COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF

PRESSURE SWIRL ATOMIZER

AE 8811-PROJECT WORK

Submitted by

K. KIRAN ESWAR 821318101003

B. SATHESHWARAN 821318101007

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PARISUTHAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

THANJAVUR - 613006

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

JUNE 2022
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF PRESSURE

SWIRL ATOMIZER” is the bonafide work of

K. KIRAN ESWAR 821318101003

B. SATHESHWARAN 821318101007

who carried out the project work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE
Mr.C.N.MURUGANANDAM,M.Tech.,(Ph.D).,
HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Parisutham Institute of technology &
Science, Thanjavur-613006.
SIGNATURE
Mr.S.NAGARAJAN,M.E.,
SUPERVISOR/ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Parisutham Institute of technology &
Science, Thanjavur-613006.

Submitted for the project Viva-Voce examination held on……………………

Internal examiner External examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very much grateful and sincere thanks to our beloved CHAIRMAN
Mr.S.P.ANTHONISAMY B.A.,B.L,, for giving us an opportunity to study in
wonderful institute and for the various excellent facilities to learn, develop and excel
ourselves in varies field.

We would like to thanks the Management of our college, the respectable

PRINCIPAL, Dr. J. NIRMALA M.Tech., Ph.D., for all support and words of
wisdom.

We sincerely thank Mr.C.N.MURUGANANDAM., M.Tech., Phd., HEAD OF THE

DEPARTMENT, Department of Mechanical Engineering for encouraging us during
the course of this project.

We would like to extend our sincere and hearty thanks to project co-ordinator of our
project Mr.S.NAGARAJAN M.E., Assistant Professor, Department of
Aeronautical Engineering for giving us his valuable comments and suggestion.

We would also thank our project guide Mr.V.KEERTHIVASAN M.E., Assistant

Professor, Department of Aeronautical Engineering for giving us the required
guidance and his valuable comments and suggestion.

We extend our deep sense of gratitude to all staff members of our Aeronautical
Department and parents for helping us to complete all our goals successfully.
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work entitled “COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF

PRESSURE SWIRL ATOMIZER” submitted in a partial fulfillment for the award of
the degree B.E., Anna University Chennai, is a record of our own carried out by us
during the academic year 2021-2022. Supervised by and guided by
Mr.V.KEERTHIVASAN M.E., Assistant Professor, Department of Aeronautical
Engineering, Parisutham Institute of Technology And Science, Thanjavur. The extent
and source of information are derived from the existing literature and have been
indicated through the dissertation at the appropriate places. The matter embodies in this
work is original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or
diploma, in either this institution or any other University.

Signature of the Candidate,

K.KIRAN ESWAR (821318101003)
I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true.

Signature of the Internal Guide,

Mr.V.KEERTHIVASAN M.E.,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering,
Parisutham Institute of technology & Science,
Thanjavur-613006.
 DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work entitled “COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF

PRESSURE SWIRL ATOMIZER” submitted in a partial fulfillment for the award of
the degree B.E., Anna University Chennai, is a record of our own carried out by us
during the academic year 2021-2022. Supervised by and guided by
Mr.V.KEERTHIVASAN M.E., Assistant Professor, Department of Aeronautical
Engineering, Parisutham Institute of Technology And Science, Thanjavur. The extent
and source of information are derived from the existing literature and have been
indicated through the dissertation at the appropriate places. The matter embodies in this
work is original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree or
diploma, in either this institution or any other University.

Signature of the Candidate,

B.SATHESHWARAN (821318101007)
I certify that the declaration made above by the candidate is true.

Signature of the Internal Guide,

Mr.V.KEERTHIVASAN M.E.,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Aeronautical Engineering,
Parisutham Institute of technology & Science,
Thanjavur-613006.
 INDEX
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT i

LIST OF FIGURES ii

LIST OF TABLES iv

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS iv

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 The gas turbine cycle 1

1.3 Basic principles of gas turbine 3

1.4 Engine sections 5

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 11

FUNDAMENTALS OF
3 16
ATOMIZATION

3.1 Basics of atomization 16

Atomization sprays, droplets, and

3.2 18
surface tension

Fluid properties affecting the

3.2.1 20
droplets

3.2.2 Atomization process 21

 3.2.2.1 Pressure (airless) atomization 21

3.2.2.2 Pressure swirl atomizer 22

3.2.2.3 Compressed air 22

3.2.2.4 Air (air spray) atomization 23

3.2.2.5 Centrifugal atomization 24

Atomization by ligament
3.2.3 25
formation

3.2.3.1 Electrostatics atomization 25

3.2.3.2 Ultrasonic atomization 26

3.2.3.3 Achieving desired atomization 26

3.3 Experimental arrangement 27

4 DESIGN METHODOLOGY 30

Introduction to computational
4.1 30
fluid dynamics

4.2 Gambit 31

4.2.1 Meshing 31

4.2.2 Grids 32

Grid independent study on

4.2.3 33
following basis

4.2.4 Boundary conditions 34

Applications of computational
4.3 34
fluid dynamics
 4.3.1 Aerospace applications 35

Design of two dimensional view

4.4 35
of radial swirller
Analysis of pressure swirl
4.5 39
atomizer

4.5.1 Meshing 39

CFD Analysis for velocity

4.5.2 42
contour

5 EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS 43

5.1 Experimental method 43

5.2 Measurement of aircore diameter 44

5.3 Measurement of spray cone angle 45

Measurement of Sauter mean

5.4 46
diameter

5.5 Fuel injector specifications 46

5.6 Experimental setup 47

5.7 Patternator setup 47

5.8 Experimental results 48

CONCLUSION 51
PUBLICATION
52
CERTIFICATES

REFERENCES 54
 ABSTRACT

An atomizer is a device used to split the fuel from large to smaller or finer droplets
to increase the power generation by effective combustion. In aircraft engines, the
combustion process plays a major role in producing thrust, but in the combustion
chamber, the burning process is not occurring properly sometimes because of fuel
spraying. because we can’t be sure if the air and fuel are mixing properly or not.
So, we are going to increase the combustion process in the combustion process in
the combustion chamber of the engine. In this project, we are going to insert a
device that acts as an atomizer into the engine to enhance the burning process.
Through this, we can improve the thrust of an aircraft and also reduce the wastage
of spilled fuel. For this project, we are going to use software, namely GAMBIT, to
design the atomizer. That will be analysed using the same software. From the
analysis process, we obtain the value of pressure and velocity as the result. By
comparing the results, we can show the better performance of the combustion
chamber of an Engine. In addition, we are going to do some experimental setup in
which an atomizer is placed above the pipes to show the visualisation and
measurement of flow rate, volume and time where testing with different pressure is
conducted in each trail and tabulated. These tables of trail completely give the best
result.

Key words: Atomizer, Fuel injector, Meshing, CFD analysis GAMBIT software.

i
 LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE.NO

1.1 Pressure Measurement Techniques 4

1.2 Divergent Duct 4

1.3 Gas Turbine Engine 8

3.2.1 Atomization for a stream of liquid 19

3.2.2 Stream spray with a variety of droplet sizes 19

Viscosity, droplet size, and when atomization occurs

3.2.3 20
Density

3.2.4 Airless atomization with fluid under pressure 22

A high-velocity water jet that is breaking up by

3.2.5 24
airless atomization

3.2.6 Centrifugal atomization 25

3.2.7 Balancing factors to achieve desired atomization 27

4.1 Process of Computational Fluid Dynamics 30

4.2.3.1 Unstructured Grid 33

4.2.3.2 Structured Grid 33

4.4.1 Radial Swirler 35

4.4.2 Swirler GAMPID Drawing 36

ii
4.4.3 Swirler GAMPIT 3D Drawing 37

4.4.4 Swirler Atomizer Drawing 38

4.5.1.1 Swirler Messing Drawing 39

4.5.1.2 Atomizer Messing Drawing 40

4.5.1.3 Swirler Atomizer Messing Drawing 40

4.5.2 velocity conture 42

a.Flow through the pressure swirl atomizer and the

hollow cone spray, b. Geometrical dimensions of the
5.1 43
pressure swirl atomizer studied in the present study
(all dimensions are in millimeters).

