Full Report g5

LABORATORY REPORT (CLO 1-PLO4, C2) OPEN ENDED LABORATORY
LABORATORY TOPIC : FORCE AND DEFLECTION IN BEAM HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL LABORATORY
GROUP MEMBERS: MATRIC NO. DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

1. Muhammad Hasanuddin Bin Mohd Kamal CF190125 FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
2. Mohamad Nazrullah Bin Husni CF190155
3. Nur Syakila’ Ain Binti Masri CF190211
4. Barizah Atira Binti Razali CF190052
SECTION: 10
5. Muhammad Salahuddin Bin Mat Nor CF180162
LABORATORY REPORT RUBRIC (CLO1 - PLO4, C2) CLO 1 - Converted to 30 Marks -

Mark
Criteria 1= Very Poor 2=Poor 3=Moderate 4=Good 5= Very Good W Marks
Scale
Fundamental
The fundamental theory of
Theory The fundamental theory of lab
The fundamental theory of The fundamental theory of lab The fundamental theory of lab lab topic are presented and
[20] topic are presented and
- Introduction
lab topic are not presented topic are partially presented topic are partially presented
discussed accordingly,
discussed that relates to 4.0 /20
and discussed and poorly discussed and moderately discussed real case, references
- Literature review references provided
provided
Methodology are described

Methodology are moderately
Methodology are not correctly Methodology are described with proper experimental &
Methodology Methodology are not described without proper
[20] described
described, wrong experimental
experimental and analysis
with proper experimental & analysis procedure 4.0 /20
procedure analysis procedure according to specific
procedure
standard
Result, Data Analysis &
Discussion
[20] Very good in data analysis
Many mistakes in data Good in data analysis with
Including elements: Incorrect data analysis Some mistakes in data analysis with strong justifications
- Scientific Terminology & without discussions
analysis with poor
with moderate justifications
reliable justifications for
for complex engineering 8.0 /40
justifications complex engineering problem
Accuracy problem
- References, citations and
formatting
The conclusions are well
Conclusions The conclusions are moderately The conclusions are reflected
The conclusions are not written and reflected to all
[10] No conclusions
reflected to objective
written, some points are to objective and provide
objectives, provide overall 2.0 /10
reflected to objective overall summary
summary
Having tremendous value in

OEL achievement Weak OEL design and The OEL design and
Very little achievement on the OEL design and
[10] organization and with organization is moderately The design of OEL is well
OEL design and organization organization, and perfectly
agreement made against the
towards the outcomes of the
achievement but closely in-line organized and in-line to the
achieved all criteria to 2.0 /10
whole achievement of to the need on the achievement requirement of the laboratory
laboratory fulfill the main aim of
laboratory of laboratory
laboratory
/100
PROPOSAL PRESENTATION (CLO 3-PLO3, A2) & OPEN ENDED LABORATORY
EQUIPMENT HANDLING (CLO2-PLO2, P4) HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL LABORATORY
GROUP MEMBERS: MATRIC NO. ATTENDANCE DEPARTMENT CIVIL ENGINEERING
MARKS FACULTY OF CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
1. Muhammad Hasanuddin Bin Mohd Kamal CF190125 /10
2. Mohamad Nazrullah Bin Husni CF190155 /10
3. Nur Syakila’ Ain Binti Masri CF190211 /10
4. Barizah Atira Binti Razali CF190052 /10 SECTION: 10
5. Muhammad Salahuddin Bin Mat Nor CF180162 /10
CLO 3
PROPOSAL PRESENTATION (CLO 3 - PLO5, A2)
- Converted to 10 Marks -
Criteria 1= Very Poor 2=Poor 3=Moderate 4=Good 5= Very Good Mark Scale W Marks
Unable to show the Very good commitment and
Good participation in group
teamwork spirit (no Less participation in Moderate participation in participation as well as
Teamwork [35]
participation) in group group during lab work group during lab work
during lab work, shows the
helpful in group during lab 7.0 /35
commitment
during lab work work
Ability to show very good
Ability to show good awareness on safety during
Unable to show awareness Less awareness on safety Moderate awareness on safety
Safety [35]
on safety during lab work during lab work during lab work
awareness on safety during lab work, always remind 7.0 /35
lab work other group members on
safety
Very good attitude and
Very poor attitude and not
Poor attitude and not wearing Moderate attitude but wearing Good attitude and wearing wearing suitable attire
Discipline [20] wearing suitable attire
suitable attire during lab work suitable attire during lab work suitable attire during lab work during lab work, always 4.0 /20
during lab work
shows high motivation
Attendance
(Individual Marks) [10]
Total week Attended: X Total week per semester: Y X/Y * 10M /10
/100
CLO 2
EQUIPMENT HANDLING (CLO 2 - PLO2, P4)
Unable to shows Less leadership skills, there Moderate leadership skills, but Ability to show good
Demonstrate leadership leadership skills with
skills [20]
the leadership skills, there is no is no task (lab work) students are able to distribute leadership skills with good
structured task (lab work) 4.0 /20
task (lab work) distribution distribution their task (lab work) task (lab work) distribution
distribution
Unable to apply the basic Moderate technical skill using
Skill of Work Less technical skill using Ability to show good technical technical skill and
[20]
technical skill using
laboratory tools
laboratory tools, but still
skill using laboratory tools competency using laboratory 4.0 /20
laboratory tools acceptable
tools
Unable to deliver creativity Able to deliver creativity Able to deliver good ideas and Able to deliver original ideas
Innovative in Delivering Able to deliver creativity
Idea [40]
in solving basic and
in solving basic problem
in solving complex problem creativity in solving complex and creativity in solving 8.0 /40
complex problem moderately problem complex problem
Able to perform very good
Able to perform calculation Able to perform moderate Able to perform good
Accuracy [20] Unable to perform accurate calculation procedure and
calculation and measurement
and measurement, but not calculation and measurement, calculation and measurement,
measurement, very high 4.0 /20
accurate the accuracy is acceptable complete and accurate
accuracy.
/100
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 TABLE OF CONTENT 1
ABSTRACT 2
INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 General 3
1.2 Goal And Objectives 3
1.3 Laboratory Scope 4
1.4 Significance Of Laboratory Testing 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS 7
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 12
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 24
CONCLUSIONS 41
REFERENCES 41
1
ABSTRACT
The application of static load that applied on a simply supported beam under a few
considerations of lifting masses at specific distances. Deflection of simply supported
beam depends upon various factor like beam length, its cross section area whether I
beam, box or channel beam and type of load acting on it. Load acting might be point
load, uniform or variable distributed load. This aspect of design is concerned with
designing for strength. However there are other aspects of design that are important, and
in the case of the design of beams another consideration is the value of the vertical
deflections that will occur when such beam is loaded. It is go along with the goals that
investigate the existence of internal shear force and bending moment developed in
beam based on external loading applied also identify the relationship between load and
displacement, and estimate the modulus of elasticity of the materials. Subsequently, for
achieve the goals, the experiment was lead two cases. Two different loads value are
fixed at different place for per case. First case, we used 1.472N/150g as first load at the
distance 100 mm from left hand support while 2.943N/300g for second load at the
distance 220 mm from left hand support. Then, for the second case, we used
0.981N/100g as our first load at the distance 100 mm from left hand support and
1.962N/200g for next load at the distance 200 mm from left hand support. As the results,
the analysis data for theoretical shows that the external load that applied on the beam,
will developed those shear forces and bending moment and it is near to the value of
experimental that kept the errors to happened. In other way, the load exist have their
own relationship with displacement itself that can developed the Modulus Of Elasticity
of the beam material.
2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The application of several types of loading or combinations of loading using different

