh `ïcosoni pnrthit sur lh iïcgssotg `'uig rgcnijoeurhtoni gst `otg « tgkps rïgl ± gt
cnuvrg ui mnrozni `g tgkps hllhit `g lh koiutg æ 8 'mgurg gi jnictoni `g lh pnlotoqug cmnosog.
Gi cnkplïkgit
cnkplïkgit `g lh prosg `g `ïcos
`ïcosoni
oni co-`gss
co-`gssus
us prïsgi
prïsgitïg.
tïg. Vnur hjjoig
hjjoigr,
r, hkïlonrgr 
hkïlonrgr 
gt eïrgr `g khioírg gjjochcg lg trhispnrt, `g inuvgllgs hpprncmgs nit ïtï prnpnsïgs nu snit gi
cnurss kosg gi plhc
cnur plhcg.
g. Vnur inus gi cnivhoicrg
cnivhoicrg,, inus inus prnpnsn
prnpnsnis
is `g prïsgitgr
prïsgitgr quglqug
quglqug
uigs.23
0. Lgs prhtoqugs hctugllgs gt lgs inuvgllgs tgi`hicgs `his lg trhispnrt

Lgss inu
Lg inuvgl
vgllgs
lgs tgi
tgi`hi
`hicgs
cgs nbs
nbsgrv
grvïg
ïgss `his
`his l'n
l'nreh
rehios
ioshto
htoni
ni `gs trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrtss sni
snitt `'nr`r
`'nr`rgg
nrehioshtoniigl nu tgcminlneoqug.

0.8 L'gxtgrihloshtoni
L'gxtgrihloshtoni `gs cmhoigs `‟hpprnvosoniigkgits
`‟hpprnvosoniigkgits
Lh tgi`
tgi`hi
hicg
cg hctu
hctugl
gllg
lg `g
`gss gitr
gitrgp
gpro
rosg
sgss gs
gstt æ l‟
l‟gx
gxtg
tgri
rihl
hlos
osht
hton
onii `g lg
lgur
urss cm
cmho
hoig
igss
`'hpprnvosoniigkgits. µVhr cg prncgssus, gllgs sg rgcgitrgit sur lgur cœur `g kïtogr gt snus-
trhotgit
trhotgit lgs hctovotïs cni
cniigxg
igxgs,
s, `nit lg trhispnrt. L‟nbdgctoj
L‟nbdgctoj gst `g rïhlosgr `gs ïcni
ïcninkogs
nkogs
`'ïcmgllgs sur lg trhispnrt.

0.2 Lh prhtoqug `g lh kutuhloshtoni

@'hprís lg `octoniihorg Vgtot Rnbgrt, lh kutuhloshtoni cnisostg æ « rgphrtor æ ïehlotï gitrg

lgs kgkbrgs
kgkbrgs `‟ui ernupg ±. @ïc
@ïcloiïg
loiïg hu sgis `g lh cmh
cmhoig
oig lneostoqug,
lneostoqug, cgttg `ïjoiotoni
`ïjoiotoni pgut
pgut

ätrg pgråug cnkkg lh kosg gi cnkkui phr plusogurs gitrgprosgs `g lgurs rgssnurcgs hjoi
`'nptokosg
`'nptokosgrr uig jnic
jnictoni
toni phrtoc
phrtoculoír
uloírgg `g lgur cmhoi
cmhoigg ln
lneostoq
eostoqug
ug rïcopr
rïcoprnqug.
nqug. Cgttg hssncohto
hssncohtoni
ni
 pgut ätrg iïcgsshorg gi tgkps `g crosg nu `his ui cnitgxtg `g kni`ohloshtoni nu `g
cnicurrgicg gxhcgrbïg pnur hccï`gr æ ui sgrvocg nu httgoi`rg ui nbdgctoj oihccgssoblg `g
jhåni oi`ovo`ugllg.20

Hu iovghu `u trhispnrt, cgttg tgi`hicg pgut s‟nbsgrvgr phr uig lneoqug `g kutuhloshtoni `his
lhqugl
lhqugllg
lg lg trh
trhisp
ispnrtg
nrtgur,
ur, lgs gxp
gxpï`o
ï`otgu
tgurs
rs gt lgs `g
`gstoi
stoihth
hthorg
orgss kgt
kgttgi
tgitt gi cnk
cnkkui
kui lgurs
lgurs
rgssnurcgs knbolgs (vïmoculgs) gt lgurs oijrhstructurgs lneostoqugs (gitrgpðts, plhtgjnrkgs).

23
PHANW@DNW.P, Kïtmn`gs `g kn`ïloshtoni gt `‟nptokoshtoni phr rgcmgrcmg æ vnosoihegs vhrohblgs pnur lg prnblíkg `g
cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Vrn`uctoqug, uiovgrsotï `g Bnr`ghux. 2680, p. 87.
20
Opo`. , p.8: .
26
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

@hiss ui tgl cni

@hi cnitgxt
tgxtg,
g, lgs oijrhs
oijrhstru
tructu
cturgs
rgs lne
lneost
ostoqu
oqugs
gs ig snit
snit plus
plus uioq
uioqugk
ugkgi
gitt `gs sotgs
sotgs
`‟gxpï`otoni gt `g rïcgptoni, khos `gvogiigit `gs pnoits `g trhisbnr`gkgit.

@his cgs pnoits, lg ernupheg/ `ïernupheg hoiso qug lg trhisjgrt `g prn`uots gitrg vïmoculgs
`ojjïrgits snit hutnrosïs so cglh pgrkgt `‟hppnrtgr `g lh jlgxobolotï gt uig rï`uctoni `gs
`osthicgs phrcnurugs.

0.3 Lg crnss-`ncaoie

Lg crnss-`ncaoie (C@)   27gst uig strhtïeog lneostoqug `his lhqugllg lgs prn`uots gilgvïs
cmgz ui gisgkblg `g jnuriossgurs snit "cnisnlo`ïs" lnrs `'ui phssheg phr uig plhtgjnrkg
lneostoqug (nu gitrgpðts) hvhit `‟ätrg lovrgr gi hvhl cmgz ui gisgkblg `g `gstoihthorgs. Lh
cnis
cnisnl
nlo`
o`ht
hton
onii cnis
cnisos
ostg
tg æ rï
rïcg
cgpt
pton
onii
iigr
gr vgrs
vgrs l‟gi
l‟gitr
trgp
gpðt
ðt lg
lgss pr
prn`
n`uo
uots
ts pr
prnv
nvgi
gihi
hitt `g
`gss
`ojjïr
`ojjïrgit
gitss vïm
vïmocu
oculgs
lgs lgs trog
trogrr gt lgs clh
clhssg
ssgrr gi jni
jnicto
ctoni
ni `g lgu
lgurs
rs `gs
`gstoih
toihton
tonis
is joihlg
joihlgs.
s.

@his cgrthoi
cgrthoiss chs, lgs prn`uots
prn`uots pg
pguvgi
uvgitt ätrg knkg
knkgithi
ithiïkgi
ïkgitt stncaïs.
stncaïs. Prís
Prís snuvgit,
snuvgit,
l‟gitrgpðt gst husso utolosï cnkkg `ïpðt `g vïmoculgs. H cgt gjjgt, lgs vïmoculgs cmhreïs
`‟gjjgctugr lh cnllgctg gt lh `ostrobutoni `gs prn`uots phrtgit gt rgitrgit æ l‟gitrgpðt.

Wi cgrthoi inkbrg `‟hutgurs nit trhvhollï l‟oitïrät `g prhtoqugr lg crnss-`ncaoie. Lgs

hvhi
hvhithe
thegs
gs `‟ui
`‟uigg tgllg
tgllg prht
prhtoq
oqug
ug sn
snit
it44 lh rï`u
rï`uct
cton
onii `u io
iovg
vghu
hu `g
`gss st
stnc
ncas
as,, `g
`gss cn
cnut
utss `g
 prn`uctoni, gt `u cnut `g `ostrobutoni 1 ïcninkog `g tgkps erâcg æ lh rï`uctoni `gs `ïlhos
`‟hpprnvosoniigkgit 1 l‟huekgithtoni `g lh `urïg `gs prn`uots `his lg rhyni, l'huekgithtoni
gi loiïhorg `g lh `urïg `g vog `gs prn`uots inthkkgit lnrsqu'ol s'heot `g prn`uot jrhos. Lg crnss-
`ncaoie prïsgitg iïhiknois ui gisgkblg `'oicnivïiogits 4 uig prïphrhtoni koiutogusg `gs
 phlgttgs `not ätrg gjjgctuïg gi hknit phr lg jnuriossgur pnur jhcolotgr lh cnisnlo`htoni `g

cgllg
cgllgs-c
s-coo hu crn
crnss-
ss-`nc
`nca.
a. Cgl
Cglhh oi`
oi`uot
uot uig cm
cmhre
hregg sup
supplï
plïkgi
kgithor
thorgg `g eg
egston
stoni.
i.

27
KHROG.C gt BGHWLOGW.K, succís `u crnss-`ncaoie, vnl.86, 2gkg ï`otoni,
BGHWLOGW.K, @ïjoiotoni gt hihlysg `gs cni`otonis sg succís
Chih`h, 2662.
28
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Joeurg I¶67 4 lg proicopg `u crnss-`ncaoie.

Snurcg4 ARGIE-ZOCPNR.B gt CMGI.J, Pmg bgigjots nj h crnss-`ncaoie `glovgry strhtgey4 h supply cmhoi cnllhbnrhtoni
hpprnhcm, 266=, p.8:.

0.0 Lg trhisbnr`gkgit

Lg trhisbnr`gkgit rgprïsgitg l‟hctoni `g trhisjïrgr `gs khrcmhi`osgs nu `gs vnyhegurs

`‟ui bhtghu, `‟ui trhoi, `'ui vïmoculg æ ui hutrg. @his lg trhispnrt rnutogr `g khrcmhi`osgs, lg
trhisbnr`gkgit gst gjjgctuï gitrg vïmoculgs `his ui but `g jlgxobolotï gt `g rï`uctoni `g cnut.
Lh jlgxobolotï `ïcnulg `u proicopg käkg `u trhisbnr`gkgit. 2:
Gi gjjgt, gi hutnroshit lg trhisjgrt `g khrcmhi`osgs gitrg vïmoculgs, ol gst pnssoblg
qu‟uigg khrcmh
qu‟ui khrcmhi`osg
i`osg sno
snott lovrïg phr ui vïmoculg quo ig l‟h phs cmhreï gi hknit. Hu knois
`guxx rho
`gu rhosni
sniss okp
okpnrt
nrthit
hitgs
gs pgu
pguvgi
vgitt dus
dustojo
tojogr
gr lh prh
prhtoqu
toqugg `u trhi
trhisbn
sbnr`g
r`gkgi
kgitt 4 uig phi
phiig
ig `u
vïmoculg hyhit cnllgctg lg prn`uot pgut iïcgssotgr lg trhisjgrt `gs khrcmhi`osgs qu‟ol trhispnrtg
vgrs
vgrs ui hutr
hutrgg vvïm
ïmoc
ocul
ulg.
g. Wi
Wigg hhut
utrg
rg dust
dustoj
ojoc
ocht
hton
onii pg
pgut
ut-ä
-ätr
trgg `'nr
`'nr`r
`rgg ïcn
ïcnin
inko
koqu
qugg vno
vnor 
r 
ïcnl
ïcnlne
neoq
oqug
ug.. Gi gjjg
gjjgt,
t, `h
`his
is uig
uig lne
lneoq
oqug
ug `g plhi
plhioj
ojoc
ocht
hton
onii `g
`gss tn
tnur
uriï
iïgs
gs `g vï
vïmo
mocu
culg
lgs,
s, lg

2:
CHRNI.D, Strhtïeog `g lovrhosni `orgctg `his uig cmhoig lneostoqug oitgrihtonihlg, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 H`koiostrhtoni `gs
hjjhorgs, uiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, Knitrïhl, 2682, p. 53.
22
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

trhisbnr`gkgit i‟gst hutnrosï qug so cglh pgrkgt `g rï`uorg lg inkbrg `g vïmoculgs utolosgs nu
lh `osthicg phrcnurug
phrcnurug.. @his cg chs, lg trhis
trhisbnr`g
bnr`gkgit
kgit gst gjjgctuï `g khioírg nppnrt
nppnrtuiostg
uiostg..
Lg trhisbnr`gkgit pgut husso ätrg oitïrgsshit `his lh rï`uctoni `gs aolnkítrgs æ vo`g.
Bogi qug prhtoquï `g khioírg plus okpnrthitg phr `gs cnkpheiogs `g trhispnrt `g
cnurrogrs nu `g cnlos, lg trhisbnr`gkgit pgoig æ sg `ïvglnppgr.

H intrg iovghu `g cniihosshicg `g lh lottïrhturg, quglqugs rhosnis pguvgit dustojogr cg

jhot 4 lg cnu
cnutt `g khiu
khiutgitoni
tgitoni lloï
oï hu trh
trhisjgr
isjgrtt `gs prn
prn`uots
`uots gt
gt lh iïcgssotï
iïcgssotï `‟ui
`‟ui nut
nutol
ol `'ho`g
`'ho`g æ lh
`ïcosoni pnur ho`gr lgs
l gs `ïcosoniihorgs.

Lg cnut `g khiutgitoni gst ïlgvï `his lh kgsurg nu cnitrhorgkgit hu crnss-`ncaoie, lgs

 prn`uots ig snit phs nbloehtnorgkgit trhisjïrïs gi tnthlotï nu gi khssg hu pnoit `g
trhisbnr`gkgit. Ol jhut, lnchlosgr, `ïcmhregr gt rgcmhregr lg bni prn`uot, ol jhut gisuotg hloeigr 
nu kgttrg æ dnur lg systíkg `‟oijnrkhtonis, gtc. sur lg plhi `ïcosoniigl, cglh pgut pnsgr `gs
`ïcosonis `g egstoni hux `ïcosoniihorgs quo `novgit cmnosor phrko tnutgs lgs khrcmhi`osgs

lgsqugllgs trhisbnr`gr, æ qugllg `htg, gt hvgc qugls vïmoculgs.

7. Lg Prhispnrt Khihegkgit Systgk

Lg PKS25 gst ui typg `g lneocogl `g egstoni `g trhispnrt `g plus gi plus utolosï phr lgs
gitrgprosgs gt quo rgpnsg sur l‟utoloshtoni `gs IPOC (Inuvgllgs Pgcminlneogs `g l‟Oijnrkhtoni
gt `g Cnkkuiochtoni) gst lg PKS.