5.2.1 Aircore processing. 45

5.3.1 Measurement of spray cone angle 46

5.6 Experimental setup 47

5.7 Patternator setup 47

LIST OF TABLES

S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE.NO

The relative velocities of air and fluid for airless

3.2.1 23
and air spray atomization

3.2.2 Atomization Processes and Their Energy Sources 27

iii
4.5.1 Grid Independent Study 41

5.5 Fuel injector specification 46

5.8.1 Result 1 48

5.8.2 Result 2 48

5.8.3 Result 3 49

5.8.4 Result 4 49

5.8.5 Result 5 50

LIST OF ABBREVATIONS

1 CFD Comutaional Fluid Dynamics

2 PIV Particles Image Velocitymeter

3 PDA Phase Doppler Anemometry

4 SG Structured Grid

5 USG Unstructured Grid

6 GIS Grid Independent Study

iv
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

The gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that uses air as the working fluid.
The engine extracts chemical energy from fuel and converts it to mechanical energy
using the gaseous energy of the working fluid (air) to drive the engine and propeller,
which, in turn, propel the airplane.

1.2 THE GAS TURBINE CYCLE

The basic principle of the airplane turbine engine is identical to any and all engines
that extract energy from chemical fuel. The basic 4 steps for any internal
combustion engine are:

1. Intake of air (and possibly fuel).

2. Compression of the air (and possibly fuel).

3. Combustion, where fuel is injected (if it was not drawn in with the intake air)
and burned to convert the stored energy.

4. Expansion and exhaust, where the converted energy is put to use.

In the case of a piston engine, such as the engine in a car or reciprocating airplane
engine, the intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust steps occur in the same
place (cylinder head) at different times as the piston goes up and down.

In the turbine engine, however, these same four steps occur at the same time but in
different places. As a result of this fundamental difference, the turbine has engine
sections called:

1. The inlet section

1
 2. The compressor section

3. The combustion section (the combustor)

4. The turbine (and exhaust) section.

The turbine section of the gas turbine engine has the task of producing usable output
shaft power to drive the propeller. In addition, it must also provide power to drive
the compressor and all engine accessories. It does this by expanding the high
temperature, pressure, and velocity gas and converting the gaseous energy to
mechanical energy in the form of shaft power.

A large mass of air must be supplied to the turbine in order to produce the necessary
power. This mass of air is supplied by the compressor, which draws the air into the
engine and squeezes it to provide high-pressure air to the turbine. The compressor
does this by converting mechanical energy from the turbine to gaseous energy in
the form of pressure and temperature.

If the compressor and the turbine were 100% efficient, the compressor would supply
all the air needed by the turbine. At the same time, the turbine would supply the
necessary power to drive the compressor. In this case, a perpetual motion machine
would exist. However, frictional losses and mechanical system inefficiencies do not
allow a perpetual motion machine to operate. Additional energy must be added to
the air to accommodate for these losses. Power output is also desired from the
engine (beyond simply driving the compressor); thus, even more energy must be
added to the air to produce this excess power. Energy addition to the system is
accomplished in the combustor. Chemical energy from fuel as it is burned is
converted to gaseous energy in the form of high temperatures and high velocity as
the air passes through the combustor. The gaseous energy is converted back to
mechanical energy in the turbine, providing power to drive the compressor and the
output shaft.

2
1.3. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINE

As air passes through a gas turbine engine, aerodynamic and energy requirements
demand changes in the air’s velocity and pressure. During compression, a rise in
the air pressure is required, but not an increase in its velocity. After compression
and combustion have heated the air, an increase in the velocity of gases is necessary
in order for the turbine rotors to develop power. The size and shape of the ducts
through which the air flows affect these various changes. Where a conversion from
velocity to pressure is required, the passages are divergent. Conversely, if a
conversion from pressure to velocity is needed, a convergent duct is used.

Before further discussion, an explanation of convergent ducts, divergent ducts, and

the behavior of air within these ducts should be made. An understanding of the
difference between static pressure (Ps), impact pressure, (Pi), and total pressure (Pt)
is also needed.

The difference between static, impact, and total pressures is as follows. Static
pressure is the force per unit area exerted on the walls of a container by a stationary
fluid. An example is the air pressure within a car tire. Impact pressure, on the other
hand, is the force per unit area exerted by fluids in motion. Impact pressure is a
function of the velocity of the fluid. An example of impact pressure is the pressure
exerted on one's hand held outside a moving car’s window. Total pressure is the
sum of static and impact pressures.

Figure-1.1. illustrates the methods used to measure pressures. Part (a) illustrates the
measurement of static pressure. Static pressure will not take into account the
velocity of the air. Part (b) illustrates the measurement of total pressure, which
accounts for both static pressure and the pressure due to the moving fluid (impact
pressure). In order to obtain impact pressure, the value of the static pressure is
subtracted from the value of total pressure.

3
 Figure-1.1: Pressure Measurement Techniques
Figure-1.2. shows the principle of divergent ducts, where energy is neither being
added or taken away, but where the gaseous energy is being converted from velocity
to pressure and temperature. There is a velocity decrease as air flows from a small
inlet to a larger outlet. As velocity decreases, impact pressure (Pi) also decreases.
Since no energy is added or subtracted from the system, total pressure (Pt) for the
air remains constant and static pressure (Ps ) increases. One way of viewing this is
that the impact pressure is converted to static pressure; thus, a static pressure rise is
seen as air flows through a divergent duct and is compressed. A temperature rise is
also noticed since compression is a heating process.

Figure1.2: Divergent Duct

The convergent duct operates exactly in reverse of the divergent duct. Figure----
shows the principle of convergent ducts, where energy is neither being added or

4
taken away, but where the gaseous energy is being converted from pressure and
temperature to velocity. There is a velocity increase as air flows from a large inlet
to a smaller outlet. As velocity increases, impact pressure also increases. Since no
energy is added or subtracted from the system, total pressure remains constant and
static pressure decreases. One way of viewing this is that the static pressure is
converted to impact pressure; thus, a static pressure decrease is seen as air flows
through a convergent duct and goes through expansion. A temperature drop is
associated with any expansion process.