support conditions that applied on a simply supported beam under few considerations of
lifting masses at specific distances can make a changes of shear force and bending
moments in beams as reactions to several.Consequently the value of shear force and
bending moment as well as the location of maximum values can be determined. These
maximum values are important because they will be used in the analysis of structural
design.
In the design of structures the primary requirement is to ensure that the structure or
structural component can adequately resist the loading to which it is being subjected.
This aspect of design is concerned with designing for strength. However there are other
aspects of design that are important, and in the case of the design of beams another
consideration is the value of the vertical deflections that will occur when such beam is
loaded. However, the deflection of simply supported beam is depends upon various
factor like beam length, its cross section area whether I beam, box or channel beam and
typed of load acting on it. Load acting might be point load, uniform or variable
distributed load.
1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES
i. To investigate the existence of internal shear force and bending moment

developed in beam based on external loading applied.
ii. To identify the relationship between load and displacement, and estimate the
modulus of elasticity of the materials.
3
1.3 LABORATORY SCOPE
This lab is focused on two objectives. One of those the objectives is the existence of
internal shear force and bending moment developed in beam based on external loading
applied at first place which are the maximum shear force and maximum bending
moment determined. The type of testing that we used for this experiment are shear force
testing and bending moment testing. Where as the objective is find out by handling the
Shear Force Machine and Bending Moment Machine. The tools that used for those
experiments are includes support frames, weight sets, a pair of simple support. So, for
those experiments we are mentioned to lead two cases. Two different loads value are
fixed at different place for per case. First case, we used 1.472N/150g as first load at the
distance 100 mm from left hand support while 2.943N/300g for second load at the
distance 220 mm from left hand support. Then, for the second case, we used
0.981N/100g as our first load at the distance 100 mm from left hand support and
1.962N/200g for next load at the distance 200 mm from left hand support. For the best
results, we make sure the digital force display is works well. Plus, we try to avoid
parallax errors during the experiments.
Figure 1.1 Shear Force In Beam
Figure 1.2 Bending Moment In Beam
4
As for the next experiment, we aim to know the relationship between load and
displacement, and estimate the Modulus Of Elasticity of the materials. The type of
testing for this is deflection. So tha , we identify this relationship using the Deflection of
Beam Machine. The tools that used for this experiments are includes support frames,
weight sets, ruler, one specimen of aluminium and a pair of simple support. This
experiments is held for 3 cases for an aluminium plate. The length of this aluminium
plate is 400 mm. So, for the pattern for this case, the length of the first case and second
case are the same but not for the load. Then, the load of the second case are the same,
but not for the length. The pattern was like this because to know the relationship of load
and displacement. So, the first case is handle with 4.90N/500g as the load while the
length is 580mm. This length is still the same with case 2, but the load is different
which is 2.94/300g. As mentioned, the load of case 2 is the same with case 3. Just, the
length is changed to 380mm. For the best results, we also make sure the digital force
display is works well. Plus, we try to avoid parallax errors during the experiments.
Figure 1.3 Deflection Of Beam
5
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF LABORATORY TESTING
The importance of doing those testing are basically we know the experimental way as
we can learn how to handle the laboratory equipment itself and how to read the digital
fore display and by right its giving the experiences. As doing this, we can relate the
experimental with the fundamental of Mechanic of Materials, Subsequently, we learn
how to apply the theoretical calculation of Mechanic of Materials knowledge such as
shear force formula, bending moment formula and deflection of beam formula. We can
know, that the right calculation of theoretical will lead to the slightly exact answer with
the experimental. By doing this too, we can gather the knowledge from group members
plus lecturer to solve any problems that happened during the experiment. In addition,
we do not record the shear force reading when the load is still oscillating so the parallax
error can be avoid.
By doing the testing, we can get all the experimental data and theoretical data. As
the data are obtained, the data can be using as contribution to the study. In this case, it
means that if we want to research more details by using those cases, the data can be use
as a contribution for research details. Those data also can be use on any construction
field as we can use the loads for the beam, because we already know the maximum
value of shear force and bending moment also where the deflection will occurs.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEWS
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection from its
original unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface
of the beam to the neutral surface of the deformed beam. The configuration assumed by
the deformed neutral surface is known as the elastic curve of the beam. Standard
formulas exist for the deflection of common beam configurations and load cases at
discrete locations. Otherwise methods such as virtual work, direct integration,
Castigliano's method, Macaulay's method or the direct stiffness method are used. The
deflection of beam elements is usually calculated on the basis of the Euler–Bernoulli
beam equation while that of a plate or shell element is calculated using plate or shell
theory. The unit of deflection or displacement is a length unit and normally taken as mm
for metric and in for imperial. This number defines the distance in which the beam has
deflected from the original position.
7
2.1 INTERNAL FORCE
Internal forces are those that are exerted on a portion of a structure by the rest of
the structure. The forces only can be seen if make a cut in the structure and separate it
into two free body diagrams. These are the forces that are represented by member shear
and moment diagrams.
2.11 Shear Force
Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one specific
direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are
aligned into each other, they are called compression forces. For design purposes, the
beam's ability to resist shear force is more important than its ability to resist an axial
force. Axial force is the force in the beam acting parallel to the longitudinal axis.
From shear forces diagram we can calculate bending moment in a section.
The following is a drawing of a simply-supported beam of length L under a

uniform load, q:
2.12 Bending Moment
A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an

external force or moment is applied to the element causing the element to bend. The
most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.
It is measured in terms of force and distance. Example of shear force diagram and
bending moment diagram:
8
2.2 STRESSES IN BEAM
In beam there are three type of stress such as Normal stress, Shear stress and
Bending stress.
2.21 Normal stress
A normal stress is a stress that occurs when a member is loaded by an axial force.
The value of the normal force for any prismatic section is simply the force divided by
the cross sectional area.
9
If a normal force or stress “pulls” it is tensile stress and when it “pushes” it is
compressive stress. Examples of members experiencing pure normal forces would
include columns, collar ties, etc.
2.22 Shear stress
Normal stress is a result of load applied perpendicular to a member.Shear stress

however results when a load is applied parallel to an area. Looking again at figure one,
it can be seen that both bending and shear stresses will develop. Like in bending stress,
shear stress will vary across the cross sectional area.
Calculating the maximum shear stress is also crucial for determining the
adequacy of beams, rafters, joists, etc.
2.23 Bending stress
When a member is being loaded similar to that in figure one bending stress (or
flexure stress) will result. Bending stress is a more specific type of normal stress. When
a beam experiences load, the top fibers of the beam undergo a normal compressive
stress. The stress at the horizontal plane of the neutral is zero. The bottom fibers of
the beam undergo a normal tensile stress. It can be concluded therefore that the value
of the bending stress will vary linearly with distance from the neutral axis.
10
Calculating the maximum bending stress is crucial for determining the adequacy
of beams, rafters, joists, etc.
11
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 FLOWCHART
Decide the load and distance

for the experiment
Start
Measure the distance from

the left support
 10cm
Check the digital force

display and set to zero
Place the hanger with

different load
 100g
Calculate the result
12
3.2 THEORIES
3.2.1 Shear Force In a Beam
Shear force is the force in the beam acting perpendicular to its longitudinal x-axis. For
design purposes, the beam ability to resist shear force is more important than its ability
to resist an axial force. Axial force is the force in the beam acting parallel to the
longitudinal axis.
The following is a drawing of a simply-supported beam of length L under a