Lgs PKS nu systíkgs `g egstoni `g trhispnrt snit `gs lneocogls `‟ho`g æ lh `ïcosoni quo
 pgrkgttgit hu `ïcosoniihorg, `g eïrgr lg trhispnrt. @his lg `ïthol, lgs PKS suppnrtgit `g
inkbrgux hspgcts loïs æ lh egstoni `u trhispnrt 4 hctovotï `'gxpï`otonis, `ncukgit `g trhvhol,

ïtoqugtheg `gs prn`uots

prn`uots æ trhispnrtgr, jhcturhtoni, gtc.
gtc. Lgs cmhkp
cmhkpss `‟hctovotïs cnuvgrts phr
phr ui
PKS snit trís vhrohblgs gt `ïpgi`git `g lh cnkpheiog quo l‟hcquogrt.

Cgrtho
Cgrthois
is cm
cmhkp
hkpss pguvg
pguvgit
it ätr
ätrgg npt
nptoni
oniigl
iglss gt cg
cgrth
rthoig
oigss cn
cnkph
kphei
eiogs
ogs pgu
pguvgi
vgitt hc
hcmgt
mgtgr 
gr 
 plusogurs PKS pnur hssurgr lh egstoni `‟ui gisgkblg `‟hctovotïs.

Lg PKS hppnrtg uig rïpnisg æ lh pluphrt `gs qugstonis pnsïgs phr lh egstoni `u
trhispnrt suovhit lg iovghu `ïcosoniigl cniso`ïrgr 4 strhtïeoqug, thctoqug, npïrhtoniigl, gt
tgkps rïgl.

25
BRGUGR.H gt BWPPNI.A gt MGISMGR.@, H Mhi`bnna nj lneostoc hi` supply cmhoi khihegkgit, Igw _nra, 2668,
 p.85.
23
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

Hoiso, sur lg plhi strhtïeoqug, lg PKS ho`grh lg `ïcosoniihorg æ jhorg `gs cmnox `his lh
cnicg
cnicgpton
ptonii `u scmïk
scmïkhh npt
nptokh
okhll `g trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrt,, gi kgtthi
kgtthitt inthkk
inthkkgit
git l'h
l'hcc
ccgi
gitt sur lg typg
typg
gt l‟gkp
l‟gkplh
lhcg
cgkg
kgit
it `gs
`gs plht
plhtgj
gjnr
nrkg
kgss lne
lneos
ostoq
toqug
ugs.
s. Su
Surr lg plhi
plhi thctoq
thctoqug
ug lg PKS jnuri
jnuriot
ot hu
`ïcosonii
`ïcosoniihorg
horg `gs nutols `g sokulh
sokulhtoni
toni pnur tgstg
tgstgrr phr hvhicg `ojjïrgit
`ojjïrgitss plhi
plhiss `g trhispnrt
trhispnrt,, lg
cmno
cmnoxx `g jl
jlux
ux 4 `o
`org
rgct
ct nu ph
phrr crns
crnss-
s-`n
`nca
caoi
oiee. Su
Surr lg pl
plhi
hi np
npïr
ïrht
hton
onii
iigl
gl,, ol s‟he
s‟heot
ot `g
l‟ïlhbnrhtoni `gs tnuriïgs
tnuriïgs sur lg cnurt tgrkg eïiïrhlgkgit
eïiïrhlgkgit quglqugs mg
mgurgs
urgs nu uig dnuriïg. H
cmhqug iovghu `ïcosoniigl. L‟gisgkblg `gs cnitrhoitgs pnrthit sur lgs vïmoculgs gt lgs clogits
sn
snit
it pros
prosgs
gs gi cnkp
cnkptg
tg `g khio
khioír
írgg pprï
rïco
cosg
sg.. Su
Surr lg pl
plhi
hi `g l‟
l‟gx
gxïc
ïcut
uton
onii gt
gt `u
`u suo
suovo
vo,,
l'ïvnlutoni `gs IPOC pgrkgt hu PKS `g suovrg gi tgkps rïgl l'gxïcutoni `gs tnuriïgs.

Wi hutrg hvhitheg ini iïeloeghblg `u PKS gst sni oitgrhctoni pnssoblg hvgc lg UKC
(Uhrgmnusg Khihegkgit Systgk). Lg UKC gst æ l‟gitrgpðt cg qug lg PKS gst hu trhispnrt.
Lg UKC prïsgitg `g inkbrgusgs jnictoniihlotïs quo snit 4 lh egstoni eïiïrhlg `g l‟gitrgpðt,
lh egstoni `gs stncas, lh rïcgptoni `gs hrtoclgs `his lg sotg `‟gitrgpnsheg, lh prïphrhtoni gt lgs
gxpï`otonis `g cnkkhi`gs.
cnkkhi`gs. Gi oitïerhit lg PKS hvgc
hvgc lg UKC, ni pgut nptokosgr lg thu
thuxx `g
rgkplossh
rgkplossheg
eg `gs vïmocul
vïmoculgs.
gs. Hu iovghu `u crnss-`nca
crnss-`ncaoie,
oie, lg PKC cnkk
cnkkuioqu
uioqugg hu UKC lgs
 prn`uots gi cnurs `‟hrrovïg `his l'gitrgpðt cg quo pgrkgt hoiso `'hitocopgr cgrthoigs hctonis
tgllgs qug
qug lh prïphr
prïphrhtoni
htoni `gs ggkplhc
kplhcgkgit
gkgitss `g stnca
stncaheg
heg 1 lg UKC pgut ïehlgkgi
ïehlgkgitt oijnrkgr 
oijnrkgr 
lg PKS `u tg
tgkps
kps iï
iïcgssh
cgsshorg
org pnur
pnur trhotgr `g
`gss cnkkh
cnkkhi`gs
i`gs ``gg khioí
khioírg
rg æ cg qug cgluo-c
cgluo-coo lgs
oitíerg `his sni plhi `g
`g rnutheg. L'hihlysg `g l'mostnroqug `g
`gss prïphrhtonis `g cnkkh
cnkkhi`g
i`g `u
UKC pgut pgrkgttrg hu PKS `'hitocopgr cgrthois bgsnois `g trhispnrt æ knygi tgrkg.

Pnutgjnos, lg PKS `u jhot `g sni lhreg spgctrg `‟hpplochtonis pgut ätrg cnkplgxg æ
utolosgr.
utolosgr. Sni cnut ïlg
ïlgvï
vï `g l‟nr`rg `g plusog
plusogurs
urs kollogrs `‟gurns
`‟gurns æ `gs `ozhoigs
`ozhoigs `g kollonis

`‟gurn
`‟gurnss gkpäcm
gkpäcmgg sni `ïpln
`ïplnogk
ogkgit
git gt sni uto
utolos
loshto
htoni
ni `hi
`hiss lh plu
pluphr
phrtt `gs gitrgp
gitrgpros
rosgs
gs `g
trhispnrt.

Lgs hihlysgs prïcï`gkkgit gjjgctuïgs thit sur lh structurhtoni `gs iovghux `g `ïcosonis,
lgs prhtoq
prhtoqugs
ugs hc
hctug
tugllg
llgss gt lgs inuvgl
inuvgllgs
lgs tgi`hi
tgi`hicg
cgss `hi
`hiss lg trhisp
trhispnrt
nrt cnicn
cnicnurg
urgit
it tnutgs
tnutgs æ
hkïlonrgr lh pgrjnrkhicg `u trhispnrt.

 Inus inus prnpnsnis `‟hjjoigr cgttg hihlysg phr lh kosg gi   œuvrg `‟oi`ochtgurs
 pgrkgtthit lh kgsurg `g pgrjnrkhicg.

L'ïvhluhtoni `g lh pgrjnrkhicg `u trhispnrt gst uig thcmg iïcgsshorg pnur hkïlonrgr sni

gjjochcotï gt phr vnog `g cnisïqugicg cgllg `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug `his sni gisgkblg. Cgttg
ïvhluh
ïvh luhton
tonii iïc
iïcgs
gssotg
sotg `hi
`hiss lg `nk
`nkhoi
hoigg `u trh
trhisp
ispnrt
nrt `g `ospns
`ospnsgr
gr `gs oijnrkh
oijnrkhtoni
toniss su
surgs
rgs 4
20
 

Cmhpotrg O Eïiïrhlotïs sur lh lneostoqug

l‟gjjochcotï hvgc lhqugllg lgs khtoírgs prgkoírgs snit trhisjnrkïgs gi sgrvocg nu prn`uots 1 lh
jhåni `nit lgs prn`uots snit jnurios hux clogits gt lgur `gerï `g shtosjhctoni.

Joeurg I¶6:4 lg cgrclg vgrtugux `u trhispnrt.

Snurcg  4 KHK_.G, Intgs `g cnurs4 lh egstoni `gs trhispnrts gt lgs PKS, Jrhicg, 2686, p. 80 .

Cniclusoni 4

Lg but `g cg prgkogr cmhpotrg ïthot `g prïcosgr lg pno`s `g lh lneostoqug `his lgs

gitr
gitrgp
gpro
rosg
sgss kn
kn`g
`gri
rigs
gs,, lh kh
khotr
otros
osgg `gs
`gs jlu
jluxx lneo
lneost
stoq
oqug
ug gs
gstt ui
uigg iï
iïcg
cgss
ssotï
otï hb
hbsn
snlu
lugg pn
pnur 
ur 
l‟gitr
l‟gitrgp
gpros
rosgg prï
prïcos
cosïkg
ïkgit
it lgs jlux
jlux pmysoq
pmysoqug
ug quo sni
snitt hssurï
hssurïss phr lgs `ojjïrg
`ojjïrgits
its kn`
kn`gs
gs `g
trhispnrt.

Lg trhispnrt dnug ui rðlg clï

clï `his lh pgrjnrkhicg `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug. Gi gjjgt, ol gst
lg suppnrt `u `ïplhcgkgit `gs jlux pmysoqugs `his cgttg cmhoig `gpuos l‟hcquosotoni `gs
khtoírgs prgkoírgs, dusqu‟æ lh `ostrobutoni `u prn`uot joihl hux clogits nu cnisnkkhtgurs.
Hudnur`‟muo, lh khotrosg `g l‟hctovotï `u trhispnrt gst uig iïcgssotï hbsnlug pnur `gs oi`ustrogs
sudg
sudgttg
ttgss æ uig
uig cnic
cnicurr
urrgi
gicg
cg gxhc
gxhcgr
grbï
bïgg gt `g
`gss pr
prnb
nblï
lïkh
khtoq
toqug
ugss gi
givor
vorni
niig
igkg
kgit
ithl
hlgs
gs gt
ïcninkoqugs.

27
 

C mh
mhp
po tr g O O 4 ch`r g tmïn
mïnr o qug sur lh tmïn
mïnr o g
`gs e r hpmgs
mgs
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Oitrn`uctoni

Pnutg gitrgprosg qu‟gllg qug snot sni `nkhoig `‟hctovotï, gllg gst hkgiïg æ jhorg jhcg æ
`gs prnblíkgs `g egstoni hu qunto`ogi. Ni cotg phrko cgs prnblíkgs, lgs cnuts `g trhispnrt quo
iïcgssotg l‟usheg `gs kïtmn`gs `‟nptokoshtoni `u trhispnrt quo oitgrvogiigit pnur hkïlonrgr lh
quhlotï gt huekgitgr lg prnjot.
Cgco snuloeig l‟okpnrthicg qu‟nccupg cg typg `g prnblíkg `his lh egstoni qunto`ogiig
`g l‟gitrgprosg. C‟gst pnur cgttg rhosni qug lg butg `g intrg trhvhol gst `g prïsgitgr lh tmïnrog
`gs erhpmgs, cgttg `grioírg inus ho`grh æ nptokosgr lgs cnuts `g trhispnrt.
@g cg jhot, cg cmhpotrg sgrh cnishcrï æ uig prïsgithtoni `g quglqug ïlïkgit `g bhsg `g lh
tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, hoiso lgs `ojjïrgits hlenrotmkgs `‟nptokoshtoni.

Sgctoni 8 4 oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

8. Mostnroqug
L‟mostnorg `g lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs `ïbutg pgut-ätrg hvgc lgs trhvhux `‟Gulgr hu ]ZOOOg
soíclg gt trnuvg sni nroeoig `his l‟ïtu`g `g cgrthois prnblíkgs, tgls qug cgluo `gs pnits `g
Aúioesbgre (lgs mhbothits `g Aúioesbgre sg `gkhi`hogit s‟ol ïthot pnssoblg, gi phrthit `‟ui
quhrtogr quglcniqug `g lh vollg, `g trhvgrsgr tnus lgs pnits shis phssgr `gux jnos phr lg käkg
gt `g rgvgior æ lgur pnoit `g `ïphrt), lh khrcmg `u chvhlogr sur l‟ïcmoquogr nu lg prnblíkg `g
cnlnroheg `g chrtgs. Lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs s‟gst hlnrs `ïvglnppïg `his `ovgrsgs `oscoploigs
tgllgs qug lh cmokog, lh bonlneog, lgs scogicgs sncohlgs. @gpuos lg `ïbut `u ]]g soíclg, gllg
cnistotug uig brhicmg æ phrt gitoírg `gs khtmïkhtoqugs, erâcg hux trhvhux `g Aúioe, Kgiegr,
Chylgy puos `g Bgreg gt `‟Gr`ús. @g khioírg eïiïrhlg, ui erhpmg pgrkgt `g rgprïsgitgr lh
struct
structurg
urg,, lgs cniigx
cniigxoni
oniss `‟ui
`‟ui gis
gisgkb
gkblg
lg cnk
cnkplg
plgxg
xg gi gxprokh
gxprokhit
it lgs rglhto
rglhtonis
nis git
gitrg
rg sgs
ïlïkgi
ïlïkgits
ts 4 rïs
rïsgh
ghuu `g cnk
cnkkui
kuioch
ochton
toni,
i, rïsgh
rïsghux
ux rnu
rnutog
togrs,
rs, oitg
oitgrhc
rhcton
tonii `g `ov
`ovgrs
grsgs
gs gs
gspíc
pícgs
gs
hiokhl
hiokhlgs
gs,, cor
corcuo
cuots
ts ïlg
ïlgctro
ctroqug
qugs.
s. Lg
Lgss erhpmg
erhpmgss cn
cnisto
istotug
tugit
it `nic
`nic uig kïtmn`
kïtmn`gg `g pgi
pgisïg
sïg quo
 pgrkgt `g kn`ïlosgr uig erhi`g vhroïtï ``gg prnblíkgs gi sg rhkgihit æ l‟ïtu`g `g snkkgts gt
`‟
`‟hr
hrcs
cs.. Lg
Lgss `g
`gri
riogr
ogrss trhvh
trhvhux
ux gi tmïn
tmïnrog
rog `gs
`gs erhp
erhpmg
mgss sn
snit
it sn
snuv
uvgi
gitt gj
gjjg
jgct
ctuï
uïss ph
phrr `g
`gss
oij
oijnrkhtocogis, `u jho
jhot `g l‟o
l‟okpnrthicg
icg qu‟y rg
rgvvät l‟
l‟hhspgct hle
lennrotm
tmk
koqug.
2=

2=
GROC.S, Intgs `g cnurs4 Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, Khrs 2662, p. 2 .