1.4. ENGINE SECTIONS

INLET
The air inlet duct must provide clean and unrestricted airflow to the engine. Clean
and undisturbed inlet airflow extends engine life by preventing erosion, corrosion,
and foreign object damage (FOD).Consideration of atmospheric conditions such as
dust, salt, industrial pollution, foreign objects (birds, nuts and bolts), and
temperature (icing conditions) must be made when designing the inlet system.
Fairings should be installed between the engine air inlet housing and the inlet duct
to ensure minimum airflow losses to the engine at all airflow conditions. The inlet
duct assembly is usually designed and produced as a separate system rather than as
part of the design and production of the engine.
COMPRESSOR
The compressor is responsible for providing the turbine with all the air it needs in
an efficient manner. In addition, it must supply this air at high static pressures. The
example of a large turboprop axial flow compressor will be used. The compressor
is assumed to contain fourteen stages of rotor blades and stator vanes. The overall
pressure ratio (pressure at the back of the compressor compared to pressure at the
front of the compressor) is approximately 9.5:1. At 100% (>13,000) RPM, the

5
engine compresses approximately 433 cubic feet of air per second. At standard day
air conditions, this equals approximately 33 pounds of air per second. The
compressor also raises the temperature of the air by about 550 F as the air is
compressed and moved rearward. The power required to drive a compressor of this
size at maximum rated power is approximately 7000 horsepower.
In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts the pressure from the
previous stage. A single stage of compression consists of a set of rotor blades
attached to a rotating disk, followed by stator vanes attached to a stationary ring.
The flow area between the compressor blades is slightly divergent. Flow area
between compressor vanes is also divergent, but more so than for the blades. In
general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert mechanical energy into gaseous
energy. This energy conversion greatly increases total pressure (Pt). Most of the
increase is in the form of velocity (Pi), with a small increase in static pressure (Ps)
due to the divergence of the blade flow paths. The stator vanes slow the air by means
of their divergent duct shape, converting 'the accelerated velocity (Pi) to higher
static pressure (Ps). The vanes are positioned at an angle such that the exiting air is
directed into the rotor blades of the next stage at the most efficient angle.
This process is repeated fourteen times as the air flows from the first stage through
the fourteenth stage. In addition to the fourteen stages of blades and vanes, the
compressor also incorporates the inlet guide vanes and the outlet guide vanes. These
vanes, located at the inlet and the outlet of the compressor, are neither divergent nor
convergent. The inlet guide vanes direct air to the first stage compressor blades at
the "best" angle. The outlet guide vanes "straighten" the air to provide the
combustor with the proper airflow direction The efficiency of a compressor is
primarily determined by the smoothness of the airflow. During design, every effort
is made to keep the air flowing smoothly through the compressor to minimize
airflow losses due to friction and turbulence. This task is a difficult one, since the
air is forced to flow into ever-higher pressure zones. Air has the natural tendency
6
to flow toward low-pressure zones. If air were allowed to flow "backward" into the
lower pressure zones, the efficiency of the compressor would decrease
tremendously as the energy used to increase the pressure of the air was wasted. To
prevent this from occurring, seals are incorporated at the base of each row of vanes
to prevent air leakage. In addition, the tip clearances of the rotating blades are also
kept at a minimum by the use of coating on the inner surface of the compressor
case.

All components used in the flow path of the compressor are shaped in the form of
airfoils to maintain the smoothest airflow possible. Just as is the case for the wings
of an airplane, the angle at which the air flows across the airfoils is critical to
performance. The blades and vanes of the compressor are positioned at the optimum
angles to achieve the most efficient airflow at the compressor’s maximum rated
speed.
DIFFUSER
Air leaves the compressor through exit guide vanes, which convert the radial
component of the air flow out of the compressor to straight-line flow. The air then
enters the diffuser section of the engine, which is a very divergent duct. The primary
function of the diffuser structure is aerodynamic. The divergent duct shape converts
most of the air’s velocity (Pi) into static pressure (PS). As a result, the highest static
pressure and lowest velocity in the entire engine is at the point of diffuser discharge
and combustor inlet. Other aerodynamic design considerations that are important in
the diffuser section arise from the need for a short flow path, uniform flow
distribution, and low drag loss.

7
 Figure-1.3: Gas Turbine Engine

COMBUSTOR
Once the air flows through the diffuser, it enters the combustion section, also called
the combustor. The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the
burning of large amounts of fuel and air. It must release the heat in a manner that
the air is expanded and accelerated to give a smooth and stable stream of uniformly-
heated gas at all starting and operating conditions. This task must be accomplished
with minimum pressure loss and maximum heat release. In addition, the combustion
liners must position and control the fire to prevent flame contact with any metal
parts. The engine in this example uses a can-annular combustion section. Six
combustion liners (cans) are positioned within an annulus created by inner and outer
combustion cases. Combustion takes place in the forward end or primary zone of
the cans. Primary air (amounting to about one fourth of the total engine’s total
airflow) is used to support the combustion process. The remaining air, referred to
as secondary or dilution air, is admitted into the liners in a controlled manner. The
secondary air controls the flame pattern, cools the liner walls, dilutes the
temperature of the core gasses, and provides mass. This cooling air is critical, as the
flame temperature is above 1930 C (3500'F), which is higher than the metals in the
engine can endure. It is important that the fuel nozzles and combustion liners control
the burning and mixing of fuel and air under all conditions to avoid excess
temperatures reaching the turbine or combustion cases. Maximum combustion

8
section outlet temperature (turbine inlet temperature) in this engine is about 1070 C
(>1950 F). The rear third of the combustion liners is the transition section. The
transition section has a very convergent duct shape, which begins accelerating the
gas stream and reducing the static pressure in preparation for entrance to the turbine
section.
TURBINE
This example engine has a four-stage turbine. The turbine converts the gaseous
energy of the air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor into mechanical energy
to drive the compressor, driven accessories, and, through a reduction gear, the
propeller. The turbine converts gaseous energy into mechanical energy by
expanding the hot, high-pressure gases to a lower temperature and pressure. Each
stage of the turbine consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of
rotating blades. This is the reverse of the order in the compressor. In the compressor,
energy is added to the gas by the rotor blades, then converted to static pressure by
the stator vanes. In the turbine, the stator vanes increase gas velocity, and then the
rotor blades extract energy. The vanes and blades are airfoils that provide for a
smooth flow of the gases. As the airstream enters the turbine section from the
combustion section, it is accelerated through the first stage stator vanes. The stator
vanes (also called nozzles) form convergent ducts that convert the gaseous heat and
pressure energy into higher velocity gas flow (Pi). In addition to accelerating the
gas, the vanes "turn" the flow to direct it into the rotor blades at the optimum angle.
As the mass of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous
energy is converted to mechanical energy. Velocity, temperature, and pressure of
the gas are sacrificed in order to rotate the turbine to generate shaft power. The
efficiency of the turbine is determined by how well it extracts mechanical energy
from the hot, high-velocity gasses. Since air flows from a high-pressure zone to a
low-pressure zone, this task is accomplished fairly easily. The use of properly
positioned airfoils allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades
9
and vanes of the turbine. All the air must flow across the airfoils to achieve
maximum efficiency in the turbine. In order to ensure this, seals are used at the base
of the vanes to minimize gas flow around the vanes instead of through the intended
gas path. In addition, the first three stages of the turbine blades have tip shrouds to
minimize gas flow around the blade tips.
EXHAUST
After the gas has passed through the turbine, it is discharged through the exhaust.
Though most of the gaseous energy is converted to mechanical energy by the
turbine, a significant amount of power remains in the exhaust gas. This gas energy
is accelerated through the convergent duct shape of the exhaust to make it more
useful as jet thrust - the principle of equal and opposite reaction means that the force
of the exhausted air drives the airplane forward.

10
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Early studies of simplex atomizers employed analytical and/or experimental
methods to measure and/or predict the external spray characteristics following are:

Rizk and Lefebvre (1985 and 1986) investigated the internal flow characteristics
of simplex swirl atomizers using approximate analytical treatment of the flow. They
investigated the effects of variation of the individual swirl atomizer geometrical
dimensions on the thickness of annular liquid film at the nozzle exit and the effects
of the variation of the fluid properties on the values of the discharge coefficient, the
spray angle and the liquid film thickness. They developed a general expression for
the liquid film thickness at the exit of the swirl atomizer and stated that the air-core
diameter increases with increasing pressure, decreasing inlet area, increasing swirl
chamber diameter,decreasing swirl chamber length, increasing orifice length,
decreasing liquid viscosity and decreasing liquid density.