uniform load, q:
This beam has the following support reactions:
where Rl and Rr are the reactions at the left and right ends of the beam,
respectively.
The shear forces at the ends of the beam are equal to the vertical forces of the
support reactions. The shear force Fx at any other point x on the beam can be found by
using the following equation.
13
where x is the distance from the left end of the beam.
Shear force diagrams are simply plots of the shear force versus the position of
various points along the beam. Thus, the following is the generalized shear force
diagram for the beam shown below.
3.2.2 Bending Moment In a Beam
The bending moment at any point along the beam is equal to the area under the shear
force diagram up to that point. For a simply-supported beam, the bending moment at the
ends will always be equal to zero. To calculate the bending moment the beam must be
broken up into two sections:
(a) one from x = 0 to x = L/2 and
(b) the other from x = L/2 to x = L.
The bending moment Mx at any point x along the beam can be found by using
the following equations:
14
Bending moment diagrams are simply plots of the bending moment versus the
position of various points along the beam. Thus, the following is the generalized
bending moment diagram for the beam shown above.
3.2.3 Deflection
Deflection known as displacement that can occur from external applied loads or from
the weight of the structure itself, and the force of gravity in which this applies. It can
occur in beams, trusses, frames and basically any other structure. The deflection
distance of a member under a load can be calculated by integrating the function that
mathematically describes the slope of the deflected shape of the member under that
load.
Standard formulas exist for the deflection of common beam configurations and load
cases at discrete locations. Otherwise methods such as virtual work, direct integration,
Castigliano's method, Macaulay's method or the direct stiffness method are used. The
deflection of beam elements is usually calculated on the basis of the Euler–Bernoulli
beam equation while that of a plate or shell element is calculated using plate or shell
theory.
15
3.3 APPARATUS
Figure 3.1 Shear Force in a beam machine
Figure 3.2 Bending moment in a beam machine
Figure 3.3 Deflection on beam machine
16
Figure 3.4 Digital Force Display
Figure 3.5 Digital Indicator
Figure 3.5 Hanger
Figure 3.6 Load
17
3.4 PROCEDURES
Experiment 1 : Shear force in a beam
Steps
Pictures & Details
Number
100g, 150g, 200g and 300g of loads is prepared.
The Digital Force Display is switched on and set to zero.
The load with length which been decided from left side of the beam is
placed.
18
4
The reading is recorded.
The hanger is removed.
6 Step 3 to 5 is repeated with differents load.
19
Experiment 2 : Bending Moment in a beam
Steps
Pictures & Details
Number
100g, 150g, 200g and 300g of loads is prepared.
The load with length which been decided from left side of the beam is
placed.
20
4
The reading is recorded and The hanger is removed..
21
Experiment 3: Deflection on beam
Steps
Pictures & Details
Number
The length of strut is measueres using the vernier calliper.. It is to find

the value of Second Moment of Area, I by using rectangular formula
of Second Moment of Area.
The strut is placed on the support.
300g and 500g of loads is prepared.
22
4
The indicator is placed at the point of maximum deflection and the

indicator is switched on.
The load with length which been decided is placed
The reading is recorded and The hanger is removed..
23
CHAPTER 4
RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
4.1.1 The value and the position of the loading
Length of beam = 440 mm

Length until cut section (from L=0) = 300 mm
Case P2 Distance of load from

left hand support
Mass (g) Weight(N) Mass(g) Weight(N) X1 (mm) X2(mm)
1 150 1.472 300 2.943 100 220
2 100 0.981 200 1.962 100 200
24
4.1.2 Analysis Data
4.1.2.1 Theoretically shear force and bending moment calculation
Case 1
Reaction at support:

  Fx  0
HA  0
M B 0
R A (0.44)  1.472(0.34)  2.431(0.22)  0
R A  2.352 N
   Fy  0
2.608  1.472  2.431  RB  0
RB  1.551N
25
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram:
Bending Moment
A  2.352  0.1  0.235 N .m
B  0.235  (0.88  0.12)  0.341N .m
C  0.341  (1.551 0.22)  0 N .m
26
Case 2
Reaction at support

  Fx  0
HA  0
M B 0
R A (0.44)  0.981(0.34)  1.962(0.24)  0

R A  1.828 N
  Fy  0
1.828  0.981  1.962  RB  0

RB  1.115 N
27
Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagram:
Bending moment
A  1.828  0.1  0.183 N .m
B  0.183  (0.847  0.2)  0.352 Nm
C  0.352  (1.115  0.24)  0 N .m
28
4.1.3 Result And Discussion
4.1.3.1 Result
Shear Force
Case Weight(N) Weight(N) L Shear Shear Force Differences
(mm) Force (N) (N) percentage
(%)
Theoretical Experimental
1 1.472 2.943 440 1.830 2.352 28.52
2 0.981 1.962 440 2.608 1.828 29.91
theoretical - experimental
Difference Percentage,% =  100
theoretical
2.608  1.828
  100  29.91%
2.608
Bending Moment
Case Weight(N) Weight(N) L Bending Bending Differences

(mm) Moment Moment percentage
(N.m) (N.m) (%)
Theoretical Experimental
1 1.472 2.943 440 0.267 0.341 27.72
2 0.981 1.962 440 0.392 0.352 10.20
29
4.1.3.2 Discussion
Shearing forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one
direction,and another part the body in the opposite direction. Shear force is measured in
unit Newton (N). Compression forces is defined when the forces are aligned into each
other. Shear forces or shearing force is defined when a plane is passed through a body, a
force is acting along the plane. Meanwhile, bending moment exists in a structural
element when a moment is applied to the element so that the bends. Moments and
torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance to the unit of Newtons-metres
(N.m).
For this experimental test, we observed the values of shear force and bending
moment for a beam which consists of two point loads with two different cases. For case
1, the load that applied to the beam are 1.472 N and 2.943 N which located at 100 mm
and 220mm from the support A. Meanwhile, for case 2, the load exerted are 0.981 N
and 1.962 N and located 100mm and 200mm from support A. Based on the data
analysis, the maximum shear force for case 1 and case 2 are 2.352 N and 1.828 N
respectively. For the maximum bending moment, we got 0.341 N.m for case 1 and
0.352 N.m for case 2.
Besides, by using formula, we also can obtained the percentage error or difference
percentage between the values of theoretical and experimental. As state in the table
analysis, the difference percentage for shear force are 28.52% and 29.91% while for the
bending moment, the difference percentage are 27.72% and 10.20%. As we can see, the
values of difference percentage for both test are quite high and might be happened due
to the some errors that occurred during experimental test.
There are some source of error had observed after calculating and observing the
values and action of shear force. Therefore, we have to solve it by making the beam
more stable because the beam was unstable positioned due to the loads which were not
placed on the exact middle or on the marked lines which is the parallax error. When
force is applied to this experiment, the distance between the loads and span will not be
exactly equal.
30
Furthermore, this results can be improved so that the results will become more
accurate. Improvement like reducing the mass of the hanger to avoid additional force
acting on it, make sure that the beam is stable and record the readings and lastly
calculate the average.
Precaution
From the experiment, the value for the experimental and theoretical values is totally
different due to the location that has placed in this experiment. The aim is to reduce the
error as much as possible to obtain accuracy in work. Ways to reduce the error are
experiment for three times or more to calculate the average readings.The eyes must be
perpendicular to the reading or measuring scale to avoid parallax error. Besides,
measure the distance to make sure that the beam is in the balance position. Make sure
that there is no zero error on the spring balance. Lastly, slowly place the load so that is
does not overload the beam at one short.
31
4.2 DEFLECTION
4.2.1 The value and the position of the loading
Beam material used for testing : Aluminium

Modulus of elasticity of material, E = 69 GPa = 69x103 MPa = 69000N/mm2
Beam width, b = 20.94 mm
Beam height, h = 3.13 mm
Moment of Inertia, I = 53.52 mm 4
Load Case Mass(g) Weight (N) Length (mm)