2:
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Joeurg I¶654 lgs 5 pnits `g lh vollg `g Anioiesbgre.

rcg 4  GROC.S, Intgs `g cnurs4 Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, Khrs 2662, p.8 .
 Snurcg
 Snu

2. @ïjoiotonis gt cnicgpts `g bhsg

2.8 Wi erhpmg

Wi erhpmg joio   E   ; (Z, G) gst `ïjoio phr l‟gisgkblg joio   Z   ; {v8, v2,..., vi} `nit lgs
ïlïkgits snit hppglïs  snkkgts  (vgrtocgs gi hielhos), gt phr l‟gisgkblg joio G ; {g 8, g 2,..., gk}
`nit lgs ïlïkgits snit hppglïs   hrätgs  (G`egs gi hielhos). Wig hrätg   g  `g l‟gisgkblg   G   gst
`ïjoiog phr uig phorg ini nr`niiïg `g snkkgts, hppglïs lgs gxtrïkotïs `g  g . So l‟hrätg  g  rglog
lgs snkkgts  h  gt  b, ni `orh qug cgs snkkgts snit  h`dhcgits, nu  oico`gits hvgc  g, nu bogi qug
l‟hrätg g  gst oico`gitg hvgc lgs snkkgts  h gt  b.
Ni hppgllg nr`rg `‟ui erhpmg lg inkbrg `g snkkgts  i  `g cg erhpmg2?.

2?
@O@OGR.K, Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, CRK, chmogrs I¶:, 2682, p. 3 .

25
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

2.2 Rgprïsgithtoni
Rgprïsgithtoni erhpmoqug

Lgs erhpmgs torgit lgur ink `u jhot qu‟ni pgut lgs rgprïsgitgr phr `gs `gssois. Æ cmhqug
snkkgt
snkkgt `g   E, ni jhot
jhot cnrr
cnrrgs
gspn
pni`
i`rg
rg ui pn
pnoi
oitt `o
`ost
stoi
oict
ct `u pl
plhi
hi gt ni rg
rglo
logg lg
lgss pn
pnoi
oits
ts
cnrrgspni`hit hux gxtrïkotïs `g cmhqug hrätg. Ol gxostg `nic uig oijoiotï `g rgprïsgithtonis
`‟ui erhpmg. Lgs hrätgs ig snit phs jnrcïkgit rgctoloeigs. So ni pgut `gssoigr ui erhpmg   E
`his lg plhi shis qu‟hucuig hrätg i‟gi cnupg uig hutrg (lgs hrätgs ig snit phs jnrcïkgit
rgctoloeigs), ni `ot qug  E  gst plhihorg. Lg erhpmg  E co-`gssus gst plhihorg.36

3. Xuglqugs typgs `g erhpmgs

Wi erhpmg gst  sokplg so hu plus uig hrätg rglog `gux snkkgts gt s‟ol i‟y h phs `g bnuclg
sur ui snkkgt.

Wi   kultoerhpmg  gs
 gstt `ïjoio s‟ol gxostg uig hrä
hrätg
tg quo rglog ui snkkg
snkkgtt æ luo-käkg (uig
bnuclg), nu plusogurs hrätgs rglohit lgs `gux käkgs snkkgts.

36 @O@OGR.K, Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, CRK, chmogrs I¶:, 2682, p.3 .

2=
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Wi erhpmg gst  cniigxg s‟ol gst pnssoblg, æ phrtor `g i‟okpnrtg qugl snkkgt, `g rgdnoi`rg
tnus lgs hutrgs gi suovhit lgs hrätgs.
Wi erhpmg  ini cniigxg  sg `ïcnkpnsg gi   cnkpnshitgs cniigxgs. Sur lg erhpmg co-
`gssnus, lgs cnkpnshitgs cniigxgs snit {8, 2, 3,0} gt {7,:} 38.

Wi erhp
erhpmg gstt   cnkplgt   32 s‟
mg gs s‟ol
ol gs
gstt sokp
sokplg
lg gt cm
cmhq
hqug
ug sn
snkk
kkgt
gt `u er
erhp
hpmg
mg gs
gstt rg
rgloï
loï

`orgctgkgit æ tnus lgs hutrgs snkkgts. Gt ol gst intï phr A i  nu i rgprïsgitg lg inkbrg `g
snkkgt.

Wi erhpmg gst  bophrto33 so sgs snkkgts pguvgit ätrg `ovosïs gi `gux gisgkblgs  ]  gt  _ ,
`g snrtg qug tnutgs lgs hrätgs `u erhpmg rglogit ui snkkgt `his  ]  æ ui snkkgt `his  _  (`his
l‟gxgkplg co-`gssnus, ni h  ] ; { 8, 3,7} gt  _  ; { 2,0}, nu vocg vgrsh).

38
32
CNRKGI.P gt LGOSGRSNI.C gt ROZGSP.R, Oitrn`uctoni æ l‟hlenrotmkoqug, ï`otonis @uini`, 8??5.
BNI@_.D gt KWRP_.W, Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, 2gkg ï`otoni, 2665, p.8: .
33 EOZR_.S SCMOG].P, Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, 2683, p.? .

2?
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

3.8 Erhpmg phrtogl gt snus-erhpmg

 Snot E ; (Z, G) ui erhpmg. Lg erhpmg E′ ; (Z, G′) gst ui erhpmg phrtogl `g E, so G′ gst
oiclus `his G. Hutrgkgit `ot, ni nbtogit E′ gi gilgvhit uig nu plusogurs hrätgs
hr ätgs hu erhpmg E.
Vnur ui snus-gisgkblg `g snkkgts H oiclus `his Z,  lg snus-erhpmg `g E oi`uot phr H
gst lg erhpmg E ; (H, G(H)) `nit l‟gisgkblg `gs snkkg
snkkgts
ts gst H gt l‟gisgkblg `gs hrätgs
hrätgs G(H)
gst jnrkï `g tnutgs lgs hrätgs `g E hyhit lgurs `gux gxtrïkotïs `his H. Hutrgkgit `ot, ni
nbtogit E′ gi gilgvhit ui nu plusogurs snkkgts hu erhpmg E, hoiso qug tnutgs lgs hrätgs
oico`gitgs æ cgs snkkgts.30

3.2 @gerïs
3.2.8 @gerï `‟ui snkkgt

Ni hppgllg  `gerï  `u snkkgt v, gt ni intg `(v), lg inkbrg `‟hrätgs oico`gitgs æ cg

snkkgt.
Rgkhrqug 4 Wig bnuclg sur ui snkkgt cnkptg `nublg hrätg. @his ui erhpmg sokplg, ni pgut
husso `ïjoior lg `gerï `‟ui snkkgt cnkkg ïthit lg inkbrg `g sgs vnosois (lh thollg `g sni
vnosoiheg).37
@his lg kultoerhpmg co-cnitrg, ni h lgs `gerïs 4

30
CNSPH.K, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Nptokoshtoni `his lgs erhpmgs, Vhros, 2680, p.: .
37
MHKRNWIO.B, @ïshkboeuîshtoni `his lh typojochtoni `g `niiïgs tgxtugllgs æ `gs jois `‟hihlysgs chtïenrogllgs, tmísg `g
@nctnrht 4 Khtmïkhtoqugs gt oijnrkhtoqug, uiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, 266=, p. 38.
36
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

3.2.2 @gerï `‟ui erhpmg

Lg `gerï `‟ui erhpmg gst lg `gerï khxokuk `g tnus sgs snkkgts. @his l‟gxgkplg co-
`gssnus, lg `gerï `u erhpmg gst 0, æ chusg `u snkkgt v3.

Wi erhpmg `nit tnus lgs snkkgts nit lg käkg `gerï gst `ot   rïeulogr. So lg `gerï
cnkkui gst a, hlnrs ni `ot qug lg erhpmg gst a-rïeulogr. 3:
0. Cmhéigs gt cyclgs

Wig  cmhéig  `his E, gst uig suotg hyhit pnur ïlïkgits hltgrihtovgkgit `gs snkkgts gt
`gs hrätgs, cnkkgiåhit gt sg tgrkoihit phr ui snkkgt, gt tgllg qug cmhqug hrätg gst gich`rïg
 phr sgs gxtrïkotïs.35
Rgkhrqug 8 4 Ni `orh qug lh cmhéig rglog lg prgkogr snkkgt `g lh suotg hu `griogr snkkgt.
Rgkhrqug 2 4  Lh lnieugur `‟uig cmhéig gst lg inkbrg `‟hrätgs `g cgttg cmhéig.
Lg erh
erhpmg
pmg co-
co-`gs
`gssnu
snuss cn
cnitog
itogit
it gi
gitrg
trg hu
hutrgs
trgs lgs cmhéig
cmhéigss (v8, g8, v2, g2, v3, g7, v7)
gt (v0, g0, v3, g2, v2, g8, v8).

Ni ig cmhi
cmhieg
eg phs
phs uig
uig cmhé
cmhéig
ig gi oivg
oivgrs
rshi
hitt l‟n
l‟nr`
r`rg
rg `g
`gss ïl
ïlïk
ïkgi
gits
ts `h
`his
is lh su
suotg
otg
cnrrgspni`hitg. Hoiso, lgs cmhéigs (v8, g3, v3, g0, v0) gt (v0, g0, v3, g3, v8) snit o`gitoqugs.

3:
MHKRNWIO.B, @ïshkboeuîshtoni `his lh typojochtoni `g `niiïgs tgxtugllgs æ `gs jois `‟hihlysgs chtïenrogllgs, tmísg `g
@nctnrht 4 Khtmïkhtoqugs gt oijnrkhtoqug, uiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, 266=, p. 32.
35 LHBGLLG.D, Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, KN@WLN, Chih`h, 8?=8, p. 83.

38
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Wi  cyclg  `his E, gst uig suotg hyhit pnur ïlïkgit hltgrihtovgkgit `gs snkkgts gt `gs
hrätgs, cnkkgiåhit phr ui snkkgt gt sg tgrkoihit phr lg käkg snkkgt, hutrgkgit `ot ui
cyclg gt uig cmhoig jgrkïg.

7. Erhpmgs gulïrogis

Ni hppgllg cyclg gulïrogi3= `‟ui erhpmg E ui cyclg phsshit uig gt uig sgulg jnos phr 
cmhcuig `gs hrätgs `g E. Wi erhpmg gst `ot gulïrogi s‟ol pnssí`g ui cyclg gulïrogi. Ni hppgllg
cmhéig gulïrogiig `‟ui erhpmg E uig cmhéig phsshit uig gt uig sgulg jnos phr cmhcuig `gs
hrätgs `g E. Wi erhpmg ig pnssï`hit qug `gs cmhéigs gulïrogiigs gst sgko-gulïrogi.
Vlus sokplgkgit, ni pgut `org qu‟ui erhpmg gst gulïrogi (nu sgko-gulïrogi) s‟ol gst
 pnssoblg `g `gssoigr lg erhpmg shis lgvgr lg crhyni gt shis phssgr `gux jnos sur lh käkg hrätg.

:. Erhpmgs mhkoltniogis
Ni hppgllg cyclg   mhkoltniogi3? `‟ui erhpmg E ui cyclg phsshit uig gt uig sgulg jnos
 phr cmhcui `gs snkkgts `g E. Wi erhpmg gst `ot mhkoltniogi s‟ol pnssí`g ui cyclg
mhkoltniogi.
Ni hppgllg  cmhéig mhkoltniogiig  `‟ui erhpmg E uig cmhéig phsshit uig gt uig sgulg
jnos phr cmhcui `gs snkkgts `g E. Wi erhpmg ig pnssï`hit qug `gs cmhéigs mhkoltniogiigs
gst sgko-mhkoltniogi.

5. Hrbrgs
Ni hppgllg   hrbrg  tnut erhpmg cniigxg shis cyclg. Wi erhpmg shis cyclg khos ini
cniigxg gst hppglï uig jnrät06.
Wig jguollg nu  snkkgt pgi`hit gst ui snkkgt `g `gerï 8.

3= BRGPPN.H gt hl. , Glïkgits `g tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, Sproiegr, phr

phros,
os, 2682, p. 76.
3? Opo`., V. 77 .
06 @O@OGR.K, Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, CRK, chmogrs I¶:, 2682, p. 20 .

32
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

=. Hrbrgs cnuvrhits

Wi hrbrg cnuvrhit08 (husso hppglï hrbrg khxokhl) gst ui erhpmg phrtogl quo gst husso ui
hrbrg.
?. Erhpmgs nrogitïs
Gi `niihit ui sgis hux hrätgs `‟ui erhpmg, ni nbtogit ui   `oerhpmg02 (nu   erhpmg
nrogitï). Lg knt «  `oerhpmg  ± gst lh cnitrhctoni `g l‟gxprgssoni hielhosg « `orgctg` erhpm ±.
Wi `oerhpmg joio E ; (Z, G) gst `ïjoio phr l‟gisgkblg joio Z ; {v 8, v 2,..., vi} `nit lgs ïlïkgits
snit hppglïs snkkgts, gt phr l‟gisgkblg joio G ; {g8, g 2,..., gk} `nit lgs ïlïkgits snit hppglïs

hrcs.
Wi hrc   g  `g l‟gisgkblg G gst `ïjoio phr uig phorg nr`niiïg `g snkkgts. Lnrsqug
g; (u, v), ni `ot qug l‟hrc g vh `g u æ v. Ni `ot husso qug u gst   l‟gxtrïkotï oiotohlg   gt v
otï joihlg `g g.
l‟gxtrïkotï
l‟gxtrïk
?.8 @gerï `‟ui snkkgt `‟ui `oerhpmg
Snot v ui snkkgt `‟ui erhpmg nrogitï.
Ni intg `+(v) lg `gerï gxtïrogur `u snkkgt v, c‟gst-æ-`org lg inkbrg `‟hrcs hyhit v
cnkkg gxtrïkotï oiotohlg.
Ni intg `−(v) lg `gerï oitïrogur `u snkkgt v, c‟gst-æ-`org lg inkbrg `‟hrcs hyhit v
03
cnkkg gxtrïkotï joihlg. Ni `ïjoiot lg `gerï 4
@(v) ; `  + (v) +` −(v)
?.2 Cmgkois gt corcuots
Wi   cmgkoi  cni`uoshit `u snkkgt   h  hu snkkgt   b  gst uig suotg hyhit pnur ïlïkgits
hltgrihtovgkgit `gs snkkgts gt `gs hrcs, cnkkgiåhit gt sg tgrkoihit phr ui snkkgt, gt tgllg
qug cmhqug hrc gst gich`rï æ ehucmg phr sni snkkgt nroeoig gt æ `rnotg phr sni snkkgt
`gstoihtoni. Ni ig pgut `nic phs prgi`rg lgs hrcs æ rgbnurs. Sur lg `oerhpmg co-hprís, ni pgut

08
BNI@_.D gt KWRP_.W, Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, 2 gkg ï`otoni, 2665, p. :8= .
02
MHKRNWIO.B, @ïshkboeuîshtoni `his lh typojochtoni `g `niiïgs tgxtugllgs æ `gs jois `‟hihlysgs chtïenrogllgs, tmísg `g
@nctnrht 4 Khtmïkhtoqugs gt oijnrkhtoqug, uiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, 266=, p. 36.
03
@NLHKH.K, Cnitrobutonb æ l‟ïtu`g `g quglqugs prnblgkgs `g cnlnrhtoni `g erhpmgs, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Oijnrkhtoqug,
uiovgrsotï `u Bnr`ghux 8, 2667, p. 88.