Horvay and Leuckel (1985 and 1986) studied the velocity profiles within a
pressure swirl atomizer. The experiment were conducted using three different
convergence configurations (standard, concave, and plain conical) and two different
inlet/swirl chamber configurations (four 20 x 10 mm and four 20 x 5 mm
rectangular inlet slots). The atomizers were manufactured from Plexiglas and have
same overall dimensions: radius of swirl chamber rs = 50 mm, length of swirl
chamber ls = 25 mm,radius of orifice ro = 10 mm and length of orifice lo = 20 mm.
The measurement of the liquid velocity components within the atomizer were
carried out using LDA and a refractive index matching fluid, which is a mixture of
tetraline, turpentine and castor oil. The seeding particles are small air bubbles.
Radial profiles of the axial and tangential velocities were taken at six different
cross-sections through the atomizer.

11
De Keukelaere (1995) investigated the pressure drop and diameter of air core from
inlet to outlet of swirl atomizer. He found that the air core was almost fully formed
at a pressure of 15 kPa and observed the fluctuations of the air core. This confirmed
Hsieh and Rajamani’s observation.
Herpfer et al (1996 and 1997) developed a nonintrusive instrumentation called
Streaked Particle Imaging Velocimetry and Sizing (SPIVS) probe and used this
probe to measure the size and velocity of droplets in the spray of a Delavan WDB
45 solid-cone simplex swirl atomizer. They compared the results of SPIVS with
that of PDPA and concluded that the SPIVS diagnostic technique has the ability to
accurately and reliably characterize the liquid droplet properties from a spray even
though the SPIVS system exhibits a tendency towards sampling bias in favor of the
larger drop sizes within a spray.

Holtzclaw et al (1997 and 1998) examined the geometrical effects on the internal
flow field in a large-scale simplex fuel nozzle. They measured the tangential and
radial velocity components using PIV techniques and found that the radial velocity
was significantly less than the swirl velocity at any point within the swirl chamber
of a simplex nozzle. They also derived an empirical equation based on the measured
swirl velocity component. Due to the limitations of the imaging technique and post-
processing software of image analysis, Holtzclaw’s PIV measurements are not very
accurate but provide qualitative results.

Benjamin et al (1998) investigated the effects of various geometric and flow

parameters on the performance of large-scale pressure swirl atomizers using optical
methods. They measured the film thickness, droplet size and spray angle of a series
of large-scale pressureswirl atomizers. After testing and analyzing a large number
of geometric variations covering a wide range of flow capacities, they developed
some correlations on the discharge coefficient, flow number, velocity coefficient,
spray angle and Sauter mean diameter based on their experimental data.

12
Ma (2001) studied the internal flow characteristics in the swirl chamber for both
large-scale and medium-scale pressure swirl atomizers. The internal flow field was
measured using a two-color PIV system and refractive index matching fluids
method. The spray cone angle and liquid film thickness of the nozzle were also
obtained from the PIV image. The measurements of the droplet size and velocity
distribution were carried out using PDPA. According the experimental data, he gave
the relationship between the internal flow field and the external spray
characteristics. A non-dimensional correlation between the vortex flow pattern in
the swirl chamber and atomizer design variables was presented. A discussion on
flow regime (turbulent or laminar) within the atomizer body was given. Apart from
the experimental measurement, the approximate analytical methods are also used
to study the performance of the pressure swirl atomizers.

Giffen and Muraszew (1953) carried out an inviscid analysis of the flow in a
simplex atomizer. They showed that the atomizer constant, which is the ratio of
inlet area to the product of swirl chamber diameter and exit orifice diameter, is the
most important geometric parameter of the atomizer. They derived expressions for
liquid film thickness, spray cone angle, and the discharge coefficient in terms of the
atomizer constant. However, in a practical atomizer, the flow is viscous, and other
geometric parameters also influence the atomizer performance.

Som and Mukherjee (1980) conducted a theoretical investigation on the discharge

coefficient and spray cone angle of a swirl spray nozzle. These two parameters were
theoretically evaluated through the analytical solution of hydrodynamics of flow
inside the nozzle. They found among the nozzle geometries, an increase in the
orifice to swirl chamber diameter ratio, swirl chamber angle or decrease in swirl
chamber length to diameter ratio decreases the discharge coefficient and increases
the spray cone angle.

13
Yule and Chinn (1997) conducted a numerical study by treating the entire
computational domain as single phase, and then guessing the interface by joining
grid points where pressure is found to be atmospheric. Solution was re-calculated
by creating a new grid using the calculated interface and treating the interface as a
“with-slip” boundary. However, the condition of normal stress balance was not
applied at the interface. The velocity and pressure distribution in atomizers were
calculated and discharge coefficient and spray angle were predicted.

Sakman et al (1998) studied the effects of simplex nozzle geometry on its

performance numerically. They concluded that when designing a nozzle, particular
attention should be paid to optimum values of the performance variables like the
local maximum of spray cone half angle at Ds / Do = 4.1 and extreme caution should
be taken when designing a simplex nozzle. The performance variables are
dependent on the actual physical dimensions, since these may determine whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent, and may change the trends of the performance
parameters.

Steinthorsson and Lee (2000) conducted three-dimensional simulations of

internal, freesurface flow in a pressure-swirl atomizer via commercial software
FLUENT. The atomizer used in the simulations is a large-scale atomizer. The
Volume of Fluid (VOF) method was adopted to capture the formation of the air-
core and Reynolds Stress Turbulence model was used to model the effects of
turbulence. The results were compared to experimental data given by Wang et al
(1999, 2000). They concluded that the effect of the discrete inlet slots disappears
before the liquid enters the orifice.

Hansen (2001) simulated the flow in a scaled model of a Danfoss pressure-swirl

atomizer via commercially available CFX-4.3 code. The Volume of Fluid (VOF)
method was used to track the liquid-gas interface. The simulations were performed

14
in a three- dimensional curvilinear grid representing the swirl chamber of the
atomizer and managed to capture the overall flow characteristics of a pressure-swirl
atomizer with the formations of an air-core. A simulation using the k-ε turbulence
model over-predicted viscosities and failed to predict a stable air-core in the
atomizer. Results from LES and simulations assuming laminar flow were verified
against experimental findings from LDA and pressure measurements.

15
 CHAPTER-3
FUNDAMENTALS OF ATOMIZATION
3.1. BASICS OF ATOMIZATION

Liquid atomization, the process of producing a large number of droplets from

bulk liquid, is used in a variety of engineering applications, in pharmaceutical
industries, process industries, fuel injection in combustion applications, and in
agricultural sprays, among others. A number of spray devices have been developed
for this purpose, and they are generally designated as atomizers or nozzles
(Lefebvre, 1989). Among these, pressure-swirl atomizers or simplex atomizers are
commonly used for liquid atomization due to their simple design, ease of
manufacture, and good atomization characteristics. The applications such as fuel
injection systems of the gas turbines engines, crop spraying in agriculture, the
production of powders by spray drying, water sprays for fire suppression, oil spray
for combustors in furnaces and power stations, involve Newtonian fluids. On the
other hand, applications such as atomization of aqueous polymeric solutions in
manufacture of pharmaceutical products, paint sprays, spray drying of food and
detergents, sprays in healthcare products, involve fluids that exhibit non-Newtonian
flow behavior. Figure 1 shows a schematic of simplex atomizer geometry. In a
simplex atomizer, the liquid is forced under high pressure to enter a swirl chamber
through inlet slots at the outer wall. An air core is formed along the centerline due
to high swirl velocity of the fuel. The liquid exits the atomizer through a small
orifice with even higher swirl velocity that forces the liquid to disperse radially
outwards to form a hollow-cone. The thin liquid sheet then becomes unstable and
breaks up to form a spray of droplets.