1 500 4.90 580
2 300 2.94 580
3 300 2.94 380
32
4.2.2 Analysis Data
4.1.2.1 Theoretically deflection calculation
Case 1
By symmetry
  Fy  0
R A  RB  4.90 N
4.90
RA   2.45 N
2
RB  2.45 N
Macaulay Method (Cut at the end section)
33
d2y
EI M  2.45( x)  4.9( x  290)
dx 2
dy 2.45 x 2 4.9( x  290) 2
EI    C1
dx 2 2
2.45 x 3 4.9( x  290) 3
EIy    C1 x  C2
6 6
 0.41x 3  0.82( x  290) 3  C1 x  C2
Insert boundary condition

x  0, y  0
0  0  0  0  C2
C2  0
x  580, y  0
EI (0)  0.41(580) 3  0.82(580  290) 3  C1 (580)
C1  19998980
x  290, y  ?
(69000)(53.52) y  0.41(290) 3  0.82(290  290) 3  19998980 (2900)
y  5.42mm
34
Case 2
Reaction at Support:
By Symmetry
  Fy  0
R A  RB  2.94 N
2.94
RA   1.47 N
2
RB  1.47 N
35
Insert Boundary Condition
(290)
36
Case 3
By Symmetry
 Fy  0
R A  RB  2.94 N
2.94
RA   1.47 N
2
RB  1.47 N
37
d2y
EI  M  1.47( x)  2.94( x  190)
dx 2
dy 1.47 x 2 2.94( x  290) 2
EI    C1
dx 2 2
1.47 x 3 2.94( x  290) 3

EIy    C1 x  C2
6 6
 0.245 x 3  0.49( x  190) 3  C1 x  C2
Insert Boundary Condition
x  0, y  0
EI (0)  0.245(0) 3  0.49(0  190) 3  C1 (0)  C2
0  0  0  0  C2
C2  0
x  380, y  0
EI (0)  0.245(380) 3  0.49(380  190) 3  C1 (380)
C1  265335
x  190, y  ?
(69000)(53.52) y  0.245(190) 3  0.49(190  190) 3  265335(190)
y  0.91mm
38
4.2.3 Result And Discussion
4.2.3.1 Result
Load Weight (N) Length Deflection Deflection Difference

Case (mm) (mm) (mm) percentage(%)
(Theory) (Experiment)
1 4.90 580 -5.42 -5.66 4.43
2 2.94 580 -3.24 -3.24 0
3 2.94 380 -0.91 -0.53 41.76
Theoretical - Experimental
Theoretical
5.42  5.66
  100
5.42
 4.43%
39
4.2.3.2 Discussion
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection from its
original unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface
of the beam. In this experimental test, we have identified the values of beam deflection
for three load cases. For case 1 and case 2, the length of the beams are same which is
580mm but the applied loading are different between each case. This is to identify the
relationship between loading and deflection values. Besides, for case 2 and case 3, we
can study the relationship between the length of the beam and the deflection values.
From the table above,it can be seen that the load and deflection are directly
proportional. As the load is raised, the deflection also increases and when the load is
removed, the deflection decreases as well. Meanwhile, it shows that the larger the length
of the beam, the higher the values of deflection. From this experimental test, it can also
be noted that most of the theoretical deflection are different than the experimental
deflection. It is proven by the values of the difference percentage for our three different
cases which we got a huge values of difference percentage especially for case 3 which is
41.76%. This value shows that there are some errors in the experimental test and those
errors needed to be fixed in order to increase the accuracy of the deflection values. Error
in the beam experiments could be from two sources, one in apparatus error and second
is human error. Instrument error includes inaccurate dial gauge, apparatus not balance
on horizontal surface or beam is already deformed. A personal error includes
observation and calculation with wrong method of lack of experience in
experimentation.
According James M.Gere (n,d) to the equation of deflection, second moment of

inertia of the beam which is the property of the beam related to its shape and dimension
has very important role in deflection of beam. Beam with high value of second moment
of inertia or second moment of area will show less deflection and beam with low value
of inertia will show larger deflection. From this it can be concluded that the second
moment of inertia is property of beam which resist the bending or deflection of beam.
40
CONCLUSION
The purpose of this laboratory is to achieved 2 goals which are to investigate the
existence of internal shear force and bending moment developed in beam based on
external loading applied and identify the relationship between load and displacement,
and estimate the modulus of elasticity of the materials. So that, for the first objective
being achieved by handling the shear force test and bending moment test while the
second objective is achieve by deflection test. Apart of that, we observe that
experimentally value of the beam itself has shown that the value is slightly the same
with the value in theoretical which that means the experiment handled with care.
Therefore, the experiment above was conducted fairly and with maximum accuracy
as possible. It is true that errors cannot be avoided so, we take several ways to reduce
the error are by repeating the experiment for three times or more and then taking the
average readings by being extra cautious during the experiment, by asking more than
one person to record the readings and carry out the experiment.
REFERENCES
1. (2014, June 18). Chapter 1. Stress And Strain (Part 1). Retrieved from
https://drhilton.wordpress.com/mechanics-of-materials-2/chapter-1/
2. UiTM Press. (2018). Solved Problems in Solid Mechanics. Kuala Lumpur, Cheras.
3. Shear Force and Bending Moment. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/materials/shear-force-and-bending-
moment.php
4. Freund, L. B., & Herrmann, G. (1976). Dynamic Fracture Of a Beam Or Plate In
Plane Bending.
5. Trokhan, P. D. (1985). U.S. Patent No. 4,528,239. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent
and Trademark Office.
41
LABORATORY TOPIC : MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ALUMINIUM HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL LABORATORY

SECTION: 10

Mark
Scale
Fundamental
- Introduction
provided

[20] described
procedure
standard
Discussion
analysis with poor
Accuracy problem
formatting
[10] No conclusions
summary

laboratory
/100
CLO 3
Teamwork [35]
commitment
Safety [35]
safety
during lab work
Attendance
/100
CLO 2
skills [20]
distribution
[20]
laboratory tools
tools
Idea [40]
accuracy.
/100
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENT 1
ABSTRACT 2
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 General 3
CONCLUSIONS 22
REFERENCES 23
1
ABSTRACT
In concrete construction, the application of steel reinforcement is essential to resist the

tensile action. It is compulsory to verify the actual strength (yield strength, fy, ultimate
strength fult) of the steel material via tensile testing prior to construction. Universal
Testing Machine is widely used in identifying the mechanical properties (such as
Modulus of Elasticity, MOE) of steel reinforcement. Determination of the yield strength
will lead to the classification of elastic and plastic regions, whereby the elongation of
the material is measured by the extensometer equipment that attached to the specimen.
Tensile tests are fundamental for understanding properties of different materials,
andhow they will behave under load. This lab tested an aluminium material. Then, the
data was used to detemine valuable material properties such as strength, yield point,
modulus of elasticity and stress-strain curve. As they determined, its basically rely to
the need of investigate the mechanical properties in terms of tensile strengths and MOE
of aluminum strut under tensile test by using Universal Testing Machine and the
adaption of the application of Hooke’s law and characterize the behavior of a material
under stress and strain action. This tensile test have to rely the standard in accordance
with BS EN ISO 6892-1:2016 (UTM INSTRON) for standardization. ISO 6892-1:2016
is the current version of a metals testing standard that has undergone several iterations.
The prior version, ISO 6892-1:2009, was itself a replacement of both the former ISO
6892 standard and also the popular EN10002-1:2001 standard. This tensile test of
aluminium strut is handle by using aluminium buckling strut with the 19mm width, 1.86
mm depth with 420 mm length. In our observation towards the theory of Hooke's Law
& Modulus Young, its state that the outcome of the laboratory show us the behaviour of
the material. The behaviour of the material is shown in the graph of the stress-strain
curve. T
2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
In concrete construction, the use of steel reinforcement is important to be rejected

voltage action. It is compulsory to verify the true strength (yield strength, f y ultimate
strength, f ult ) of the material via tensle testing. The Universal Testing Machine is widely
used in identifying mechanical properties (such as Modulus of Elasticity, MOE) of