33
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

vnor phr gxgkplg lg cmgkoi (v3, g2, v 2, g8, v 8). Vhr cnivgitoni, tnut cmgkoi cnkpnrtg hu knois
ui hrc.
Ni hppgllg  `osthicg gitrg `gux snkkgts `‟ui `oerhpmg lh lnieugur `u plus pgtot cmgkoi
lgs rglohit. S‟ol i‟gxostg phs `g cmgkoi gitrg lgs snkkgts x gt y, ni pnsg `(x, y) ; ∙. Vhr
gxgkplg, sur lg `oerhpmg co-`gssnus, ` (v 7, v0) ; 2, ` (v0, v7) ; ∙, ` (v3, v8) ; 8,

Wi   corcuot  gst ui cmgkoi `nit lgs snkkgts `g `ïphrt gt `g joi snit lgs käkgs. Lg
`oerhpmg co-`gssus ig cnitogit phs `g corcuot. Lgs intonis `g cmgkois gt `g corcuots snit
hihlneugs æ cgllgs `gs cmhéigs gt `gs cyclgs pnur lgs erhpmgs ini nrogitïs. 00

?.3 @oerhpmg jnrtgkgit cniigxg

Wi `oerhpmg gst   jnrtgkgit
jnrtgkgit cniigxg07, so tnutg phorg nr`niiïg (h, b) `g snkkgts
`ostoicts `u erhpmg gst rgloïg phr hu knois ui cmgkoi. Gi `‟hutrgs tgrkgs, tnut snkkgt gst
httgoeihblg `gpuos tnus lgs hutrgs snkkgts phr hu knois ui cmgkoi.
Ni hppgllg  cnkpnshitg jnrtgkgit cniigxg  tnut snus-erhpmg oi`uot khxokhl jnrtgkgit
cniigxg (khxokhl soeiojog qu‟ol i‟y h phs `g snus-erhpmg oi`uot cniigxg plus erhi` cnitgihit
lgs snkkgts `g lh cnkpnshitg).

00 ROEN.K, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, Wiovgrsotï `g Loíeg, 266?, p. 22.
07 KNIPCNWXWONL.E, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, Wiovgrsotï `‟Nrshy, 266:, p. 35.
KNIPCNWXWONL.E,

30
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Sgctoni 2 4 lgs kïtmn`gs `‟nptokoshtoni phr lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

8. Kïtmn`g 8 4 Hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh

G`esgr Uybg  @odastrh (8?36-2662) h prnpnsï gi 8?7? ui hlenrotmkg `g rgcmgrcmg `g

cmgkoi koiokuk `his ui erhpmg `nit lh cnkplgxotï gst gi N(i). Ol gst æ intgr qug
l'hlenrotmkg `niig lg plus cnurt cmgkoi `g lh snurcg æ tnus lgs snkkgts `u erhpmg, y cnkpros,
 bogi sñr hu but.

8.8 Gxplochtonis
Snot E ui erhpmg pni`ïrï, nrogitï nu ini.

 Oiotohloshtonis

Oiotohlgkgit, ni plhcg tnus lgs snkkgts `u erhpmg `his ui thblghu.

Ni hjjgctg hu snkkgt snurcg S lh vhlgur 6 gt æ tnus lgs hutrgs snkkgts lh vhlgur "oijoio". Gi
 prhtoqug, ni cmnosorh uig vhlgur supïrogurg æ tnutgs lgs ïvhluhtonis0:.

 Jnictoniigkgit 4

Snot S8 lg snkkgt `g plus pgtot cngjjocogit 1 ni intg lg snkkgt S8 cnkkg tgrkoiï 1 gi

 prhtoqug ni rhygrh tnutgs lgs chsgs `g lh cnlniig `g S8.
Vnur  tnus
  tnus lgs snkkgts h`dhcgits æ S8 jhorg 4
c4; vhlgur `g S8 + pno`s `g l'hrätg rglohit S8 æ Si
So c < vhlgur `g Si hlnrs ni ïcrot `his lh chsg `g Si 4 c gt S8 quo soeiojog qug lg cmgkoi
`g cnñt c hkíig `g S8 æ Si
Soini, rgcnpogr cg quo sg trnuvhot `his lh loeig prïcï`gitg

cnkplïtgr lh loeig `u thblghu gi rgcnpohit lgs vhlgurs `g lh loeig prïcï`gitg.

Rgcnkkgicgr thit qu'ol gxostg `gs snkkgts ini gicnrg sïlgctoniiïs
Lh plus cnurtg `osthicg gitrg S gt S a  sg
 sg lot gi "rgknithit" lh cmhéig.

0: UNIE.P, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh, Wiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, p. 8-8:.

37
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Gxgkplgs 4 Vnur cnkkgicgr, hpploquhit l'hlenrotmkg sur ui erhpmg 4

@his cg chs, ni pnurrh ïcrorg lg jnictoniigkgit `g l'hlenrotmkg `his ui thblghu 1 cmhqug

chsg cnkpnrthit `'uig phrt lh lnieugur pnur httgoi`rg lg snkkgt `g lh cnlniig gt `'hutrg phrt
lg snkkgt prïcï`git. Lh lnieugur gst koiokuk lnrsqug lg rgstg `g lh cnlniig gst cnlnroï.

Lg `ïphrt (snurcg) gst gi H.

@his cmhqug chsg `u thblghu, ni oi`oqug `'uig phrt lh lnieugur `u cmgkoi vgihit `g H, khos
husso `g qugl snkkgt ni vogit pnur nbtgior cg rïsultht

3:
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Vnur hllgr `g H æ G, lg cmgkoi lg plus cnurt gst `g lnieugur 5, gt 4

G vogit `g J quo vogit `g M quo vogit `g H 4 H - M - J - G
Ni rgkhrqug qug cgt hlenrotmkg `niig tnus lgs plus cnurts cmgkois hu `ïphrt `g H

2. Kïtmn`g 2 4 Hlenrotmkg `g arusahl

L‟hlenrotmkg `g Arusahl pgrkgt `g `ïtgrkoigr l‟hrbrg cnuvrhit `g pno`s koiokhl `his

ui erhpmg pni`ïrï pnsotovgkgit. Sni proicopg `g bhsg gst `g rgprïsgitgr lgs clhssgs `g
cniigxotï phr `gs gisgkblgs. Hu `ïphrt, ni supprokg tnutgs lgs hrätgs, puos ni hdnutg cgllgs `g
 pno`s lg plus pgtot pnssoblg iïcgsshorg
iïcgsshorg h uior tnus lgs snkkgts `his uig uioqug clhssg `g
cniigxotï. Cgco sg trh`uot phr l‟hlenrotmkg suovhit 4

Snot E;(], W) hvgc |]| ; inkbrg `g snkkgts gt |W|; inkbrg `‟hrätgs.

8) Clhssgr lgs hrätgs phr nr`rg `g lnieugur crnosshitg (u8, u2, u3,....,uK)

2) P;Ý, o;8

3) So P+uo gst shis cyclg hdnutgr uo æ P.

P ; P + {u8}
Soini hllgr gi 0.

0) Oicrïkgitgr o `g 8.
So |P| ; I-8 hrrätgr, soini rgtnurigr gi 2.

L‟gisgkblg `gs hrätgs ehr`ïgs jnrkg phr cnistructoni ui hrbrg cnuvrhit. @g plus ni h
ehr`ï lgs plus pgtotgs hrätgs iïcgsshorgs æ lh cnuvgrturg `u erhpmg 4 c‟gst l‟hrbrg cnuvrhit
koiokhl05.

L‟gxgkplg `ïthollg lgs `ojjïrgitgs otïrhtonis `g l‟hlenrotmkg.

Gxgkplg 4
Snot E;(], W) hvgc |]| ;: gt |W|; 86

05
BNWRSG._, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Hrbrg cnuvrhit koiokhl phr lh kïtmn`g `g Arusahl, 266?, p. 2.

35
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Ni h I;: snkkgts, ui hrbrg cnkpnrthit I-8 hrätgs, l‟hlenrotmkg sg tgrkoig lnrsqug l‟ni h
oicnrpnrï I-8;:-8;7 hrätgs.
Oiotohloshtoni 4
8) Clhssgr lgs hrätgs phr nr`rg `g lnieugur crnosshitg (u8, u2, u3,...., uK)

O 8 2 3 0 7 : 5 = ? 86
Wo (8,3) (0,:) (2,7) (3,:) (3,0) (2,3) (8,0) (3,7) (7,:) (8,2)

V(Wo) 8 2 3 0 7 7 7 : : :
Snot P l‟hrbrg rgcmgrcmï 4 P
P;Ý
;Ý pnur lg knkg
knkgit
it
2) P;Ý O 4;8 W8;(8,3)
3)  P+W8 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg W8 h P

P;P+ {W8} hllgr h  0

0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 8

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr gi 2

3=
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

2) O 4;2
4;2 W2
W2;
; (0,:
(0,:))
3) P+W2 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg W2 h P

P;P+ {W2}; {(8,3), (0,:)}

0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 2

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr gi 2

2) O 4;3
4;3 W3
W3;(
;(2,
2,7)
7)
3) P+W3 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg W3 h P

P;P+ {W3}; {(8,3), (0,:), (2,7)}

0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 3

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h 2

2) O 4;0
4;0 W0;(3,:)
3) P+W0 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg W0 h P

P;P+ {W0}; {(8,3), (0,:), (2,7), (3,:) }

0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 0

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h 2

3?
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

2) O 4;7 W7;

W7;(3,
(3,0)
0)
3) P+W7 jnrkg ui cyclg, ig phs hdnutgr W7 h P

Rgtnurigr h 2

2) O 4;: W:;

W:;(2,
(2,3)
3)
3) P+W: gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg W: h P

P;P+ {W:}; {(8,3), (0,:), (2,7),(3,:), (2,3)}

0) oicrïkgitgr o `g :

P; I-8 l‟hlenrotmkg s‟hrätg

3. Kïtmn`g 3 4 Hlenrotmkg `g Jnr`-Julagrsni

Cg prnblíkg `'nptokoshtoni pgut ätrg rgprïsgitï phr ui erhpmg cnkpnrthit uig gitrïg (æ
ehucmg)
ehucmg) gt uig snrtog (æ `rnotg
`rnotg).
). Lg jlnt rgprïsgitg
rgprïsgitg lh corcu
corculhtoni
lhtoni `g l'gitrïg vgrs lh snrtog `'nÿ
l'utoloshtoni `g cgt hlenrotmkg `his lgs prnblíkgs `g rïsghux. Lgs hpplochtonis snit kultoplgs 4
 prnblíkgs oijnrkhtoqugs, rnutogrs, jgrrnvohorgs, gtc. Ol s'hpploqug ïehlgkgit æ tnus lgs hutrgs
 prnblíkgs `g trhisjgrts cnkkg lgs okpnrthtonis/gxpnrthtonis, lgs jlux koerhtnorgs,
`ïknerhpmoqugs khos husso sur lgs jlux plus hbstrhots tgls qug lgs trhisjgrts joihicogrs. Vnur lgs
`niiïgs `g trís erhi`g thollg, ol gxostg plusogurs hlenrotmkgs plus pgrjnrkhits pnur rïsnu`rg lg
käkg prnblíkg cniiu snus lg ink `g prnblíkg `g jlnt khxokuk0=.

0=
CNRKGI.P gt LGOSGRSNI.C gt ROZGSP.R, Oitrn`uctoni æ l‟hlenrotmkoqug, ï`otonis @uini`, 2 gkg ï`otoni, 8??0, p. :32.

06
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

Gxgkplg `‟hpplochtoni 4
Wig sncoïtï `g jrgt `ospnsg `g trnos cgitrgs 4 ui æ Vhros, lg `guxoíkg æ Lyni, lg trnosoíkg æ
Khrsgollg.
Prnos `gstoihtonis snit pnssoblgs 4 lh Vnlneig, lh Suí`g, lh Erícg.

Cmhcui `gs cgitrgs `g jrgt h uig chphcotï khxokhlg `g trhispnrt hoiso qu'ui stnca oiotohl
`g khr
khrcmh
cmhi`o
i`osgs
sgs.. @g käk
käkg,
g, cm
cmhqu
hqugg phy
physs `'hrrov
`'hrrovïg
ïg h uig `g
`gkhi
khi`g
`g khxokh
khxokhlg
lg pnur
pnur lgs
okpnrthtonis.

L'hlenrotmkg `g Jnr`-Julagrsni vh pgrkgttrg `'nptokosgr cgs jlux æ l'ho`g `'ui nutol `g

kn`ïloshtoni khtmïkhtoqug. Lh structurg snus-dhcgitg gst rgprïsgitïg phr ui erhpmg nrogitï
`n
`nit
it lg snkk
snkkgt
gt `g ehuc
ehucmg
mg sy
sykb
kbnl
nlos
osgg lg stnc
stncaa oi
oioto
otohl
hl.. Cglu
Cgluo-
o-co
co gs
gstt rg
rgloï
loï æ cm
cmhc
hcui
ui `g
`gss
 prgkogrs hrcs nu hrätgs.