Owing to the numerous applications of pressure-swirl atomizers, a large number of

studies are available in published literature. Focus of earlier studies has been on the

16
phenomena taking place after the liquid exits the atomizers, break-up of simple
forms of bulk fluids, on the statistical nature of fuel sprays and on the development
of correlations and operating parameters relevant to spray characteristics. Internal
flows in atomizers are of interest due to their potential effect on the atomization
process that takes place external to the atomizers.

Numerous experimental studies have shown that small changes in geometric

features internal to the atomizers can greatly impact the characteristics of the spray
that is produced. However, due to the difficulties in measurements inside a small
scale atomizer and the challenges in modeling of two-phase flow, the flow
phenomena inside the atomizer have not received much attention. The flow inside
the atomizer involves both air and fuel and the interface between the gas and liquid
is not known a priori and must be determined as part of the solution. Furthermore,
the flow is turbulent and contains regions of re circulating flow. Recent advances
in accurate tracking of gas/liquid interface are used in this thesis to simulate the
flow in the atomizer. We have used the Arbitrary-Lagrangian-Eulerian method to
numerically simulate the two-phase flow inside the atomizer and have determined
the characteristics of the liquid sheet emanating from the atomizer. Other students
in our research group (Wang, 1999, and Ma, 2001) have used large-scale prototype
atomizer to measure the velocity field inside the atomizer, film thickness at exit,
and the spray cone angle. The computational code was validated by using their data.
The developed computational code was used to conduct a comprehensive
parametric study of the effect of atomizer geometrical parameters on its
performance under both the constant flow rate and constant pressure drop
conditions for Newtonian and non-Newtonian (power-law) fluids. This is first such
computational study that computationally investigates flow inside simplex
atomizers in detail. The study provides useful insights in the flow phenomena inside
an atomizer and the results provide guidance for simplex atomizer designers.

17
The atomization process is generally regarded as comprising two separate
processes— primary atomization, in which the fuel stream is broken up into shreds
and ligaments, and secondary atomization, in which the large drops and globules
produced in primary atomization are further disintegrated into smaller droplets.
There are various mechanisms whereby a jet or sheet of fuel issuing from an
atomizer is broken down into drops. A distinction is made between the two basic
mechanisms of atomization classical and prompt. The process of jet disintegration
is of great importance for the design of plain-orifice pressure nozzles and plain-jet
air blast atomizers, whereas the mechanism of sheet breakup has direct relevance
to the performance of pressure-swirl and pre-filming air blast atomizers.

The aim of the design is to determine the dimensions of a atomizer for the given
flow rate,
(m) injection pressure (ΔP), nozzle angle (α) and fuel properties (fuel density ρ and
kinematic viscosity υ)

3.2. ATOMIZATION SPRAYS, DROPLETS, AND SURFACE

TENSION
Atomization refers to the process of breaking up bulk liquids into droplets. Common
home atomizers you may be familiar with include shower heads, perfume sprays,
garden hoses, and deodorant or hair sprays. A classic example of atomization
occurring naturally involves pouring liquid from a pitcher. As you are pouring and
gradually lift the pitcher higher, the stream of liquid elongates and breaks into
droplets at some point. This breakup of a liquid stream is a simplistic example of
atomization. See Figure for an illustration of this concept.

18
 Figure-3.2.1- Atomization for a stream of liquid

A spray is a collection of moving droplets that usually are the result of atomization;
they are moving in a controlled fashion. Naturally occurring sprays are rain and
ocean sprays. See Figure3.1.2 for a depiction of a spray from a gun. Note that there
are a variety of droplet sizes in the spray.

Figure-3.2.2- Stream spray with a variety of droplet sizes

A droplet is a small particle of liquid having a more or less spherical shape.
Droplets are also known as particles. The reason particles are round is due to the
liquid’s surface tension. Recall that surface tension is the property of a liquid that
causes droplets and soap bubbles to pull together in a spherical form and resist

19
spreading out. This property causes sheets or thin ligaments of liquid to be unstable;
that is, they break up into droplets, or atomize.

3.2.1. Fluid Properties affecting the droplets

A variety of factors affect droplet size and how easily a stream of liquid atomizes
after emerging from an orifice. Among these factors are fluid properties of surface
tension, viscosity, and density.

a) Surface Tension

Surface tension tends to stabilize a fluid, preventing its breakup into smaller
droplets. Everything else being equal, fluids with higher surface tensions tend to
have a larger average droplet size upon atomization.

b) Viscosity

A fluid’s viscosity has a similar effect on droplet size as surface tension. Viscosity
causes the fluid to resist agitation, tending to prevent its breakup and leading to a
larger average droplet size..

Figure-3.2.3-Viscosity, droplet size, and when atomization occurs Density

20
Density causes a fluid to resist acceleration. Similar to the properties of both surface
tension and viscosity, higher density tends to result in a larger average droplet size.

3.2.2. Atomization Processes

3.2.2.1. Pressure (Airless) Atomization

Other terms the spray coating industry uses for pressure atomization include airless,
airassisted airless, hydrostatic, and hydraulic technology.

In the airless atomization process, high pressure forces fluid through a small nozzle.
The fluid emerges as a solid stream or sheet at a high speed. The friction between
the fluid and the air disrupts the stream, breaking it into fragments initially and
ultimately into droplets.

The energy source for this form of atomization is fluid pressure, which is converted
to momentum as the fluid leaves the nozzle.

Three factors that affect an airless spray include the atomizer orifice diameter, the
atmosphere, and the relative velocity between the fluid and the air. Regarding
orifice diameter, the general rule is that the larger the diameter or size of the
atomizer orifice, the larger the average droplet size in a spray.

The atmosphere provides resistance and tends to break up the stream of fluid. This
resistance tends to overcome, in part, the fluid’s properties of surface tension,
viscosity, and density. In addition, the air temperature may also affect atomization.

The relative velocity between the fluid and the air also affects droplet sizes. The
fluid’s velocity is created by pressure in the nozzle. As the fluid pressure increases,
velocity increases and the average droplet size decreases. And conversely, as fluid
pressure decreases, velocity is lower and the average droplet size is larger.

21
3.2.2.2. Pressure-swirl Atomizer

The suggest a procedure for designing a pressure swirl atomizer. The discharge
coefficient, the spray cone angle and the Sauter Mean Diameter were evaluated
experimentally and compared with the theory used to design the atomizer. Figure
shows schematically a pressure swirl atomizer. The liquid is fed to the injector
through tangential passages giving the liquid a high angular velocity, and forming,
in the swirling chamber, a liquid layer with a free internal surface, thus creating a
gas-core vortex. The liquid then is discharged from the nozzle in the form of a
hollow conical sheet which breaks up into small droplets. The spray semi angle
increasing as the injector pressure differential increases, which is expected for the
injector was not changed and the mass flow rate also increases with the injector
pressure differential. For SMD it is observed the theoretical curve has the same
qualitative behavior of the experimental results (indeed they are nearly parallel to
each other); however, the experimental values are 1.75 times the predicted ones.

The aim of the design is to determine the dimensions of a atomizer for the given
flow rate,
(m) injection pressure (ΔP), nozzle angle (α) and fuel properties (fuel density ρ and
kinematic viscosity υ)

3.2.2.3. Compressed air

Figure 3.1.4- illustrates a simple circular orifice injecting a round stream of fluid
into the atmosphere. The fluid is under pressure and is breaking up into a spray.

Figure 3.2.4- Airless atomization with fluid under pressure

22
3.2.2.4. Air (Air Spray) Atomization

In air spray atomization, fluid emerging from a nozzle at low speed is surrounded
by a high speed stream of air. Friction between the liquid and air accelerates and
disrupts the fluid stream and causes atomization.