Determination of yield strength will lead to elastic and plastic regions, whereby the
elongation of the material is measured by the extensometer equipment attached to the
specimen.
Tensile tests are performed for several reasons. The results of tensile tests are used
in selecting materials for engineering applications. Tensile properties frequently are
included in material specifications to ensure quality. Tensile properties often are
measured during development of new materials and processes, so that different
materials and processes can be compared. Finally, tensile properties often are used to
predict the behavior of a material under forms of loading other than uniaxial tension.
The strength of a material often is the primary concern. The strength of interest may be
measured in terms of either the stress necessary to cause appreciable plastic deformation
or the maximum stress that the material can withstand. These measures of strength are
used, with appropriate caution (in the form of safety factors), in engineering design.
Also of interest is the material’s ductility, which is a measure of how much it can be
deformed before it fractures.
3
Rarely is ductility incorporated directly in design; rather, it is included in material
specifications to ensure quality and toughness. Low ductility in a tensile test often is
accompanied by low resistance to fracture under other forms of loading. Elastic
properties also may be of interest, but special techniques must be used to measure these
properties during tensile testing, and more accurate measurements can be made by
ultrasonic techniques
i. To investigate the mechanical properties in terms of tensile strengths and MOE

of aluminum strut under tensile test by using Universal Testing Machine.
ii. To adapt the application of Hooke’s law and characterize the behavior of a
material under stress and strain action.
One of the most important mechanical properties we can determine about a material is
its tensile strength. This is the maximum stress that a specimen sustains during the test.
The tensile strength may or may not equate to the specimen's strength at break,
depending on whether the material is brittle, ductile, or exhibits properties of both.
Sometimes a material may be ductile when tested in a lab, but, when placed in service
and exposed to extreme cold temperatures, it may transition to brittle behavior. This
project about the tensile test, the shapes of specimen have to standard in accordance
with BS EN ISO 6892-1:2016 (UTM INSTRON) for standardization. ISO 6892-1:2016
is the current version of a metals testing standard that has undergone several iterations.
The prior version, ISO 6892-1:2009, was itself a replacement of both the former ISO
6892 standard and also the popular EN10002-1:2001 standard.
This tensile test of aluminium strut is handle by Encik Razali as a laboratory

assistant. The buckling strut that we chose is 19mm width and 1.86 mm depth with 420
mm length. So, the first objective will be achieve by doing this tensile test as we want to
investigate the mechanical properties in terms of tensile strengths and MOE of
aluminum strut under tensile test by using Universal Testing Machine. Experiments on
tensile tests can be used to predict the tensile properties and they are conducted by
4
application of axial or longitudinal forces to a specimen with known dimensions. These
forces are applied on the specimen until deformation causes failure. The tensile load and
corresponding extensions are then recorded for calculations and determination of stress-
strain relationship of the material specimen. It is obtained by gradually applying load to
a test coupon and measuring the deformation, from which the stress and strain can be
determined. These curves reveal many of the properties of a material such as the
Young's modulus, the yield strength and the ultimate tensile strength. The original
gauge length, diameter or cross sectional area also used in calculations hence should be
recorded. Apart of that, under this stress-strain curve, there is law that influenced that
called Hooke’s Law where this law is giving out the Modulus Young, E. This Modulus
Young is the slope of the linear-elastic region of the stress-strain curve.
Figure 1.1 Stress-Strain Curve For Aluminium
Figure 1.2 Young Modulus Slope
5
Effectiveness and quality of materials used in manufacturing play a crucial role in

bringing about marketplace success. Tensile tests help determine the effectiveness and
behavior of a material when a stretching force acts on it. These tests are done under
optimum temperature and pressure conditions and determine the maximum strength or
load that the material can withstand. Many materials such as paper, elastic materials,
composites, fabrics and materials used in spacecraft undergo tensile tests. Meanwhile,
the results of tensile tests reveal information about the mechanical properties of the
material. Pulling the material until it breaks helps obtain the material's complete
tensile profile. The resulting curve displays the reaction of the material to the various
forces applied on it. The breakage point is the ultimate strength, or UTS, of the
material. The resulting chart indicates the UTS of the material too. Analysis of the
material under forces of elongation through stress-to-strain charts reveals many
characteristics of the material and helps in predicting the material’s behavior.
All the experimental data and theoretical data are obtained by the testing. Hence,
the data can be using as contribution to the study as tensile tests provide better
information about the test material and thus help keep up the material quality. They
also help with development of new materials. These tests provide information about
the mechanical properties of the material. The results of the tests help the material
suppliers understand the material quality. The results also help with certification
purposes. In addition, able to use Hooke law in construction to able determine right
strength to make sure the structure safe. Next, to able to learn on relationship between
the stress, strain and modulus under elastic and plastic region. Lastly we to able to
construct the structure with lower cost and have a strength that can be support the
building.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue
deformation or failure. This strength is inherent in the material itself and must be
determined by experiment. One of the most important tests to perform in this regard is
the tension or compression test. Once this test is performed, we can then determine the
relationship between the average normal stress and average normal strain in many
engineering materials such as metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites.
Among them is R.C Hibbeler, Book : ‘Mechanics of Materials Edition 10th’ who
said once the stress and strain data from the test are known, then the results can be
plotted to produce a curve called the stress-strain diagram. This diagram is very useful
since it applies to a specimen of the material made of any size. There are two ways in
which the stress-strain diagram is normally described.
Conventional Stress -Strain Diagram is the nominal or engineering stress

determined by dividing the applied load P by the specimen’s original cross section and
throughout the gage length.
The nominal or engineering strain is found directly from the strain gage reading,
or by dividing the change in the specimen’s gage length, , by the specimen’s original
gage length .
7
When these value of and are plotted, where the vertical axis is the stress and
the horizontal axis is the strain, the result curve is called a conventional stress-strain
diagram.
Figure 2.1 Stress Strain Diagram
From the curve in Figure 2.1 we can identify four different regions in which the
material behaves in a unique way, depending on the amount of strain induced in the
material. The first region is Elastic Behavior. The initial region of the curve, indicated
in light orange, is referred to as the elastic region. Here the curve is a straight line up
to the point where the stress reaches the proportional limit, When the stress
slightly exceeds this value, the curve bends until the stress reaches an elastic limit. For
most materials, these points are very close, and therefore it becomes rather difficult to
distinguish their values. What makes the elastic region unique, however, is that after
reaching , if the load is removed, the specimen will recover its original shape. In
other words, no damage will be done to the material.
Because the curve is a straight line up to , any increase in stress will cause a
proportional increase in strain. This fact was discovered in 1676 by Robert Hooke,
using springs, and is known as Hooke's law. It is expressed mathematically as
8
Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the modulus of
elasticity or Young's modulus, named after Thomas Young, who published an account
of it in 1807. As noted in Figure 2.1, the modulus of the straight line portion of the
curve. Since strain is dimensionless, from Eg. 3-3, E will have the same units as
stress, such as pascals (Pa), megapascals (MPa), or gigapascals (GPa).
The next region is Yielding. A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will
result in a breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently. This behavior
is called yielding, and it is indicated by the rectangular dark orange region in Figure
2.1.The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point, , and the
deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. Although not shown in Figure 2.1,
for low-carbon steels or those that are hot rolled, the yield point is often distinguished
by values. The upper yield point occurs first, followed by a sudden decrease in
load-carrying capacity to a lower yield point. Once the yield point is reached, then as
shown in Figure 2.1, the specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without any
increase in load. When the material behaves in this manner, it is often referred to as
being perfectly plastic.
Strain Hardening is when yielding has ended, any load causes an increase in
stress will be supported by the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but
becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress, ,
The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain hardening, and it is identified in
Figure 2.1, as the region in light green.
The last one is Necking.is up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its
cross-sectional area will decrease in a fairly uniform manner over the specimen's entire
gage length. However, just after reaching the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional area
will then begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen, and so it is here where
the stress begins to increase. As a result, a constriction or "neck" tends to form with
further elongation, Figure 2.2 This region of the curve due to necking is indicated in
dark green in Figure 2.1. Here the stress-strain diagram tends to curve downward until
the specimen breaks at the fracture stress, , Figure 2.2.
9
Figure 2.2 Necking and failure of a ductile material
10
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 FLOWCHART
Start
Measured the
aluminium strip
Place the aluminium