0. Kïtmn`g 0 4 Hlenrotmkg `g Bushcagr gt Enwgi

L'hlenrotmkg `g Bushcagr gt Enwgi cgitrhlosï pgrkgt `g rïsnu`rg lg chlcul ] æ ui cnñt
koiokhl `his ui erhpmg E;(Z1G) nÿ æ cmhqug hrc g `g G gst hssncoï uig chphcotï khxokhlg
Cg  gt ui cnñt u. Gi gjjgt, cgt hlenrotmkg cnisostg æ cnistruorg lg erhpmg `'ïchrt gt gisuotg æ
rgcmgrcmgr lg cmgkoi `g cnñt koiokhl gitrg lg iœu` snurcg s gt lg iœu` `g `gstoihtoni t. So ui
cmgkoi gxostg gt qug lh chphcotï x æ httgoi`rg i'gst `nic phs rïhloshblg, hoiso lgs vhrohblgs gt lg
erhpmg `'ïchrt snit kos æ dnur. Æ l'nppnsï, l'hlenrotmkg `g Bushcagr gt Enwgi rgcmgrcmg phr 
ïthpgs lgs jlnts httrobuïs hux hrcs hpphrtgihit hu erhpmg nrogitï ni prncï`hit `g lh jhåni
suovhitg0? 4

8.  4 rgcmgrcmgr lg cmgkoi `g cnñt koiokhl φ `u erhpmg 1

2. 4 so l'h``otoni `gs
`gs cmgkois prïcï`gkkgi
prïcï`gkkgitt chlculïgs ggtt lh chphcotï
chphcotï `u cmgkoi gst
supïrogurg nu ïehlg æ lh chphcotï α `ïsorïg, hlnrs l'hlenrotmkg sg tgrkoig.

3.  4 soini, lg erhpmg gst kos æ dnur qugl qug snot u hpphrtgihit æ α 4

h) hdnut `'ui hrc `his lg sgis nppnsï `g lh chphcotï ïehlg æ lh `ojjïrgicg gitrg lg
koiokuk `g lh chphcotï `gs hrcs gt `u cmgkoi `g lh chphcotï `g l'hrc cnurhit 1 gt `g
cnñt iïehtoj æ cgluo `his lg sgis oiotohl.

0? BHRAHNWO.A, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Hlenrotmkgs `g erhpmgs, V. :.

08
 

Cmhpotrg
Cmhpotrg OO 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug sur lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs

 b) kosg æ dnur `g lh chphcotï `g l'hrc quo gst gllg-käkg ïehlg æ lh chphcotï `g
` g l'hrc knois lg
koiokuk `g lh chphcotï `gs hrcs `u cmgkoi.

0. 4 rgtnu
rgtnurr æ l'ïthp
l'ïthpgg 88..

Cniclusoni 4
@his cg cmhpotrg, inus hvnis prïsgitï gi prgkogr logus lgs ïlïkgits `g lh tmïnrog `gs
erhpmgs,
erhpmgs, gisuotg
gisuotg inus hvnis prïsg
prïsgitï
itï gt gxploq
gxploquï
uï lgs `ojjïrgits hlen
hlenrotmkg
rotmkgs,
s, cnkkg
cnkkg inus
hvnis `ïthollï lgs `ojjïrgitgs ïthpgs `g rïsnlutoni `g sgs hlenrotmkgs.

02
 

C mhpo tr g O O O 4 lg chs pr hto qug

 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Oitrn`uctoni

@his cg cmhpotrg, inus gsshygrnis `g `ïcrorg l‟gitrgprosg @hinig `‟hprís sni mostnroqug, sni
nrehioshtoni, sh jocmg tgcmioqug. Gisuotg inus hllnis jhorg uig prhtoqug `gs `gux hlenrotmkgs
(@odastrh,
(@odastrh, arus
arusahl)
ahl) quo inus pgrk
pgrkgttrg
gttrg `g rïsnu`
rïsnu`rg
rg lg prnblíkg
prnblíkg quo gt l‟nptokoshton
l‟nptokoshtonii `gs cnuts `g

trhispnrt gt ni tgrkoig phr uig hihlysg `gs `niiïgs.

Sgctoni 8 4 Vrïsgithtoni `g l‟nrehioskg `‟hccugol @HINIG

8. Mostnroqug

L‟uiotï `g jhbrochtoni `g prn`uots lhotogrs @dur`durh gst l‟uig `gs plus prgstoeogusgs jolohlgs
`u ernupg Bhtnucmg, cg `griogr gi pnssí`g coiq.

C‟gst gi 8?=0, qug kñrot `his l‟gsprot `u ernupg Bhtnucmg, l‟o`ïg `g crïhtoni `‟uig pgtotg
uiotï `g jhbrochtoni `g yhnurt `his lh rïeoni `‟Oemzgr Hknarhig hvgc `gs knygis trís lokotïs,
l‟uiotï i‟h `ïkhrrï qu‟hvgc uig rgkplossgusg `g pnts prïjnrkïs `‟uig chphcotï `g 8666 pnts/m.

Hjoi `g phrvgior æ supplhitgr cgs rovhux gt `g jhorg jhcg hux gxoegicgs `g l‟mgurg, husso bogi
gi quhitotï qu‟gi quhlotï, lg ernupg Bhtnucmg h kn`griosï l‟ïquopgkgit `g l‟uiotï gt prnclhkg
cnkkg `gvosg pnur sni jnictoniigkgit «   cgux quo ig trhvhollgit phs, quo i‟nit phs `‟hkbotoni,
i‟nit rogi æ jhorg hu sgoi `g l‟gitrgprosg  ± hvgc `gs gjjnrts cnlnsshux gt ui trhvhol hcmhriï, l‟uiotï h
rïusso æ hcquïror gi 8?=: uig cni`otoniigusg tmgrkn jnrkgusg `‟uig chphcotï `g 0666 pnts /mgurg.

Gi 8?==, l‟gitrgprosg sg `ntg `‟ui htglogr `g jhbrochtoni `g jrnkheg jni`u gt `g chkgkbgrt.

Gi 8??8, cg jut l‟hcquosotoni `‟uig loeig `g prn`uctoni `g críkg `gssgrt.
Gi 8??3, uig inuvgllg cni`otoniigusg gst hrrovïg hvgc uig chphcotï `g prn`uctoni `g ?666 pnts/m

Gi 8??7, l‟gitrgprosg @dur`durh snrt chrrïkgit `g sni h`nlgscgicg, phr l‟hcquosotoni `g `gux
cni`otoniigusgs 82666 gt ?666 pnts /mgurg.

Gi 8??:, prnjothit `g lh crïhtoni `g lh znig `‟hctovotï oi`ustrogllg `‟Habnu, cg ernupg

oihueurg sh inuvgllg uiotï.

Gi 8???, cnistructoni `‟uig `guxoíkg usoig `g jhbrochtoni `gs prn`uots lhotogrs (jrnkheg
jni`u gi pnrtoni 6= gt 8:, jrnkheg æ pâtg prgssïg, chkgkbgrt).
03
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Gi nctnbrg 2668, lg lgh`gr kni`ohl `gs prn`uots lhotogrs jrhos « lg ernupg @hinig ± h cniclu
ui hccnr` `g phrtgihroht hvgc lh lhotgrog @dur`durh, lgh`gr `u khrcmï hleïrogi `gs prn`uots lhotogrs
jrhos
jrhos (VLJ) gi prg
prgih
ihit
it uig phr
phrtoc
tocoph
ophtoni
toni `g 78% `his lh sncoït
sncoïtïï « @hini
@hinigg @dur`d
@dur`durh
urh Hleïrog
Hleïrog
SVH±(@@H).

2662 gst uig hiiïg cnishcrïg æ rïinvgr lg sotg `‟Habnu gt æ kgttrg gi plhcg `gs nutols
oi`ustrogls iïcgsshorg æ l‟gxphisoni juturg `g lh khrqug @hinig 1 cg jut l‟hiiïg `g sni lhicgkgit.

Gi duoi 266:, @hinig `gvogit hctoniihorg khdnrothorg (?7%) `g @@H.

Gt lgs
lgs 7% rg
rgst
sthi
hitg
tg rgst
rgstgg pnur
pnur l‟gx
l‟gx prnp
prnproï
roïth
thorg
org `g l‟g
l‟git
itrg
rgpr
pros
osgg « lh jh
jhko
kollg
llg bh
bhttn
ttnucmg ±76
ucmg

76 Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

00
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

2. Okplhithtoni eïnerhpmoqug

@hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog okplhitï `his lh wolhyh `g Bgdhoh gt lh chrtg eïnerhpmoqug `g

lh wolhyh `g Bgdhoh oi`oqug l‟gi`rnot gxhct nÿ sg sotug l‟gitrgprosg @@H.

Joeurg i¶= 4 Lh znig oi`ustrogllg Phmhrhcmt logu `‟okplhithtoni `g @hinig

 Snurcg
 Snurcg 4  Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

07
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

@hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog gst okplhitïg `his lh znig oi`ustrogllg `g « Phmhrhcmt ± 1 gi

gjjgt, cgttg sotuhtoni eïnerhpmoqug njjrg æ l‟gitrgprosg uig phinplog `‟hvhithegs `nit lg jhot
qu‟gllg gst 4
  @his uig znig oi`ustrogllg « Phmhrhcmt ±, vïrothblg chrrgjnur ïcninkoqug `g Bgdhoh,
`g quglqugs 76 uiotïs `g prn`uctonis he
hernhlokgithorg
rnhlokgithorg gt gi cnurs `‟gxphisoni
`‟gxphisoni..
  æ 2 Ak `‟uig erhi`g heelnkïrhtoni(Habnu).
 æ quglqugs `ozhoigs ``gg kítrgs `g lh vnog jgrrïg.
  æ :6 Ak `g Bgdhoh 1 cmgj-logu `g lh rïeoni gt pðlg ïcninkoqug okpnrthit gi Hleïrog
`ntï `‟ui pnrt æ jnrt trhjoc gt ui hïrnpnrt oitgrihtonihl rglohit `ovgrs `gstoihtonis
(Vhros, Khrsgollg, Lyni, Shoit Gtogiig gt Cmhrlgrno).
 æ 856 Ak æ l‟gs
l‟gstt `g lh chpothlg Hlegr.
   phr
phr hollg
hollgur
urs,
s, ni trn
trnuv
uvgg `gs
`gs hc
hctg
tgur
urss ïc
ïcni
nink
nkoq
oqug
ugss okpn
okpnrth
rthit
itss tg
tgls
ls qu
qugg Ch
Chi`
i`oh
oh,,
Snukkhk, Ojro…gtc.

3. O`gitojochtoni gt jnrkg duro`oqug

  @ïinkoihtoni sncohlg 4 hvhit lg phrtgihroht, c‟gst lg ernupg @hinig, lh `ïinkoihtoni

sncohlg `g lh sncoïtï gst Ernupg @hinig, quo gst ui ernupg kultoihtonihl quo sg trnuvg ui
 pgu phrtnut `his lg kni`g gitogr gt @hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog gst phrko cgs jolohlgs.

   Lhotgrog @dur`durh 4 sh ``ïinkoihtoni

ïinkoihtoni sncohlg gst Lhotgrog @dur`durh.

Hpríss lg phrtg
Hprí phrtgihroh
ihrohtt lh `ïin
`ïinkoihto
koihtoni
ni `gs `gux sncoï
sncoïtïs
tïs gst `g 4 « @hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog
Hleïrog

SVH ±.

0. Nrehioerhkkg eïiïrhlg `g @hinig @dur`durhHleïrog

0:
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Joeurg I¶6? 4 Nrehioerhkkg eïiïrhl @hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog (@@H)

05
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

7. Lh jhbrochto
jhbrochtoni
ni `u yhnurt jgrkg gt brhssï

Joeurg i¶864 Scmïkh rgprïsgithit lh jhbrochtoni `u yhnurt jgrkg gt brhssï

(Rïcgptoni `gs khtoírgs (pnu`rg `g lhot, Rïcgptoni `u lhot

sucrg)

Rgcnistotutoni `u lhot Gpurhtoni pmysoqug

Sthi`hr`oshtoni gi khtoírg erhssg

Stncaheg

Cnicgitrhtoni nu h``otoni `g lh
pnu`rg

Vhstguroshtoni 4 ?2¶c pgi`hit 7 ki

Mnkneïiïoshtgur 50¶c (06 bhr, 56 bhr cmhkbrgur ?2¶c pgi`hit 7 ki)

Rgjrno`ossgkgit   _hnurt jgrkg 7-=¶ C

_hnurt brhssï 3=-02¶ C

Dus V nu E J 22¶
22¶C
C

Gisgkgicgkgit `orgct

H`dnictoni `g jgrkgit `his lh cuvg

Vrïcmhujjheg 3=-07¶c   Jgrkgithtoni `his lh cuvg

Cni`otoniigkgit
Brhssheg `u cnheuluk

Cmhkbrg cmhu`g 7 æ 5m æ 3=-07¶c

Rgjrno`ossgkgit

Jgrkgithtoni `his lgs pnts

Cni`otoniigkgit æ jrno`

Cgllulg `g rgjrno`ossgkgit 4 2 æ 3m

Stncaheg Stncaheg

_ hnur tjgr kg yhnur tbr hssï

0=
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

 Snurcg
 Snurcg 4  Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

0?
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

7.8 Lgs prn`uots @@H

L‟gitrgprosg @@H njjrg sur lg khrcmï `gs prn`uots lhotogrs jrhos rgernupïs `his `gs ehkkgs spïcojoqugs.

Lh joeurg co-`gssnus rhssgkblg l‟gisgkblg `g sgs ehkkgs gt prn`uots.

   Lgs ehkkgs `g
`g l‟gitrgprosg @hinig
@hinig @dur`durh
@dur`durh

Joeurg i¶884 Lgs ehkkgs `g l‟gitrgprosg @hinig @dur`durh

Ehkkg BGI 86 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g BGI 86

Ancthol

Stncaheg Ehkkg _HNWKO 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g yhnuko

jrhosg
jrhosg hbrocn
hbrocntt bhihig
bhihig.
Ehkkg KOIO VRO] 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g koio
prox jrhosg gt hbrocnt
Ehkkg JRWO] 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g jruots jrhosg
gt jruots `g bnos.
Ehkkg @HIGPPG 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g
@higttg cmncnlht gt chrhkgl.
Ehkkg @HIHN EJ/VJ(Dus)
Ehkkg EJ/VJ(Dus) 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg
cnkpnsg
`‟nrhieg/hihihs, päcmg/hbrocnt, jruot gxntoqug
Ehkkg @hiup 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g @hiup
jrhosg gt trnpocn
Ehkkg @HIOIN 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g @hioin
jrhosg gt ihturg

76
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Ehkkg HCPOZOH @ROIA 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g

hctovoh `roia chrhkgl

Ehkkg HCPOZOH 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg

`‟hctovohKogl/hbrocnt, jrhosg, vhiollg, ihturg

Ehkkg CRGKO] 4 gllg sg cnkpnsg `g

crgkox
crgkox jrhosg,
jrhosg, jruots `gs bnos, hbrocnt, ihturg

 Snurcg
 Snurcg 4  Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

7.2 Lgs proicophux cnicurrgits `g l‟gitrgprosg @@H

Ni pgut phrthegr lh cnicurrgicg `g khrcmï lhotogr gi `gux ernupgs.