The energy source for air atomization is air pressure. The operator can regulate the
flow rate of fluid independently of the energy source a stream of fluid passing
through an orifice; as it emerges, a high speed stream of air surrounds the fluid
stream. Note that other modules will cover the function of the horns you see on the
illustration and the resulting spray patterns. Fluid

Note that sometimes you will hear the term conventional instead of air
atomization. Use of the word conventional is often ambiguous since many industry
people use this term to refer to all non-electrostatic applications. Recall that it is the
relative difference in velocity between fluid and air that causes atomization. Review
the chart in Table 3.2.1 for a summary of this concept for airless and air spray
atomization. Then see Figure 3.2.5 which depicts a high-velocity water jet (airless
atomization).

Relative Initial
Air Fluid
Velocity

Airless
Slow Fast
Atomization

Air Spray
Fast Slow
Atomization

Table 3.2.1 The relative velocities of air and fluid for airless and air spray
atomization

23
 Figure-3.2.5- A high-velocity water jet that is breaking up by airless
atomization

3.2.2.5. Centrifugal Atomization

In centrifugal or rotary atomization, a nozzle introduces fluid at the center of a

spinning cup or disk. Centrifugal force carries the fluid to the edge of the disk and
throws the fluid off the edge. The liquid forms ligaments or sheets that break into
fine droplets. Figure 3.2.6 shows the mechanism of centrifugal atomization.

The energy source for rotary atomization is centrifugal force. With the same
rotational speed, at low flow rates, droplets form closer to the edge of the disk than
with higher flow rates. The spray pattern tends to move radially away from the disk
or cup in all directions (360˚) With rotary atomization, operators can control both the
flow rate and the disk speed independently of each other. In most spray coating
rotary applications, electrostatic charge is applied to the spray to attract the droplets
to a grounded target object. In some types of atomizers, such as bells, shaping air
can be added to move the spray forward in an axial direction

24
 Figure 3.2.6 Centrifugal atomization

3.2.3. Atomization by ligament formation

3.2.3.1. Electrostatic Atomization

Electrostatic atomization exposes a fluid to an intense electric field between the

charged atomizer and grounded work piece. The charge transfers to the fluid and
repulsive forces between the atomizer and the fluid tear the droplets from the
atomizer and send them toward the work surface. See Figure 10 for an
illustration of the concept of electrostatic atomization.

25
The energy source for electrostatic atomization is the electric charge that the

fluid receives. The particle size with electrostatic atomization is a function of

three main factors:

❖ Electric field strength

❖ Liquid flow rate

❖ Fluid properties (including its electrical properties)

2.2.3.2. Ultrasonic Atomization

Although it is uncommon to find this atomization process in the spray coating

industry, competitors periodically introduce new “ultrasonic” technologies. It is
important to understand the process to evaluate new technologies and counter
competitors’ claims effectively.

Ultrasonic atomization relies on an electromechanical device that vibrates at a

very high frequency. Fluid passes over the vibrating surface and the vibration
causes the fluid to break into droplets. Figure 11 shows an example of ultrasonic
atomization technology.

Applications of this technology include:

❖ Medical nebulizers for inhalation therapy

❖ Drying liquids; powdered milk for example, in the food industry
❖ Surface coatings in the electronics industry

3.2.3.3. Achieving Desired Atomization

Achieving the desired level of atomization requires maintaining a balance

of the fluid viscosity and quantity (fluid flow rate) on one side with
atomization energy on the other side. Figure 3.7 shows a fulcrum that
schematically illustrates the necessary balance.

26
 Once the system (or operator) achieves the desired level of atomization, a change
in any parameter will affect the atomization. Balancing the equilibrium with an
opposing change ca return the atomization to the desired level.

Figure-3.2.7- Balancing factors to achieve desired atomization

Sl.No Atomization Processes Energy Sources

1 Pressure (airless, air-assisted Fluid pressure

airless)

2 Air (air spray) Air spray

3 Centrifugal (rotary) Centrifugal force (motor)

Table 3.2.2 Atomization Processes and Their Energy Sources

3.3. EXPERIMENTAL ARRANGEMENT
Two different measurement techniques were used to investigate the development of
water mist sprays. Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) was used to give overall
information of spray behaviour (velocity field and spray spread), whereas phase
Doppler anemometry (PDA) was used to determine the droplet size and velocity.
The PIV measurements were conducted first at

27
Lund University in Sweden and PDA measurements were made afterwards at Aarhus
University in Denmark. Two different nozzles were used to create the water mist,
The water mist system There are a number of different water mist systems on the
market, generally characterised by the pressure in the system. The systems are
divided into three groups, low-pressure systems (below 12.1 bar), intermediate
pressure systems (between 12.1 and 34.5 bar) and high-pressure systems (above 34.5
bar). The higher the pressure, the more energy is available for spray breakup and
droplet formation, which is beneficial for producing fine droplets. In general, greater
pressure gives smaller droplets using two different types of nozzles, a hollow cone
nozzle and a full cone nozzle. Typically, high-pressure systems consist of a number
of nozzles, which are placed in a single water mist head. In these experiments, use
of only a single nozzle was chosen, as colliding spray from several nozzles would
give a very complex pattern. There were a number of single hollow cone nozzles
with different flows rates available for the experiments. A hollow cone nozzle
(Danfoss 1910) with a flow rate of 0.38 l/min was chosen. This flow rate was
determined in previous experiments as giving the right spray density for being
almost sufficient to extinguish a fire of 45kW placed underneath the nozzle. This
means that the spray density from the hollow cone nozzle in the experiments is
comparable to the spray density from a nozzle head consisting of multiple nozzles,
required to extinguish a fire in a fullscale experiment. The full cone nozzle (Lehler
212.085) had also been used in previous experiments, where up to 12 nozzles had
been placed in a single water mist head.

The flow from a single full cone nozzle is about three times lower than that of a
single hollow cone nozzle. Thus the water density would be too low to extinguish a
fire but it can give information about the differences between the spray patterns of
the two types of nozzle. Due to corrosion in the full cone nozzle, the same nozzle
was not used in both the PIV and PDA experiments, although the nozzles used were
both of the same type, from the same batch and had similar flow rates. The different

28
shapes of spray from the hollow cone nozzle and the full cone nozzle. Note that the
cone angle from the full cone nozzle is considerably wider than that for the hollow
cone nozzles. This is partly due to the different designs of the nozzles and also
because of the higher flow rate from the hollow cone nozzle, which entrains more
air in the spray and keeps the spray together. The pressure was supplied by a Danfoss
power pack PPH 6.3, which has an integrated water tank, with water continuously
being flushed through the tank to keep a constant water temperature. The pump
integrated in the power pack is a piston pump, which can give variations in the
pressure. The pressure ripples were measured with an Eclipse pressure transducer
and found to vary within 71.5 bar with a frequency of 120 Hz. These pressure
variations are considered to have little influence on the measurement.

29
 CHAPTER-4
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the simulation of fluids engineering
systems using modeling (mathematical physical problem formulation) and
numerical methods (discretization methods, solvers, numerical parameters, and grid
generations, etc.).