strip
11
3.2 THEORIES
Tensile test is one of the most important mechanical property evaluation test. In this test
a plate shaped specimen is deformed by applying a uniaxial force as shown in the figure
below. One end of the sample is fixed in a static grip while the other end of the
specimen is pulled at a constant velocity. The load is continuously monitored during the
test. It is usual to conduct this test until the sample fractures. During the test, the
instantaneous elongation of the sample can be calculated from the velocity of
deformation or can also be measured by using an extensometer.
The resulting output from such a test is recorded as load versus elongation and
can be graphically displayed as a load versus elongation curve. Load versus elongation
curve is then converted to engineering-stress versus engineering-strain curve to evaluate
the tensile properties of materials. Very often engineering-stress versus
engineering-strain curves need to be converted to true-stress versus true-strain curves.
The tensile properties that can be obtained from the stress-strain curves are yield
strength, tensile strength, fracture strength, percent total elongation, uniform elongation,
strain hardening exponent, modulus of resilience, and modulus of toughness.
12
3.3 APPARATUS
Figure 3.1 Universal Testing Machine
Figure 3.2 Aluminium strip
Figure 3.3 Vernier Calliper
13
3.4 PROCEDURE
Steps
Pictures & Details
Number
The dimensions of the aluminium strip is measured by using

Vernier calliper
The strut is installed on the testing machine and the button

START is pressed.
The broke strip then removed
14
4
.
The graph and data is appeard on the computer. Then, the data is
recorded by transferred to the pendrive.
15
CHAPTER 4
4.1 DATA AND RESULTS
4.1.1 Theoretical calculation
Equation used in theoretical calculation:
1. Area, A =
2. Stress,
3. Yield strength,
4. Max. Stress =
5. Strain,
6. Elongation, Ɛ ⺅
䁪 ܽܽ
7. ܽ‫ݏ ݏ‬ 䁪 ‫ݏ‬r
MEASUREMENT ALUMINIUM
Width, b (mm) 19 mm
Depth, d (mm) 1.86 mm
Specimen Length (mm) 420 mm
Cross-head Speed (mm/min) 5 mm/min
Data which is entered into the system
16
DETAILS ALUMINIUM
Spec Gauge Length (mm) 420 mm
Ext. Gauge Length (mm) 25 mm
Number of data points 1176

Maximum Load (kN) 8.23596 kN (Point: 1109)
Maximum Extension (mm) 4.34261 mm (Point: 1176)
Cross section Area ( mm2 ) 35.34 mm
Young Modulus , E 70604.93 MPa
Yield Strength y 205 MPa
Results obtained from test data
Comparison For Young Modulus (E) Between Theory and Experiment
THEORY EXPERIMENT
69000 MPa 70604.93MPa
Noted: For the whole data can be seen in the attachment.
Theoretica l  Experimental
Percentage Error %   100
Theoretica l
69000  70604.93
  100
69000
 2.33%
17
4.1.2 Calculation For Tensile Test
Sample calculation
Refer Data Point 10
1. Cross Section Area:
Area  bd
 (19)(1.86)  35.34mm 2
2. Stress:
Load , P
Stress ,  
Area, A
0.360326
  0.0101960 @ 10.196 x 103 kN/mm 2
35.34
3. Strain:
Extension, 
Strain,  
ActualLeng th, L
- 5.141303
  -0.012241198 @ - 12.241 x 103
420
4. Young’s Modulus ‘E’
Stress , 
Young ' sModulus , E 
Strain, 
4.253169213 - 7.800226372

- 1.224070238 - (-1.224120476)
 70604.929 @  70.605 x103 MPa
18
4.3 GRAPH FOR TENSILE TEST
Graph Based On Data Universal Tensile Machine
Figure 4.2 Stress-Strain Diagram
19
4.4 DISCUSSION
Tensile test is a measurement that examine the strength of material within giving loads
in unaxial direction to the specimen. The tested specimen is exposed by the increasing
unaxial force continuously while its change on elongation is being observed. The tensile
test measures the resistant of a material to the given static load. The results that
generated from the tensile test shows the mechanical properties of the specimen. The
mechanical properties of material that can be known from tensile test including tensile
strength, yield strength , modulus of elasticity,ductility, resilience and toughness. In
addition, tensile test is very important because it tells the impact of load given to the
material’s mechanical properties of a material. These mechanical properties parameters
would provide the basic data if the strength of a material, in this experiment is
aluminium.
The tensile test for the aluminium strut was conducted to determine the behavior
and properties of the material. From the graph that has been plotted, we can say that the
trend for the graph is following a linear elastic behavior up to its limit of proportionality,
before reaching yield point and after which the sample exhibit plastic behavior. In order
to plot the graph, we used for about 1176 number of points data that collected from
the testing machine and from that we analyzed it to get the complete data for the
material properties.
From the experimental test, the data of the aluminium strut were obtained from the
Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The basic details of the data are as shown in the
table above which consists of 35.34mm2 for the area and 420mm for the specimen gauge
length. Meanwhile, we also got the value of extension gauge length, maximum load and
the yield strength which are 25mm, 8.236 kN and 205 MPa respectively. In addition, for
the Young Modulus (E) value, the reading from the experimental test was 70604.93
MPa which is slightly different compared to the theoretical value (69000 MPa). This
indicated that our experimental work were quite good due to the small value of
percentage error which only 2.33%.
20
As in any experiment there are a lot of factors influencing the outcome. However,
the repercussions of the factors may vary in severity. The variables may result in errors
of measurement and may at worst result in inaccuracy and unreliable results. Some of
the possible factors of error in the tensile testing experiment include surface defects and
irregularities in dimension of test specimens, incorrect insertion of test specimens and
loss of fractured pieces. As the test specimen was provided in an already processed state,
they could have irregularities in its dimension due to manufacturing faults. In addition,
there are a range of factors that can influence the final results within the test
environment which are almost impossible to avoid. Such errors include vibrations,
temperature and instrumental errors. However,we can overcome this problem by taking
three measurements for the dimensions before and after the test and taking the average
of these values, some uncertainty is removed. Also, the use of the true values adds
accuracy to the experiment as it takes a more precise approach to the level of stress and
strain at a certain instance.
21
CONCLUSION
This laboratory was carried out so that 2 objectives can be achieved which are
investigate the mechanical properties in terms of tensile strengths and MOE of
aluminum strut under tensile test by using Universal Testing Machine and adapt the
application of Hooke’s law and characterize the behavior of a material under stress and
strain action. As for that, the tensile test is carried out as tensile testing is a way of
determining how something will react when it is pulled apart when a force is applied to
it in tension. Tensile testing is one of the simplest and most widely used mechanical test.
By measuring the force required to elongate a specimen to breaking point, material
properties can be determined that will allow designers and quality managers to predict
how materials and products will behave in their intended applications.
In this experiment we intended to assess the stress-strain behaviour of yield strength

of steels. Hooke’s law can define the characteristic the behavior of material based on
data of stress and strain curve by using Universal Testing Machine. Aluminium
however has found many uses in designs that require low density materials like in
aerodynamics and some motor vehicles. Aluminium experiences high ductility rates
compared to mild steel and have therefore low level values of Young’s Modulus, a
factor that determines deflections in structural components.
This experiment therefore gives close relationship of tensile strength to the

theoretical data and experiment buckling test. Its also shows that the specimen
undergoes ductile fracture because there was a reduction of area at the fractured point
and the fractured point and the fracture appeared cup and cone, which concludes that
mild steel is a ductile material, also in order to obtain better results, the experiment
should be done carefully and use well calibrated instrument to avoid errors.
22
REFERENCES
1. Williams, M. (2015, February 16). What is Hooke's Law? Retrieved from

https://phys.org/news/2015-02-law
2. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (2020, January 13). Hooke's law.
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/Hookes-law
3. Engineers Edge, L. L. C. (n.d.). Young's Modulus (Elastic Modulus) Equation.
Retrieved from https://www.engineersedge.com/material_science/youngs_modulus
4. Introduction to Tensile Testing - ASM International. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.asminternational.org/documents/Chapter1
5. Davis, J. R. (Ed.). (2004). Tensile testing. ASM International.
6. Harding, J., Wood, E. O., & Campbell, J. D. (1960). Tensile testing of materials at
impact rates of strain. Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 2(2), 88-96.
7. Robinson, W. H., & Truman, S. D. (1977). Stress-strain curve for aluminium from
a continuous indentation test. Journal of Materials Science, 12(10), 1961-1965.
23
LABORATORY TOPIC : BUCKLING OF COMPRESSIVE MEMBERS HYDRAULICS AND MECHANICS OF MATERIAL LABORATORY