7.2.8 Lgs cnicurrgits oi`orgcts 4  ols sg rgernupgit `his lg khrcmï hernhlokgithorg quo snit uig
kgihcg pnur lg khrcmï `gs prn`uots lhotogrs gi eïiïrhl, (gx 4 lgs `ojjïrgitgs bnossnis hlcnnlosïgs gt
ini hlcnnlosïgs).

7.2.2 Lgs cnicurrg

cnicurrgits `orgcts 4  ni intgrh lg inkbrg crnosshit `gs cnicurrgits `orgcts `gpuos
its `orgcts
l‟nuvgrturg `u khrcmï æ l‟ïcninkog kni`ohlg gt lh `ovgrsotï `gs kn`gs `‟okplhithtoni 4

   Snukkhk (gitrgprosgs jhkolohlgs) gt lgs hutrgs cnicurrgits cnkkg Mn`ih gtRhk`y,

   _nplhot (snuslocgicg),
   Chi`oh (hccnr` `gjrhicmosg).

Rgkhrqug 4  @hinig gt Snukkhk snit lgs `gux lgh`grs ihtonihux `gs prn`uots lhotogrs 1 gitrg cgs
`gux `griogrs, uig cnicurrgicg hcmhriïg pnur l‟nccuphtoni `g lh prgkoírg plhcg sur lg khrcmï gt
 dusqu'æ prïsgit Snukkhk nccupg cgttg plhcg.

Joeurg i¶82 4 Vlhi `g khssg `g l‟gitrgprosg @@H

78
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

@hihn
Cgllulg Rhpo`g 8

CmhkbrgCmhu`g   LhotCru

=66k

Htglogr 8
Vrncgss

H glogr 2

Stnca Vhl
KV 6066
2 666k²

KV
6866B

8666k

CJ6266

3:6 k²
566k

  366k
CJ6366 @C Habnu
:66k
8 066 k²

26k²

Lïegi`g4
Bujj
Bujjgr
grs
s KV @ os
sthic
thicg`
g`gl
gl‟g
‟git
itrï
rïgp
gpro
roic
icop
ophlg
hlg`g
`gl‟
l‟u
uso
soi
igg

 Snurcg
 Snurcg 4  Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

72
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

:. L‟gxtgisoni `u cgitrg `‟gxpï`otoni4

Joeurg i¶83 4 Vlhi `‟gxtgisoni `u cgitrg `‟gxpï`otoni

@hihn
     g
Bujjgr  Cgllulg Rhpo`g 8
     s Knitg
     u
@hihn
     g cmhreg
     v
     h
       L
CmhkbrgCmhu`g      i
     n
       G       s Bujjgr 
       o        C       s      s86 ti
htglogr 2
  Khehsoi
     s       g
      c      s
       2      i       n
      r
     g
     c
KV6066
       a      s      g         V
     c      g        t       r
      g      n
     n      s      x         j
        j      r
       t      s
       S       o
       G       u        V Khehsoi
     h H glogr 8         B
     c KV6866 H
Bujjgr 
htglogr 8

=66 k

Stnca
chossgs8

@CHabnu
8 666k

CJ 6266
566 k
:66 k

CJ3
66

 Snurcg
 Snurcg 4  Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

Sgctoni 2 4 hpplochtoni `gs hlenrotmkgs `g `odastrh gt arusahl

Lg cmnox `g cgs hlenrotmkg gst bhsï sur 4

h)Hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh 4
  Intrg rgc
rgcmgrcm
mgrcmgg `g koiokosï lgs cnu
cnuts
ts `g trhispnrt gt cglh phr lh koiokosh
koiokoshtoni
toni `g lh
`osthicg.
   L‟gi
L‟gitrgpro
trgprosg
sg @hinig
@hinig sn
snus-trh
us-trhotg
otg lgs kny
knygis
gis `g trhisp
trhispnrt,
nrt, lg phogkg
phogkgit
it `u sgrv
sgrvocg
ocg gst
gst
 phr rhppnrt hu aolnkïtrheg phrcnurut.
   L‟hle
L‟hlenrotmk
nrotmkgg `g `odastrh
`odastrh pgrkgt `‟nptokos
`‟nptokosïï lh `osthicg
`osthicg gitrg l‟gitrgprosg
l‟gitrgprosg @hinig
@hinig gt
cgs `ïpðts.

73
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

 b) Hlenrotmkg `g Arusahl 4

L‟utoloshtoni `g l'hlenrotmkg `g Arusahl sgrrg h chlculgr ui hrbrg cnuvrhit koiokuk.
Hutrgkgit `ot c‟gst lh rgcmgrcmg `‟ui erhpmg `g pno`s koiokuk quo gst cniigxg gt shis cyclg,
sg quo pgrkgt h l‟gitrgprosg @hinig `‟hvnor ui rïsghu `g `ostrobutoni plus nptokhlg.
Joeurg I¶80 4 okplhithtonis `gs `ïpðts `g @hinig

Okplhithtonis `ï
`ïpð
pðts
ts @HINIG

 Snurcg
 Snurcg 4  Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, `gcgkbrg2682

8.  Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g `odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni `‟Nrhi

Snot E;(Z,G) ui erhpmg `nit lgs snkkgts snit lgs vollgs gt lgs hrcs snit lgs cmgkois quo rglog
cmhqug `gux vollgs gisgkblg  .

70
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

H
A
B
 N
 W

 :  
 ?  
A
K

B
 n
867AK  u 860AK
o   
r 
 h 
B
 g 
r 
r 
 n
 u
 h 
H   e
l    m  
  e o   
 h 
 g 
r 
?3AK
76AK
8  
 6  
 7 
A
K
 c 
m   B
 g  l   
r 
 c  o   
 `  
m    h 
 g 
l   
l    H
o   
i
8:?AK  `  
8    g 
j   
 6   l   
 h 
 3  
A
K

 N :2AK
P   u  c 
 ï    g  m  
i  `   l   
 g 
 ï  
 s  m  
r  j   
o   
 n
 u 72AK
?5AK
873AK
K
 n =5AK
 s 
 t  
 h  R
  e  g 
 h  l   
o   
i z
 g   h 
k i

 N
r 
 h 
5?AK i 835AK

77
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Ha
Habn
bnuu Bnuo
Bnuorh
rh Bgrr
Bgrruh
uhem
emoo Hoi Cmlgj Blo`h Hlegr Rglozhig Nug` Cmrg
Cmrgcm
cmgl
gl Pïiï
Pïiïss Knst
Knsthe
hehi
higk
gk nr
nrhi
hi
h `gjlh Rmonu
6 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙

BNWORH
:?  ^ :? ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
HABNW
Bgrruhemo  ^ ^ 853 ∙ ∙ ∙ 850 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
h 853
Bnuorh
Hlegr 850  ^ ^ ^ 25= ∙ ∙ 850 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
Bnuorh
Blo`h 220  ^ ^ ^ 25= ∙ 220 ^ ∙ ∙ 2:5 ∙ ∙ ∙
Hlegr 
Cmrgcmgl  ^ ^ ^ 25= 3?3 ^ ^ ∙ ∙ 2:5 ∙ ∙ ∙
2:5 Hlegr 
Hoi `jglh  ^ ^ ^ 25= 3?3 ^ ^ ∙ ∙ ^ 356 ∙ ∙
25=
Bgrruhemo
h
Cmlgj 306  ^ ^ ^ ^ 306  ^ ^ ∙ ∙ ^ 356 ∙ ∙
Hoi `gjlh
Pïiïs
356  ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 035 3?2 ^ 356 ∙ ∙
Cmgrcmgl
Nug`  ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 035 3?2  ^ ^ 723 ∙
Rmonu
3?2 Cmlgj 
Rglozhoig  ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 035  ^ ^ ^ 05? ∙
035 Cmlgj 
Knsthehi  ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 05? 750
gk 05?
Nrhi
 ^    ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 77=

@‟hprís
 plus cnurtl‟hpplochtoni
l‟hpploch
cmgkoitoni
gt 4 `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni `‟Nrhi vgihit `‟Habnu lg
Habnu, Bnuorh. Bgrrnuhemoh, Hoi @gjlh, Cmlgj, Nug`Rmonu, Knsthehigk, Nrhi.

2. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g `odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni Hlegr

Snot E;(Z,G) ui erhpmg `nit lgs snkkgts snit lgs vollgs gt lgs hrcs snit lgs cmgkois quo
rglog cmhqug `gux vollgs gisgkblg  .

77
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Bnuorh
:?AK   867AK

Hlegr
Habnu

53AK

865AK
02AK

Gl asgur   Pozo-Nuznu

866AK

Habnu Gl asgur Bnuorh Pozo-nuznu Hlegr  

  6 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
Gl asgur 02  ^ 02 :? ∙ ∙
Habnu
Bnuorh :?  ^ ^ :? 802 ∙
Habnu
Pozo-nuznu  ^ ^ ^ 802 850
802 Bnuorh
Hlegr 850  ^ ^ ^ ^ 850
Habnu

@‟hprís l‟hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh

@odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni `‟Hlegr vgihit `‟Habn
`‟Habnu,
u, lg
 plus cnurt cmgkoi gt 4
Habnu, Bnuorh, Hlegr .

7:
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

3. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni Cnisthitoi4

Snot E;(Z, G) ui erhpmg `nit lgs snkkgts snit lgs vollgs gt lgs hrcs snit lgs cmgkois quo
rglog cmhqug `gux vollgs gisgkblg.

?2AK
Bgdhoh Dodgl

 ?  
 =  
832AK
A
::AK K

Habnu 86=AK Kolh

Cnisthitoig
00AK

5=AK

82?AK
  Sïtoj 
B.B.H

56AK

Habnu Bgdhoh BBH Dodgl Kolh Sgtoj Cnisthitoi

  6 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙

Bgdhoh ::  ^ :: 5= ∙ ∙ ∙ ∙
habnu
B B H 5=  ^ ^ 5= 87= ∙ 850 ∙
Habnu
Sgtoj 80=  ^ ^ ^ 87= ∙ 80= ∙
BBH
Dodgl 87=  ^ ^ ^ 87= ∙ ^ 255
Bgdhoh
Kolh 27:  ^ ^ ^ ^ 27: ^ 255
Dodgl
 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 255

@‟hprís l‟hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni Cnisthitoi vgihit `‟Habnu

lg plus cnurt
Habnu, cmgkoi
B-B-H, Sïtoj,gtCnisthitoi.
4

75
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

0. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg
l‟hlenrotmkg `g Arusahl sur lgs clogits `g `ïpðt `‟N
`‟Nrhi
rhi

Gi vnor co-`gssus ui thblghu quo inus knitrg `gs clogits `g cmhqug `ïpðt 4

@gpnt Clogits `ïpðt clogits

BNW@NWHNW HIIHBH
PLGKCGI CMGLEMNWK GLHO@
BHPIH PGBHSSH
BOSARH SNWA HMRHS
LHEMNWHP AMGICMGLH
CNISPHIPOIG
K'SOLH KOLH
BNWSSHH@H EWGLKH
BNWORH NWK GL BNWHAO
HABNW PNWENWRP SAOA@H
DODGL CNISPHIPOIG
SGPOJ CMGLGJ
BGDHOH BLO@H
BBH HOI @GJLH
POTO NWTNW POSSGKSSOLP
POHRGP KG@GH
@DGLJH POGRGP
PLGKCGI
NRHI KGSREOI PHSSHLH KNSPEMHIGK
NRHI GLAHRKH ANWBH
RGLOTHIG BNRD GLAOJHI
SO@O BGL HBBHS
NRHI KNSPEMHIGK
POHRGP
HOI PGKNWCMGIP
KHSAHRH
PLGKCGI

7=
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

Kossgremoi
20AK ?7AK
Gl Ahrkh Knsthehigk

 =  
2  
A
K
87AK 5?AK

S.B.Hbbhs
?7AK Nrhi ?0AK Khschrh

 =  
 =  
A
K   8  
80?AK  3   232AK
 5 
A
K

Plgkcgi Pohrgt

233AK ?=AK
Rglozhig

Snot E (Z, G) hvgc Z;snkkgts snit lgs vollgs gt G;hrätgs sni lgs rnutgs quo rglog cmhqug `gus
snkkgt gisgkblg.