Firstly, we have a fluid problem. To solve this problem, we should know the physical
properties of fluid by using Fluid Mechanics. Then we can use mathematical
equations to describe these physical properties. This is Navier-Stokes Equation and
it is the governing equation of CFD.As the Navier-Stokes Equation is analytical,
human can understand it and solve them on a piece of paper. But if we want to solve
this equation by computer, we have to translate it to the discretized form. The
translators are numerical discretization methods, such as Finite Difference, Finite
Element,

Figure-4.1 Process of Computational Fluid Dynamics

30
Finite Volume methods. Consequently, we also need to divide our whole problem
domain into many small parts because our discretization is based on them. Then, we can
write programs to solve them. The typical languages are Fortran and C. Normally the
programs are run on workstations or supercomputers. At the end, we can get our
simulation results. We can compare and analyze the simulation results with experiments
and the real problem. If the results are not sufficient to solve the problem, we have to
repeat the process until find satisfied solution. This is the process of CFD.

4.2. GAMBIT

GAMBIT is a software package designed to help analysts and designers build and
mesh models for computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and other scientific
applications. GAMBIT receives user input by means of its graphical user interface
(GUI). The GAMBIT GUI makes the basic steps of building, meshing, and assigning
zone types to a model simple and intuitive, yet it is versatile enough to accommodate
a wide range of modeling applications.

4.2.1. Meshing

The name”finite element method” is meant to suggest the technique we apply to all
problems. That is, we look at the geometry, the shape of a region, and immediately
imagine it broken down into smaller sub regions. The idea is that we are going to
use a simple approximation method, but the errors in this approximation method
become unnoticeable as the size of the sub region gets small. So if we use enough
small sub regions, approximate over each one, and then stitch all the answers back
together, we can get as smooth and believable an answer to our original full size
problem as we might want. If we are trying to predict the temperature on a metal
plate, we might be able to get away with assuming that temperature is linear, or
perhaps even constant, as long as the sub regions are small enough.

31
Thus, even though the hard part of the finite element method involves considering
abstract approximation spaces, sequences of approximating functions, the issue of
boundary conditions, weak forms and so on, it all starts with a very simple idea:
Take a geometric shape, and break it into smaller, simpler shapes, in such a way that
we can put it all back together when we’re done.

4.2.2. Grids

There are three types of grids: structured grids, unstructured grids and block
structured grids. The simplest one is structured grid. This type of grids, all nodes
have the same number of elements around it. We can describe and store them easily.
But this type of grid is only for the simple domain.

This study is used to predict the actable number of elements for the particular
analysis. By keeping more number (fine grid) of grid the lead to more accurate mean
while it takes more time to compute analysis. Whereas keeping less number of grid
lead to inaccurate values and the computational time is greatly reduced. The grid
independent study is one of the study to find the exact number of grid for more
accurate analysis.

This case four type of study has been made to predict the number of grid which suitable
for analysis by varying the number of elements.

Case:1 Total number of elements are 98471 in which 74838 elements are structured and
23633 elements are unstructured.

Case:2 Total number of elements are 161959 in which 123089 elements are structured
and 38870 elements are unstructured.

Case:3 Total number of elements are 194350 in which 147706 elements are structured
and 46644 elements are unstructured.

32
Case:4 Total number of elements are 233200 in which 177232 elements are strectured
and 55968 elements are unstructured.

4.2.3. Grid Independent Study on following basis:

1.In the above cases the proposition of structured and unstructured grid are maintained
as same for all cases. a) Structured Grid = 76 %

b) Unstructured Grid = 24 %

2.The boundary condition for all cases are same.

a) Model = K-epsilon turbulence model

b) Inlet Pressure = 4 bar.

c) Inlet Temperature = 273 k

d) Operating Pressure = 1 bar.

e) Exit Temperature = 273 k

f) Exit Pressure = 0 bar.

3. The geometry of the all cases are same.

a) Four Slots for are at 60 degree angle case

Figure 4.2.3.1- Unstructured Grid

33
 Figure 4.2.3.2- Structured Grid

4.2.4. Boundary Conditions

To solve the equation system, we also need boundary conditions. The typical
boundary conditions in CFD are No-slip boundary condition, Ax symmetric
boundary condition, Inlet, outlet boundary condition and Periodic boundary
condition.

For example, the fluid flows from left to right. We can use inlet at left side, which
means we can set the velocity manually. At the right side, we use outlet boundary
condition to keep all the properties constant, which means all the gradients are zero.
At the wall of pipe, we can set the velocity to zero. This is no-slip boundary
condition. At the center of pipe, we can use ax symmetric boundary condition.

4.3. Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics

As CFD has so many advantages, it is already generally used in industry such as

aerospace, automotive, biomedicine, chemical processing, heat ventilation air
condition, hydraulics, power generation, sports and marine etc.

34
4.3.1. Aerospace applications

CFD methods are now widely used in most aerospace applications for the purpose
of predicting component performance and as an integral part of the design cycle. The
applications are numerous and we will only list few examples here.

The first example is flow around an aircraft. Wind tunnel tests require substantial
scaling which leads to some difficulties of matching the important flow parameters.
If we attempt to model the correct Mach number, the Reynolds number will be
substantially lower than the full scale Reynolds number leading to errors in the
modeled shear stress and other flow features. It is also very expensive to replicate
altitude conditions within a wind tunnel.

4.4. Design of Two dimensional View of Radial Swirler

Figure-4.4.1 Radial Swirler

35
Figure-4.4.2-Swirler GAMBIT Drawing

36
Figure-4.4.3-Swirler GAMBIT 3D Drawing

37
Figure-4.4.4-Swirler Atomizer Drawing

38
4.5 Analysis of pressure swirl atomizer
4.5.1 Meshing

Figure-4.5.1.1-Swirler Meshing Drawing

39
Figure-4.5.1.2-Atomizer Meshing Drawing

40
 Figure-4.5.1.3 Swirler Atomizer Meshing Drawing

Grid Independent Study

Sl.No Grid Description Total Pressure Drop in

Elements %
Structured Unstructured

1 74838 23633 98471 8.102

2 123089 38870 161959 7.9

3 147706 46644 194350 7.9001

4 177232 55968 233200 7.90009

Table-4.5.1 Grid Independent Study

41
 Graph 4.5.1- Grid Independent Pressure Drop

4.5.2 CFD Analysis for velocity contour

Figure 4.5.2 velocity contour

42
 CHAPTER-5
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
5.1. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
The internal geometry of the pressure swirl atomizer studied is given in Figure
5.1. Pressure swirl atomizer is manufactured from Plexiglas in order to visualize the
aircore inside the atomizer at high temporal and spatial resolutions. The experiments
are performed with water at a constant flow rate of 3.18x10-3 m3/min.

Figure 5.1 a.Flow through the pressure swirl atomizer and the hollow cone
spray, b. Geometrical dimensions of the pressure swirl atomizer studied in
the present study (all dimensions are in millimeters).

The atomizer test facility consists of a 40 liters water tank which can stand
pressures up to 200 bars. An industrial type nitrogen cylinder, which is equipped
with a pressure regulator, is used to pressurize the water tank to drive the water flow
from tank to atomizer. A needle valve controls the flow rate of water to the atomizer.
A turbine type flow meter measures the water flow rate, which has an error value of