SECTION: 10

Mark
Scale
Fundamental
- Introduction
provided

[20] described
procedure
standard
Discussion
analysis with poor
Accuracy problem
formatting
[10] No conclusions
summary

laboratory
/100
CLO 3
Teamwork [35]
commitment
Safety [35]
safety
during lab work
Attendance
/100
CLO 2
skills [20]
distribution
[20]
laboratory tools
tools
Idea [40]
accuracy.
/100
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENT 1
ABSTRACT 2
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 General 3
CONCLUSIONS 19
REFERENCES 20
1
ABSTRACT
The buckling theory under compressive axial load was discovered by Leonard Euler
between 1707 to 1783. Buckling occurs when one of slender member in building
(column) is under compression. Usually, it reflected laterally out of the line action of the
forces once buckling initiates the instability can lead to failure of the column. Because
of the maximum axial load and eccentric forces on the verge of buckling it may cause
stress and deflection due to the combination of the bending and axial force. The
objective of this experiment was to investigate the influence of multiple column lengths
and end restraints (support conditions) under axial loading and to derive the Euler
buckling factor by accounting a few columns length and end restraint conditions The
experiment was carried out to investigate the phenomenon of buckling using simple
struts. These results were then compared with the theoretical predictions. Three
aluminium struts of different length were used in the experiment. The applied load was
placed at different eccentricities for each strut. In this case, due to plastic behaviour in
the deformation it was harder to find the critical load. The aluminium struts is come
with differents dimension which are Strut 1 - (520mm, 19.16mm, 1.72mm) , Strut 2 -
(470mm, 18.94mm, 1.88mm) and Strut 3 - (420mm, 18.9mm, 1.86mm). Therefore, the
differences lengths of the columns itself will influence the critical load that compress to
the column those are in straight conditions. It is also the conditions where the beams is
bearing to the pressure. Those three differents conditions have their own k value that
give the different critical load to beams.
2
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The concept of the effective length factors of columns has been well established and
widely used by practicing engineers and plays an important role in compression member
design. The most structural design codes and specifications have provisions concerning
the effective length factor. The aim of this chapter is to present a state-of-the-art
engineering practice of the effective length factor for the design of columns in structures.
In the first part of this chapter, the basic concept of the effective length factor is
discussed. And then, the design implementation for isolated columns, framed columns,
crossing bracing systems, latticed members, tapered columns, crane columns, as well as
columns in gable frames is presented. The determination of whether a frame is braced or
unbraced is also addressed. Several detailed examples are given to illustrate the
determination of effective length factors for different cases of engineering application.
The types of end restrained conditions against the values of 1/ L2 need to be

computed to derive the Euler’s Theory relatioship. Buckling of columns is a form of
deformation as a result of axial-compression forces. This leads to bending of the column,
due to the instability of the column. This mod of failure is quick, and hence dangerous.
Length, strength and other factors determine how or if a column will buckle. Long
columns compared to their thickness will experience elastic buckling similar to bending
a spaghetti noodle. This will occur at stress level less than the ultimate stress of the
column.
3
Figure 1.1 Type of different possibilities of buckling test and the resultant critical
load can be acquired theoreticall.
i. To investigate the influence of multiple column lengths and end restraints

(support conditions) under axial loading..
ii. To derive the Euler buckling factor by accounting a few columns length and
end restraint conditions
This laboratory is handle to achieve two objectives which are investigation of the
influence of multiple column lengths and end restraints (support conditions) under
axial loading and the derivation of the Euler buckling factor by accounting a few
columns length and end restraint conditions. In order to achieves those objectives,
we are need to require 3 of aluminium struts that represents the column as well. So
that, the aluminium struts is come with differents dimension which are this
differences will be the hypothesis in order to us achieve the objectives.
4
This are the various dimension of the aluminium struts :
i. Strut 1 - (520mm, 19.16mm, 1.72mm)

ii. Strut 2 - (470mm, 18.94mm, 1.88mm)
iii. Strut 3 - (420mm, 18.9mm, 1.86mm)
So this aluminium struts will be tested under the Buckling of Struts Apparatus
to get the value of critical load, (Pcr). So for the test that being undergo were 12 in
total. This is because, every each aluminium struts will experiences 3 differents
conditions of possibilities of buckling test. Those are Pinned-Pinned End with k
value 1. Then, Fixed - Fixed End with k value 0.5 and Fixed - Pinned End with k
value 0.7. Theoretically, the Pcr value is getting calculated by the following
formula ;
 2 EI
Pcr 
(kL) 2
5
Its crucial to do this buckling test as explained that the Euler’s buckling load is a critical
load value that forces the strut to bend suddenly to one side and buckle before achieving
the acceptable compressive strain. At the point of failure, the actual compressive stress
at the point of failure can be less than the ultimate compressive strength. The buckling
occurs due to imperfections in the straightness of the strut, the applied load is not along
the axis of the strut, and one part of the material may yield in compression more readily
than others owing to some lack of uniformity in the material properties throughout the
strut. Strut testing apparatus, which is designed to carry out tests on struts of various
lengths, with ends either hinged or fixed, is employed to determine the Euler’s buckling
load of a strut.
By doing the testing, we can get that it is important to concern about the critical
load for every column that being used in order to prevent any of dangerous scenario as
the column deflect laterally and even bow out. The critical load acting on a column can
be found at the maximum axial load that a column can resist before failure. Therefore, it
is also important to predict the buckling levels so that the destructive, dangerous and
sudden collapse could be estimated. In this experimental way, the integrity of a sturgeon
can be predicted and calculated. In contrast, the side deflection caused by buckling is
unstable. As soon as a member begins to slide, any further burden will cause a
significant and uncertain deformation.
6
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEWS
Column, top chords of trusses, diagonals and bracing members are all examples of
compression member. Columns are usually thought of as straight compression members
whose a length are considerably greater than their cross-sectional dimensions.
Among them is R.C Hibbeler, Book : ‘Mechanics of Materials Edition 10th’ who
said not only must a member satisfy specific strength and deflection requirements but it
must also be stable. Stability is particularly important if the member is long and slender,
and it supports a compressive loading that becomes large enough to cause the member
to suddenly deflect laterally or sidesway. These members are called columns, and the
lateral deflection that occurs is called buckling. Quite often the buckling of a column
can lead to a sudden and dramatic failure of a structure or mechanism, and as a result,
special attention must be given to the design of columns so that they can safely support
their intended loadings without buckling. In addition, the buckling theory under
compressive axial load was discovered by Leonard Euler between 1707 t0 1783.
Figure 2.1 : Buckling
7
An initially straight strut or column, compressed by gradually increasing equal
and opposite axial force at the ends is considered first. Columns and struts are termed
“long” or “short” depending on their proneness to buckling. If the strut is “short”, the
applied forces will cause a compressive strain, which results in the shortening of the
strut in the direction of the applied forces.
Buckling behavior is thus characterized by large deformations developed in a

direction (or plane) normal to that of the loading that produces it. When the applied
loading is increased, the buckling deformation also increases. Buckling occurs mainly in
members subjected to compressive forces. If the member has high bending stiffness, its
buckling resistance is high. Also, when the member length is increased, the buckling
resistance is decreased. Thus the buckling resistance is high when the member is short
or “stocky” (i.e. the member has a high bending stiffness and is short) conversely, the
buckling resistance is low when the member is long or “slender”.
Traditionally, the design of compression members was based on Euler analysis

of ideal columns which gives an upper band to the buckling load. However, practical
columns are far from ideal and buckle at much lower loads. The first significant step in
the design procedures for such columns was the use of Perry Robertson curves. Modern
codes advocate the use of multiple-column curves for design. Although these design
procedures are more accurate in predicting the buckling load of practical columns,
Euler's theory helps in the understanding of the behavior of slender columns and is
reviewed in the following sections.
8
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 FLOWCHART
Start
Setup the apparatus
Apply the load until the

reading constant
Place the different strip
9
3.2 THEORIES
Buckling of Columns is a form of deformation as a result of axial-compression forces.