 Oiotohloshtoni 4

8) clhssgr lgs hrätgs phr nr`rg `g lnieugur crnosshit 4

7?
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

o Go   V(Go)
8 (Nrhi, Gl ahrkh) 87AK
2 (Nrhi, Kossgremoi) 87AK
3 (Gl ahrkh, Kossgremoi) 20AK

0 (Nrhi, Knsthehigk) 5?AK

7 (Knsthehigk, Khschrh) =6AK
: (Gl Ahrkh, S.B.Hbbhs) =2AK
5 (S.B.Hbbhs, Plgkcgi) ==AK
= (Nrhi, Khschrh) ?0AK
? (S.B.Hbbhs, Nrhi) ?7AK
86 (Kossgrem
remoi,
oi, Knsthehigk) ?7AK
88 (Rglozhig, Pohrgt) ?=AK
82 (Khschrh, Pohrgt) 832AK

83 (Nrhi, Rglozhig) 835AK

80 (Nrhi, Plgkcgi) 80?AK
87 (Nrhi, Pohrgt) 232AK
8: (Plgkcgi, Rglozhig) 233AK

Snot P l‟hrbrg rgcmgrcmï 4 P;Ý pnur lg knkgit

2) P;
P;Ý
Ý o 4;8
4;8 G8; (Nrhi, Gl Ahrkh)

3) P+G8 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G8 æ P

P; P+ {G8} hllï æ l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 8 Nrhi   Gl Ahrkh

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2

2) o 4;2 G2; (Nrhi, Kossgremoi) Kossgremoi

3) P+G2 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G2 æ P
P;P+ {G2} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0 Nrhi
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 2
P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2 Gl Ahrkh

:6
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

2) o 4;3 G3; (Gl Ahrkh, Kossgremoi)

3) P+G3 jnrkg ui cyclg, ig phs hdnutgr G3 h P Kossgremoi

Rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2
Nrhi

Gl Ahrkh

2) o 4;0 G0; (Nrhi, Knsthehigk)

K nsthehigk) Kossgremoi
3) P+G0 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G0 h P
P; P+ {G0} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 0 Nrhi Knsthehigk
P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2

Gl ahrkh

2) o 4; 7 G7; (Knsthehigk, Khschrh)

3) P+G7 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G7 h P
P; P+ {G7} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 7 Kossgremoi

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2

Nrhi   Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh

:8
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

2) o 4;: G:; (Gl ahrkh, S.B.Hbbhs)

3) P+ G: gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G : æ P
P;P+ { G:} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g : Kossgremoi

P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2

Nrhi Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh   S.B.Hbbhs

2) o 4;5 G5;(S.B.Hbbhs, Plgkcgi)

3) P+ G5 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G5 æ P
P; P+ { G5} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 5
P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2 Kossgremoi

Nrhi   Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh S.B.Hbbhs   Plgkcgi

:2
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

2) o 4;= G=; (Nrhi, Khschrh)

3) P+ G= jnrkg ui cyclg, ig phs hdnutgr G= æ P
Rgtnurigr æ l‟ïthpg 2

Kossgremoi

Khschrh

Nrhi Knsthehigk

Gl ahrkh   S.B.Hbbhs   Plgkcgi

2) o 4;? G?;(Nrhi, S.B.Hbbhs)

3) P+ G? jnrkg ui cyclg, ig phs hdnutgr G? æ P
Rgtnurigr æ l‟ïthpg 2

Kossgremoi

Nrhi   Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh S.B.Hbbhs   Plgkcgi

:3
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

2) o 4;86
4;86 G86; (Kossgremoi, Knsthehigk)
3) P+ G86 jnrkg ui cyclg, ig phs hdnutgr G86 æ P
Rgtnurigr æ l‟ïthpg 2

Kossgremoi

Nrhi   Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh S.B.Hbbhs   Plgkcgi

2) o 4;88 G88; (Rglozhig, Pohrgt)

3) P+ G88 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G88 æ P
P; P+ { G88} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 88
P≦I-8 rgtnurigr h l‟ïthpg 2

Kossgr moi Rglozhig   Pohrgt

Nrhi   Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh S.B.Hbbhs   Plgkcgi

:0
 

Cmhpotrg OOO4 Chs prhtoqug

2) o 4;82 G82; (Khschrh, Pohrgt)

3) P+ G82 gst shis cyclg, ni hdnutg G82 æ P
P;P+ { G82} hllgr h l‟ïthpg 0
0) oicrïkgitgr o `g 82
P; I-8 l‟hlenrotmkg s‟hrrätg

Kossgr moi Rglozhig   Pohrgt

Nrhi   Knsthehigk   Khschrh

Gl ahrkh S.B.Hbbhs   Plgkcgi

Lg pnos koiokhl `g cgt hrbrg gst 4

87+87+5?+=6+832+?=+=2+==;7=?

Cniclusoni 4

H trhvgrsg lgs rïsultht ollustrïs `his cg `griogr cmhpotrg, l‟nbdgctoj gst `g koiokosgr lgs cnuts
`g trhispnrt `g lh `ostrobutoni `gs prn`uot `g l‟gitrgprosg @hinig quo nccupg uig plhcg trís
okpnrthitg `his lg khrcmï ihtonihlg `gs prn`uot lhotoírg ,ni h pu ïthblor ui plhi `g trhispnrt
nptokhl pnur l‟gitrgprosg gi qugstoni h bhsg `g l‟hpplochtoni `gs `gux hlenrotmkgs @odastrh gt
Arusahl.

:7
 :7

Cniclusoni eïiïrhlg
 

Cniclusoni eïiïrhlg

Cniclusoni eïiïrhlg 4

Lg sgc
sgctgur
tgur trhis
trhispnrt-ln
pnrt-lneostoq
eostoqug
ug gst oicnitnur
oicnitnurihblg
ihblg gt oi`ospgis
oi`ospgishblg
hblg hu qunto`ogi
qunto`ogi `g
cmhcui, lh kni`ohloshtoni `gs ïcmhiegs nbloeg tnutgs lgs gitrgprosgs qugl qug snot lgur sgctgur 
`‟hctovotï, jnit hppgl hu shvnor-jhorg `gs trhispnrtgurs gt lneostocogis pnur hcmgkoigr lgurs

khtoírgs prgkoírgs, gxpï`ogr lgurs prn`uot joios nu eïrgr lgurs stncas, gt cglh hu knoi`rg cnut.
Lg khrcmï `u trhispnrt gt `g lh lneostoqug prgi` hoiso uig okpnrthicg crnosshitg `his
tnutgs lgs gitrgprosgs gt `his tnus lgs sgctgurs `g l‟ïcninkog, ol gst inthkkgit snutgiu phr lg
`ïvglnppgkgit `u g-cnkkgrcg gt lh kultoplochtoni `gs gitrgpðts, c‟gst `nic ui sgctgur gi
 plgoi `ïvglnppgkgit `nit lg inkbrg `g rgcrutgkgits rgstg okpnrthit.
@his lg prgkogr cmhpotrg, inus hvnis kgiï uig ïtu`g boblonerhpmoqug sur lh lneostoqug
`his l‟gitrgprosg gt lh cmhoig lneostoqug, hoiso lh plhcg `gs trhispnrts `his lh cmhoig lneostoqug,
inus hvnis gsshyï iïhiknois `‟ätrg lg plus cnkplgt pnssoblg pnur pgrkgttrg æ `gs lgctgurs
ini spïcohlostgs `g cnkprgi`rg l‟givorniigkgit elnbhlg `g l‟ïtu`g.

Hprís hvnor oitrn`uot lgs intonis `g lh lneostoqug, inus oitrn`uoshit `his lg sgcni`
cmhpotrg,
cmhpotrg, uig oitrn`u
oitrn`uctoni
ctoni æ lh tmïnrog
tmïnrog `gs erhp
erhpmgs,
mgs, gi cotnis lgs intonis `g bhsg `g lh tmïnrog
tmïnrog
`gs erhpmgs, gisuotg inus hllnis prnpnsgr lgs `ojjïrgitgs kïtmn`gs `g lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs
quo sgrt æ nptokosgr lgs cnuts `g trhispnrt.
@his
@his lg trn
trnosoí
osoíkg
kg cm
cmhpo
hpotrg
trg inu
inuss hv
hvnis
nis prïsg
prïsgitï
itï l‟gitr
l‟gitrgp
gpros
rosgg `‟hcc
`‟hccugol
ugol @HINIG
@HINIG
@DWRDWRH, hprís hvnor gjjgctuï ui sstheg
theg prhtoqug `his cg
cgttg
ttg gitrgprosg, gi suotg inu
inuss hvnis
hpploquï lgs `gux hlenrotmkgs `‟nptokoshtoni @ODOASPRH gt ARWSAHL.
Lgs rïsulthts `‟hpplochtoni `gs `gux hlenrotmkgs gst cnkkg suot 4
Cg quo cnicgrig
cnicgrig lh `ostrob
`ostrobutoni
utoni oitgrig `g l‟gitrgpros
l‟gitrgprosgg @HINI
@HINIG
G (usoi
(usoig,
g, `ïpðts),
`ïpðts), lg cmnox
cmnox `g

l‟hlenrotmkg `g @ODOASPRH inus h hpphrug trís gjjochcg, h joi `g trnuvgr lg plus cnurt
cmgkoi gitrg l‟usoig gt lgs `ojjïrgits `ïpðts sotugr `his lg tgrrotnorg ihtonihlg.
Lg chlculg `g l‟hlenrotmkg h pgrkos `‟hbnutor hu rïsultht suovhit 4
Lgs `gstoihtonis `‟HLEGR gt CNISPHIPOIG, lg plus cnurt cmgkoi gt lg käkg qu‟gllg
 prgi` l‟gitrgprosg.
Vhr cnitrg lh `gstoihtoni vgrs lg `ïpðt `‟NRHI, lg plus cnurt cmgkoi gst 4
HABNW-BNWORH-BGRRNWHEMOH-HOI@GJLH-CMLGJ-NWG@RMONW-
KNSPHEHIGK-NRHI, c‟gst ui phrcnurg `g 77= AK, lg cmgkoi hpploquï phr l‟gitrgprosg
gst hu lnie `g :25AK, lh `ojjïrhicg ggst
st `g :? AK, `nic ssoo lg cnut /AK gst `g 866 @H lg eehoi
hoi
torgr phr
phr l‟gitr
l‟gitrgpros
gprosgg gst `g :?66 @H
@H phr ui sg
sgul
ul chkon
chkoni.
i.

::
 

Cniclusoni eïiïrhlg

Vnurr lh `os
Vnu `ostrob
trobuto
utoni
ni gxt
gxtgri
grigg `g l‟g
l‟gitrg
itrgpro
prosg
sg (`ï
(`ïpðt
pðts,
s, clo
clogit
gits),
s), in
inus
us hvnis
hvnis cm
cmnos
nosog
og
l‟hlenrotmkg `g ARWSAHL, cg quo inus h pgrkgt `‟gxtrhorg ui rïsghu `g `ostrobutoni `‟ui
 pno`s koiokhl, c'gst-æ-`org ui rïsghu `‟uig `osthicg koiokhl gt quo sgrvog tnus lgs clogits `‟ui
`ïpðt.

 Inus hvnis hpploquï l‟hlenrotmkg sur lg `ïpðt `‟NRHI, lg rïsultht gst ui rïsghu
nptokhl quo gst `‟uig lnieugur `g 7=? AK gt quo sgrvog tnus lgs clogits.

:5
 

Boblonerhpmog
 

   BHRAHNWO.A, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Hlenrotmkgs `g erhpmgs, V. :.

 erhpmgs, 2gkg ï`otoni, 2665, p. 8:.

  BNI@_.D gt KWRP_.W, Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs,

   BNWRSG._, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Hrbrg cn

cnuvrhit
uvrhit koiokhl phr lh kïtmn`g `g Arusahl,
266?, p. 2.

   BRGUGR.H gt BWPPNI.A gt MGISMGISMGR.@,

MGR.@, H Mhi`bnna nj lneostoc hi` supply
supply
cmhoi khihegkgit, Igw _nra, 2668, p. 85.

   CHRNI.D, Strhtïeog `g lovrhosni ``orgctg

orgctg `his uig cmhoig lneostoqug
lneostoqug oitgrihtonihlg,
tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 H`koiostrhtoni `gs hjjhorgs, uiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, Knitrïhl. 2682,
 p. 53.

   CMHRAHNWO. H, Intgs `g cnurs4 Systíkgs lne lneostoqugs

ostoqugs 4 lh lneostoqug æ trhvgrs sni
mostnorg, Gcnlg Supïrogurg `g Egstoni, Khrrhagcm, 2660.

   CNLOI.D, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Lh lneostoqug 4 Mostnorg gt pgrspgctovgs,

pgrspgctovgs, Wiovgrsotï Hox-
Khrsgollg OO, 8??:, p. 8-7.

   CNRKGI.P gt LGOSG
LGOSGRSNI.C
RSNI.C gt ROZGSP.R, Oi
Oitrn`uctoni
trn`uctoni æ l‟hlenrotmkoqug, ï`otonis
ï`otonis
@uini`, 8??5.

   CNSPH.K, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Nptokoshtoni `hi

`hiss lgs erhpmgs, Vhros, 268
2680,
0, p. :.

   @O@OGR.K, Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erh

erhpmgs,
pmgs, CRK, chmogrs I¶:, 2682,
2682, p. 3.

   @ONKHI@G.I, Lg trhispnrt `his lh strhtïe

strhtïeog
og `g prn`uctoni `gs erhi`g
erhi`gss gitrgprosgs,
@oplðkg `‟Oieïiogur `gs trhvghux publocs, Bnoeiy. 2665.

   @WVNICMGL.@, L‟okphc
L‟okphctt `g lh cotnygiigtï sur lh egstoni `g lh Supply Cmhoi,
Cmhoi,
Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug, uiovgrsotï Vhros 8, 2686.

   GBG@G.G, Intgs `g cnurs4Oiotohtoni æ lh lneostoqug,

lneostoqug, p. 88-87.

   GROC.S, Intgs `g cnurs4 Oitrn`uc

Oitrn`uctoni
toni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs, Khrs 2662, p. 2.

   EOZR_.S SCMOG].P, Oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïn

tmïnrog
rog `gs erhpmgs, 2683, p. ?.

   MHKRNWIO.B, @ïshkboe
@ïshkboeuîshtoni
uîshtoni `his lh typojochtoni `g `niiïgs
`niiïgs tgxtugllgs æ `gs
jois `‟hihlysgs chtïenrogllgs, tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Khtmïkhtoqugs gt oijnrkhtoqug,
uiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, 266=, p. 38.

   Dnurihl oitgrig `g @@H, ``gcgkbrg2682.

gcgkbrg2682.
   ARGIE-ZOCPNR.B gt CMGI.J, Pm Pmgg bgigjots nj h crnss-`ncaoie `glovgry
`glovgry strhtgey4 h

supply cmhoi cnllhbnrhtoni hpprnhcm, 266=, p.8:.

   LHBGLLG.D, Pmïn
Pmïnrog
rog `gs erhpmgs, KN@WLN, Chih
Chih`h,
`h, 8?=8, p. 83.
 

   KHK_.G, Intgs `g cnurs4 lh egs

egstoni
toni `gs trhispnrts gt lgs PKS, Jrhicg, 2686, p. 80
80..

   KHROG.C gt BGHWLOGW.K, @ïjoiotoni gt hihlysg ``gs

gs cni`otonis sg succí
succíss `u crnss-
`ncaoie, vnl.86, 2gkg ï`otoni, Chih`h, 2662.

   KGI@OL.H gt AG@DHR.L, Lh lneostoqug `g `ostrobutoni4 Nptokoshtoni `gs cnuts `g

trhispnrt, Kïknorg Khstgr 4 Khihegkgit `gs Nrehioshtonis, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh.
2687.

   KNIPCNWXWONL.E, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Pmïnrog

Pmïnrog `gs erhpmgs,
erhpmgs, Wiovgrsotï `‟Nrshy,
266:, p. 35.

   KNWHCO gt RGKHCO, Nptokoshtoni ``gs gs cnuts `g trh

trhispnrt
ispnrt chs SNZHC-BNWORH,
SNZHC-BNWORH,
Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug gt `ostrobutoni, uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 268:.

   KNWTHNWO.K gt RHK@HIO.I, Gssh Gsshoo `‟hihlysg `g l‟okphctg `g lh lneostoqug sur lh

`ostrobutoni `gs prn`uots `g l‟gitrgprosg, Kïknorg Khstgr 4 lneostoqug gt `ostrobutoni,
uiovgrsotï `g Bgdhoh. 2687.


  INROEGNI.V, Intgs `g cnurs4Lneostoqug gt gt g-Busoigss, V.:.
   Nrehioshtoni `g Cnnpï
Cnnpïrhtoni
rhtoni gt `g @ïvglnppgkgit Ïcni
Ïcninkoqugs,
nkoqugs, Lneostoqug `gs
trhispnrts, 2662, p. 7:.