43
0.75% at the flow rate considered. Main line from the water tank branches into two
after the flow meter and water is fed into the atomizer from two tangential inlet
passages. Both branches are equipped with pressure transducer to check whether the
flow rates are identical.
High-speed direct shadowgraph system is used to visualize the aircore inside
the pressure swirl atomizer and the resulting hollow cone spray. Two high-speed
cameras are used in sync mode for the visualization. One camera (Camera2)
equipped with a 60 mm 1:2.8 D macro lens records the flow inside the pressure swirl
atomizer and the other one (Camera1) equipped with a 24-85 mm 1:2.8-4d lens
records the resulting hollow cone spray. The backlight illumination of the atomizer
is achieved by using a light emitting diode (LED) whose light intensity can be
adjusted. A set of collimating optics (a condenser lens and a Fresnel lens) delivered
the green light from LED to the atomizer. The backlight illumination of the spray is
obtained with a halogen lamb and a diffuser screen. Light sources and the cameras
are aligned at the opposite sides as shown in Figure 2a. The effective image areas
for Camera1 and Camera2 are 576x464 pixels (115x92mm) and 768x368 pixels
(28x13 mm), respectively. The frame rate for both cameras is 20 kHz. The images
taken are processed with an image processing tool developed in-house.
5.2. MEASUREMENT OF AIRCORE DIAMETER
The flow rate of water through the atomizer is adjusted by using the needle
valve. The pressure drop across the atomizer is measured as 6.87 bars at water flow
rate of 3.18x10-3 m3/min. The aircore formed inside the atomizer is visualized as
shown. The aircore inside the pressure swirl atomizer resembles a drilling bit.
Surface waves as well as vorticity waves on the aircore surface can be discerned.
The aircore diameter is minimum at the base of the swirl chamber and it is almost
constant along the swirl chamber up to the nozzle inlet where it starts growing in
size. The aircore diameter is also not constant along nozzle. It first shows a gradual
increase up to the mid nozzle location and then relatively sharp increase after mid
nozzle. It attains its maximum value at the nozzle exit.

44
Before each test, a fine needle of known diameter is inserted into the atomizer and a
calibration image is captured. Conversion factor for the conversion from image (pixel)
to physical (mm) coordinates is determined with the diameter of the fine needle. The
quantitative values of the aircore diameter are obtained using the developed image
processing tool. The image processing consists of converting the movie file to image
files converting the RGB image to grayscale image subtracting the background image
and increasing the intensity, if necessary, and finding the edges using the Sobel filter.
The intensity peaks are identified along the line drawn at the measurement
location for each image and the aircore diameter is then found by calculating the
distance between the intensity peaks which occurs at water-air interface. The time
history of the measured aircore diameter at mid-nozzle is given in Figure 6a. The mean
air core diameter at the measurement location is evaluated as 1.08 mm which is 0.07
mm smaller than the measurement of Dashet

Figure 5.2.1 Aircore processing.

5.3 MEASUREMENT OF SPRAY CONE ANGLE

Spray cone angle is measured using the images taken by Camera. A calibration
image is taken before each test. The quantitative values for the spray cone angle are
obtained with the developed image processing tool. The similar image processing
steps taken in the aircore diameter measurement are followed in order to find the
edges of the spray cone.

The two intensity peaks which occur at the spray boundary are identified and
the radial distance between the two intensity peaks is calculated for each image at 13

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mm away from the atomizer exit. The spray half cone angle is then calculated using
the calculated radial distance and the known axial position of the measurement
location. The mean half spray cone angle, which is calculated by averaging
instantaneous spray cone angle measurements for 1333 images, is found to be 33 o.
The measured mean half spray cone angle is 4o larger than the measurement done by
Dashet.

Figure 5.3.1 Measurement of spray cone angle

5.4. MEASUREMENT OF SAUTER MEAN DIAMETER

The Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of the resulting spray can be estimated using
the empirical equation of Wang and Lefebvre
Sauter mean drop size
SMDS = S nD3/S nD2

5.5. FUEL INJECTOR SPECIFICATIONS

S.NO SPECIFICATION THEORITICAL EXPERIMENTAL

VALUES VALUES

1 MASS FLOW 20 g/s 19.12 g/s

RATE
2 FEED PRESSURE 75psi 7psi
3 SWIRL ANGLE 80˚ 75˚

Table - 5.5 Fuel injector specification

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5.6. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 5.6 Experimental setup

5.7. PATTERNATOR SETUP

Figure 5.7 Patternator setup

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5.8. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT

Trials – 1
Beakers G- Time(mins) Volume(lts) Flow
Pressure(psi) Rate(lpm)
1 1.48333333 0.186 0.125393258
2 1.48333333 0.248 0.167191011
3 1.48333333 0.068 0.045842697
4 1.48333333 0.25 0.168539326
5 19 1.48333333 0.248 0.167191011
6 1.48333333 0.204 0.13752809
7 1.48333333 0.24 0.161797753
8 1.48333333 0.11 0.074157303
9 1.48333333 0.062 0.041797753
10 1.48333333 0.234 0.157752809
Total = 1.85 1.247191011
Table 5.8.1: Result 1

Trials – 2
Beakers G-Pressure(psi) Time(mins) Volume(lts) Flow
Rate(lpm)
1 1.5 0.224 0.149333333
2 1.5 0.17 0.113333333
3 1.5 0.162 0.108
4 1.5 0.214 0.142666667
5 1.5 0.254 0.169333333
18.5
6 1.5 0.154 0.102666667
7 1.5 0.23 0.153333333
8 1.5 0.124 0.082666667
9 1.5 0.054 0.036
10 1.5 0.22 0.146666667
Total = 1.806 1.204
Table 5.8.2: Result 2

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 Trials – 3
Beakers G-Pressure(psi) Time(mins) Volume(lts) Flow
Rate(lpm)
1 1.48333333 0.234 0.157752809
2 1.48333333 0.126 0.08494382
3 1.48333333 0.22 0.148314607
4 1.48333333 0.196 0.132134831
5 17.5 1.48333333 0.234 0.157752809
6 1.48333333 0.162 0.109213483
7 1.48333333 0.218 0.146966292
8 1.48333333 0.132 0.088988764
9 1.48333333 0.048 0.032359551
10 1.48333333 0.22 0.148314607
Total = 1.79 1.206741573
Table 5.8.3: Result 3

Trials – 4
Beakers G-Pressure(psi) Time(mins) Volume(lts) Flow
Rate(lpm)
1 1.5 0.212 0.141333333
2 1.5 0.108 0.072
3 1.5 0.21 0.14
4 1.5 0.208 0.138666667
5 17.5 1.5 0.198 0.132
6 1.5 0.166 0.110666667
7 1.5 0.208 0.138666667
8 1.5 0.13 0.086666667
9 1.5 0.44 0.293333333
10 1.5 0.218 0.145333333
Total = 2.098 1.398666667
Table 5.8.4: Result 4

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 Trials – 5
Beakers G-Pressure(psi) Time(mins) Volume(lts) Flow
Rate(lpm)
1 1.5 0.222 0.148
2 1.5 0.118 0.078666667
3 1.5 0.224 0.149333333
4 1.5 0.204 0.136
5 1.5 0.196 0.130666667
16.5
6 1.5 0.152 0.101333333
7 1.5 0.204 0.136
8 1.5 0.144 0.096
9 1.5 0.14 0.093333333
10 1.5 0.21 0.14
Total = 1.814 1.209333333
Table 5.8.5: Result 5

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 CONCLUSION

In this project we selected one device called pressure swirl atomizer that uses to split bulk
fluid into small droplet (primary fluid) and further small droplet is broken into fine
droplets (secondary fluid). In this project, a pressure swirl atomizer was developed by
taking several literature surveys and analyzing the problem state, then proposing a
method. Change the swirler angle by about 80° to increase pressure and diameter of the
air-core, resulting in a fine film thickness of the fluid. As a result, the grid independent
pressure drop was discovered, and the structured and unstructured grids of total elements
are shown in the table, thus improving fuel atomization in the combustion chamber.
Manufactured and tested the device with experimental setup from that we get results. As
results show that fuel is well atomized in the nozzle spraying section by spraying the fuel
observation takes place by using time, volume and flow rate of the beaker is measured
and tabulated with different trials are done. The trail 4 gives better result because volume,
flow rate and time are very well improved compared to other trails. This shows as a result
improvement in atomization of a fuel in combustion combustion chamber.

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