   VOKNR._ gt JGI@GR
JGI@GR.K,
.K, lneostoqug 4 Vrn`uctoni @ostrobutoni
@ostrobutoni gt Snutogi, Vhros,
gkg
@uin`, 7 G`otoni, 8??=, V. 0.

   RN@ROXWG.P, Kïtmn`gs `g kn`ïloshtoni gt `g `‟nptokoshtoni phr rgcmgrcmg

rgcmgrcmg æ
vnosoihegs vhrohblg pnur lg prnblíkg `g cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit,
tmísg `g `nctnrht 4 Scogicg
Scogicgss pmysoqug,
pmysoqug, uiovgrsotï `g bnr`ghux,
bnr`ghux, 2680
2680,, p. 5.

   SOKCMO-LGZO.@ gt AHKOISAG_.V, @gsoei

@gsoeioie
oie hi` Khiheoie tmg Supp
Supply
ly Cmhoi4
cnicgpts, strhtgeogs, hi` chsg stu`ogs, 2663, p. 82.
   SNMOGR.D, Lh lneostoqug 4 Cnkprgi`
Cnkprgi`rg rg lh `ïkhrcmg lneostoqug, sgs
sgs rïpgrcussonis sur 
lh qugstoni, Zuobgrt, 3íkgï`otoni, phros, 2662, p.3.

   SPH@PLGR.M gt AOLEGR.C, Supp Supply

ly cmhoi khihegkgit
khihegkgit hi` h`vhicg` plhiioie
plhiioie44
cnicgpt, kn`gls, snjtwhrg, hi` chsg stu`ogs, 3gkg ï`otoni, 2686, p. 83.

   PHANW@DNW.P, Kïtmn`g
Kïtmn`gss `g kn`ïloshtoni gt `‟nptokoshtoni phr rgcmgrcmg
rgcmgrcmg æ
vnosoihegs vhrohblgs pnur lg prnblíkg `g cnllgctg gt `g lovrhosni hvgc trhisbnr`gkgit,
tmísg `g @nctnrht 4 Vrn`uctoqug, uiovgrsotï `g Bnr`ghux. 2680, p. ?.

   PO]OGR.@ gt hl. , Lh lneostoqug hu sgrvocg `g l‟g

l‟gitrgprosg
itrgprosg 4 knygis, kïchioskgs ggtt
gidgux, Vhros, @uin`, 3gkg G`otoni, 8?==.
 

   PO]OGR.@ gt hl. , Lh lneostoqug `‟gitrgprosg 4 vgrs ui khihegkgit

khihegkgit plus cnkpïtotoj,
gkg
Vhros, @uin`, 2 G`otoni,8?=8,V.36 .

   UNIE.P, Intgs `g cnurs 4 Hlenrotmkg `g @odas

@odastrh,
trh, Wiovgrsotï `u Xuïbgc, p. 8-8:.
 

Phblg `gs khtoírgs

Rgkgrcogkgit
@ï`ochcgs
Lostg `gs joeurgs
Snkkhorg
Oitrn`uctoni eïiïrhlg…………………………………………………………………...…8

Cmhpotrg O 4 Eïiïrhlotï
Oitrn`uctoni………………………………………………………………………………..3
Sgctoni 8 4 ch`rg tmïnroqug `g lh lneostoqug `‟gitrgprosg………………………………..3
8. Brgj mostnroqug .........................
.................................................
...............................................
..............................................
.....................................….3
..............….3
2. @ïjoiotonis `g lh lneostoqug …………………………………………………………...…0
3. Lgs jnictonis lneostoqugs …………………………………………………………...……7
3.8 Lgs hctovotïs gi hknit ...............................................
......................................................................
.........................................…...5
..................…...5
3.2 Lgs hctovotïs gi hvhl ……………………………………………………..………….=
0. Lgs `ojjïrgits typgs `g lh lneostoqug……………………………………………………..?
7. Lgs knygis lneostoqugs ........................
...............................................
..............................................
..............................................
..............................88
.......88
7.8 L‟oijrhstructurg lneostoqug ……………………………………………………........88
7.2 Lgs systíkgs gt nutols `‟gxplnothtoni ………………………………………...........82
:. L‟gxtgrihloshtoni ………………………………………………………………………..83

Sgctoni 2 4 Lh cmhoig lneostoqug gt lg trhispnrt ………………………………………..80

8. Lh cmhoig lneostoqug …………………………………………………………………....80
2. Lg rðlg `u trhispnrt `his lh cmhoig lneostoqug ………………………………………....8:
2.8 Lh plhcg `u trhispnrt rnutogr ……………………………………………………...8:
2.2 Lgs njjrgs `g trhispnrt …………………………………………………………....85
2.2.8 L'hjjrítgkgit ………………………………………………………………..85
2.2.2 Lg ernupheg …………………………………………………………………85
2.2.3 Lh kgsshegrog ........................
...............................................
..............................................
.............................................….
......................….85
85
2.2.0 Prhispnrt gxprgss ………………………………………………………....…8=
3. Lh egstoni `g lh cmhoig lneostoqug ………………………………………………......….8=
3.8 Lh jnictoni `ostrobutoni/trhispnrt …………………………………………........…8?
……………… …………………………........…8?
3.2 Lg iovghu `g `ïcosoni npïrhtoniigl ................................................
..............................................................….......8
..............….......8??
 

0. Lgs prhtoqugs hctugllgs gt lgs inuvgllgs tgi`hicgs `his lg trhispnrt ……………..........26

0.8 L'gxtgrihloshtoni `gs cmhoigs `‟hpprnvosoniigkgi
`‟hpprnvosoniigkgits
ts ………………………..........26
0.2 Lh prhtoqug `g lh kutuhloshtoni ……………………………………………….......26
0.3 Lg crnss-`ncaoie ………………………………………………………………......28
0.0 Lg trhisbnr`gkgit …………………………………………………………….......22
7. Lg Prhispnrt Khihegkgit Systgk ………………………………………………….....23

Cniclusoni …………………………………………………………………………….....27

Cmhpotrg OO 4 Intonis
Intonis eïiïrhlgs
eïiïrhlgs sur lh tmïnrog `gs
`gs erhpmgs
Oitrn`uctoni……………………………………………………………………………....2:
Sgctoni 8 4 oitrn`uctoni æ lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs .......................................................….2:
8. Mostnroqug ……………………………………………………………………………....2:
2. @ïjoiotonis gt cnicgpts `g bhsg ……………………………………………………........25
2.8 Wi erhpmg …………………………………………………………………….........25
2.2 Rgprïsgithtoni erhpmoqug …………………………………………………….........2=
3. Xuglqugs typgs `g erhpmgs ………………………………………………………..........2=
3.8 Erhpmg phrtogl gt snus-erhpmg ………………………………………………..........36
3.2 @gerïs………………………………………………………………………….......
@gerïs………………………………………………………………………….......36
36
3.2.8 @gerï `‟ui snkkgt………………………………………………………......36
3.2.2 @gerï `‟ui erhpmg………………………………………………………........38
0. Cmhéigs gt cyclgs......
cyclgs.................................
..................................................
..............................................
.........................................….....
..................….........38
....38
7. Erhpmgs gulïrogis ………………………………………………………………............32
:. Erhpmgs mhkoltniogis…………………………………………………………….......…32
mhkoltniogis…………………………………………………………….......…32

5. Hrbrgs ……………………………………………………………………………..........32
=. Hrbrgs cnuvrhits ...............................................
......................................................................
..............................................
........................................33
.................33
?. Erhpmgs nrogitïs ........................
...............................................
..............................................
..............................................
........................................33
.................33
?.8 @gerï `‟ui snkkgt `‟ui `oerhpmg .....................
...............................................
.................................................
...........................33
....33
?.2 Cmgkois gt corcuots.......................................
corcuots..............................................................
..............................................
......................................33
...............33
?.3 @oerhpmg jnrtgkgit cniigxg ........................................
...............................................................
...........................................30
....................30
Sgctoni 2 4 lgs kïtmn`gs `‟nptokoshtoni phr lh tmïnrog `gs erhpmgs..............................37

8. Kïtmn`g 8 4 Hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh.................................

@odastrh........................................................
..............................................
.........................37
..37

8.8 Gxplochtonis..............................
Gxplochtonis......................................................
...............................................
..............................................
.................................37
..........37
2. Kïtmn`g 2 4 Hlenrotmkg `g arusahl .............................................
....................................................................
....................................35
.............35
 

3. Kïtmn`g 3 4 Hlenrotmkg `g Jnr`-Julagrsni.....................

Jnr`-Julagrsni............................................
..............................................
.........................06
..06
0. Kïtmn`g 0 4 Hlenrotmkg `g Bushcagr gt Enwgi ........................................................
.............................................................08
.....08
Cniclusoni ...........................................
..................................................................
..............................................
..............................................
.................................02
..........02
Cmhpotrg OOO 4 Chs prhtoqug
Oitrn`uctoni
Oitrn`uctoni ...........................................
..................................................................
..............................................
..............................................
..............................03
.......03
Sgctoni 8 4 Vrïsgithtoni `g l‟nrehioskg `‟hccugol @HINIG .......................................03
8. Mostnroqug…………………………………………………………………………….....03
2. Okplhithtoni eïnerhpmoqug...
eïnerhpmoqug..........................
..............................................
..............................................
..............................................
.......................07
07
3. O`gitojochtoni gt jnrkg duro`oqug……………………………………………………………0:
0. Nrehioerhkkg eïiïrhlg `g @hinig @dur`durh Hleïrog....................................................0:
Hleïrog....................................................0:
7. Lh jhbrochtoni `u yhnurt jgrkg gt brhssï.......
brhssï..................................
..................................................
........................................0=
.................0=
7.8 Lgs prn`uots @@H.....................
@@H............................................
..............................................
..............................................
.................................0?
..........0?
7.2 Lgs proicophux cnicurrgits `g l‟gitrgprosg @@H..................
@@H.........................................
...................................76
............76

7.2.8 Lgs cnicurrgits ooi`orgcts..............

i`orgcts.....................................
..............................................
............................................7
.....................766
7.2.2 Lgs cnicurrgits `orgcts.....................................
`orgcts............................................................
..............................................
........................76
.76
:. L‟gxtgisoni `u cg
cgitrg
itrg `‟gxpï`otoni.....................
`‟gxpï`otoni........................................
..........................................
.......................................72
................72

Sgctoni 2 4 hpplochtoni `gs hlenrotmkgs `g `doastrh gt arusahl .....................................72

8. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g `doastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni `‟Nrhi ..................................73
2. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g `doastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni Hlegr.....................................77
3. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g @odastrh sur lh `gstoihtoni Cnisthitoi............................75
0. Hpplochtoni `g l‟hlenrotmkg `g Arusahl sur lgs clogits `g `ïpðt
`ïpðt `‟Nrhi ....................
......................7=
..7=
Cniclusoni.........................
Cniclusoni................................................
..............................................
..............................................
..............................................
............................:7
.....:7

Cniclusoni eïiïrhlg......................
eïiïrhlg.............................................
..............................................
..............................................
.......................................::
................::

Boblonerhpmog
 

Rïsukï 4

Lg trhispnrt gst ui ïlïkgit okpnrthit gt prïsgit `his l‟gitrgprosg `gpuos lnietgkps. Lh

tgi`hicg gst æ lh rï`uctoni `gs cnuts `g trhispnrt. Lg trhispnrt hpphrhot `nic cnkkg ui
khollnii oi`ospg
kholln oi`ospgishb
ishblg
lg `g lh Cmhoi
Cmhoigg lneostoqu
lneostoqugg quo hssurg lh lohosn
lohosnii gitrg lgs `ojjïrgits
`ojjïrgits ïthegs
`u systíkg lneostoqug.
Lg prnblíkg
prnblíkg `g trhispnrtg gst ui chs phrtoculog
phrtoculogrr `g lh prnerhk
prnerhkkhton
khtonii loiïhorg,
loiïhorg, cgttg
`grioírg gst ui prnblíkg `‟nptokoshtoni cnisosthit æ khxokosgr nu æ koiokosg uig jnictoni
nb
nbdg
dgct
ctoj
oj (j
(jni
nict
cton
onii ïcni
ïcnink
nkoq
oqug
ug)) `g i vh
vhro
rohb
hblg
lg `g `ï
`ïco
coso
soni
ni sn
snuk
ukos
osgs
gs æ ui gi
gisg
sgkb
kblg
lg `g
cnitrhoitgs gxprokïgs snus jnrkg `‟ïquhtoni nu `‟oiïquhtoni loiïhorgs.
Lgs kn`ílgs `‟hjjgcthtoni gt `g trhisbnr`gkgit snit `gs `gux chs phrtoculogrs `‟ui
 prnblíkg `g trhispnrt.

Knt clïs 4

Lneostoqug, cmhoig lneostoqug, trhispnrt, nptokoshtoni, tmïnrog `gs erhpmg, hlenrotmkg,

@odastrh, arusahl.

Hbstrhct4

Prhispnrthtoni mhs bggi hi okpnrthit phrt nj tmg cnkphiy jnr h lnie tokg. Pmg trgi` os
tn rg`ucg trhispnrt cnsts. Prhispnrt tmgrgjnrg hppghrs hs hi oi`ospgishblg loia oi tmg lneostocs
cmhoi, wmocm prnvo`gs tmg loia bgtwggi tmg `ojjgrgit sthegs nj tmg lneostocs systgk.
Pmg trhispnrt prnblgk os h phrtoculhr chsg nj loighr prnerhkkoie, tmg lhttgr bgoie hi
np
nptok
tokoz
ozht
hton
onii pr
prnb
nblg
lgk
k cnis
cnisos
ostoi
toiee oi khxok
khxokoz
ozoi
oiee nr koi
koiok
okozo
ozoie
ie hi nb
nbdg
dgct
ctov
ovgg ju
juic
icton
tonii

(gcninkoc juictoni) nj i `gcosoni vhrohblgs subdgctg` tn h sgt nj cnistrhoits gxprgssg` oi tmg

jnrk nj h loighr gquhtoni nr oigquhloty.
Hssoeikgit hi` trhismopkgit kn`gls hrg twn phrtoculhr chsgs nj h trhispnrt prnblgk.
Agywnr`s4

Lneostocs
Lneostocs,, supp
supply
ly cmhoi
cmhoi,, trhis
trhispnrth
pnrthtoni,
toni, nptoko
nptokozhton
zhtoni,
i, tmgnry nj erhpms,
erhpms, hlen
hlenrotmk,
rotmk,
@odastrh, Arusahl.