This leads to bending of the column, due to the instability of the column. This mode of
failure is quick, and hence dangerous. Length, strength and other factors determine how
or if a column will buckle. Long columns compared to their thickness will experience
elastic buckling similar to bending a spaghetti noodle. This will occur at stress level less
than the ultimate stress of the column.
The Euler equation explains this phenomena ;
‫﯀‬

Euler theory for elastic buckling
L = length
P = allowable load before buckle
E = modulus of elasticity
I = second moment of area
As the length increases, the allowable load decreases. With shorter columns
compared to its thickness, one can infer from the same equation above that the
allowable stress on a column before buckling increases as length decreases. The type of
end connections for the column is another important factor in determining buckling
stress.
From pinned-pinned to fixed-fixed to fixed-pinned connection, they are each

represented in the Euler equation with different values of ‘n’. The fixed-fixed
connection increases the allowable stress before buckling more than any of the other
end connections. In construction, it occurs differently for different materials. In steel
columns, this occurs elastically. This differs for reinforced concrete. In the image below,
the steel rebar is bent outward and the concrete is broken apart. With a more brittle
material, the phenomenon is more sudden.
10
Table 3.1 Euler’s Buckling Formula
11
3.3 APPARATUS
Figure 3.1 Buckling apparatus
Figure 3.2 Digital Force Display
Figure 3.3 Aluminium strip
12
3.4 PROCEDURE
Steps Pictures & Details

Number
The length of struts is measured. It is to find the value of Second

Moment of Area, I by using rectangular formula of Second Moment
of Area
Setup the test specimen and the strut is placed then tight the nut
13
4
The load toe strut is applied then the thumbnut is adjusted until the
digital display reading show constant.
The digital display reading show constant and the value will be
recorded
14
CHAPTER 4
4.1 DATA AND RESULT
Beam material used for testing : Aluminium

Modulus of elasticity of material, E = 69 GPa = 69x103 MPa = 69000N/mm2
Rod L(mm) b (mm) h (mm) I (mm4)

1 520 19.16 1.72 8.125
2 470 18.94 1.88 10.488
3 420 18.90 1.86 10.135
Pinned – Pinned End, k=1

Strut Length 1/L² Bucking, Pcr (N) Percentage
No. (mm) (m²) (%)
theory Experiment
1 520 3.70 20.46 22 7.53
2 470 4.53 32.33 34 5.17
3 420 5.67 39.13 40 2.22
Fixed – Fixed End, k=0.5

No. (mm) (m²) (%)
theory Experiment
1 520 3.70 81.85 81 1.04
2 470 4.53 129.33 126 2.57
3 420 5.67 156.5 158 0.96
15
Fixed-Pinned End, k=0.7
No. (mm) (m²) (%)
theory Experiment
1 520 3.70 41.76 41 1.82
2 470 4.53 65.99 65 1.5
3 420 5.67 79.85 73 8.58
theoretica l - experimental
theoretica l
CALCULATION
Moment of Inertia, I
bh 3 (19.16)(1.72) 3
I1    8.125mm 4
12 12
bh 3 (18.94)(1.88) 3
I2    10.488mm 4
12 12
3
bh (18.90)(1.86) 3
I3    10.135mm 4
12 12
Buckling Load, Pcr

 2 EI
Pcr 
(kL) 2
Pinned – Pinned End, k=1

 2 (69000)(8.125)
Pcr1   20.46 N
(1(520)) 2
 2 (69000)(10.488)
Pcr2   32.33 N
(1(470)) 2
 2 (69000)(10.135)
Pcr3   39.13 N
(1(420)) 2
16
Fixed – Fixed End, k=0.5
 2 (69000)(8.125)
Pcr1   81.85 N
(0.5(520)) 2
 2 (69000)(10.488)
Pcr2   129.33 N
(0.5(470)) 2
 2 (69000)(10.135)
Pcr3   156.5 N
(0.5(420)) 2
Fixed-Pinned End, k=0.7
 2 (69000)(8.125)
Pcr1   41.76 N
(0.7(520)) 2
 2 (69000)(10.488)
Pcr2   65.99 N
(0.7(470)) 2
 2 (69000)(10.135)
Pcr3   79.85 N
(0.7(420)) 2
17
4.2 DISCUSSION
In this experimental test, three specimens with constant type of material which is
aluminium with Young’s Modulus of 69x103 MPa were used as a main apparatus. The
specimens only differ in their lengths, which are 520mm, 470mm and 420mm and it has
contributed to the different values of second moment inertia. With this specifications,
we can determine a single relationship between length and critical buckling load for
each set of boundary conditions. The experiment consists of applying variable
compressive loads on the specimen under three sets of end fixity which simulate
pinned-pinned, fixed-fixed and fixed-pinned boundary conditions.
Based on the results, it can be seen that different columns buckle at different critical
loads. From the table, it is clear that the columns can take larger loads before knuckling
when the length of the specimen is shorter. In example, for the pinned-pinned condition,
the highest critical load value is 40N which is for 420mm rod in which became the
highest value compared to the longer rods. Meanwhile, for the specimen which has the
same value of second moment of inertia, the highest load that can be applied to the
columns are when the boundary conditions is fixed-fixed.
This experiment offers a good initial assessment of buckling behaviour of columns,

but a series of improvements must be made with the apparatus to reduce error and
increase reliability of the results. In this experiment, the main causes for inaccuracies
are poor enforcement of boundary conditions with the support blocks, failure in
maintaining the structure leveled while the loading the columns which causing
non-uniform loads and lastly is imperfections with the specimens, including
pre-buckling. From the causes listed, the most critical is the first one, related to
boundary conditions. The poor clamping system in the support blocks might have
created a non-zero slope at the ends of the specimens during the compression, altering
their boundary values. To overcome this problem, a better clamping system should be
implemented.
18
CONCLUSION
This purpose of this laboratory is to achieved 2 goals which are to investigate the
influence of multiple column lengths and end restraints (support conditions) under axial
loading and derive the Euler buckling factor by accounting a few columns length and
end restraint conditions. Experimental data support the theory of calculations that the
square length of the column length inverse is directly related to the critical load. Apart
of that, clamps to overtake ends are likely to result in a critical load of about four times
greater than the supported method alone. With respect to the slenderness ratio of critical
pressure, theoretical data is supported even with a slight error from the critical load to
the flanked state. Each experiment follows a trend that increases slenderness ratio to
lower critical pressure.
Derivation of the Euler relationship was computed the types of end restrained
conditions against the values of 1/L2 of the struts. By establishing a linear relationship
between the buckling loads versus 1/L2, the ‘n’ factor can be determined from the
gradient ratio of the control (pined-pined) to any particular end restrained conditions. In
order to make this happened, the experiment should be done carefully and use well
calibrated instrument to avoid errors and need to being extra cautious during the
experiment, by asking more than one person to record the readings and carry out the
experiment.
19
REFERENCES
1. Buckling of Columns - Euler Theory for Elastic Buckling. (2017, March 16).
Retrieved March 25 2020, from
https://civildigital.com/buckling-columns-euler-theory-elastic-buckling
2. Posted in Design Guide, H. T. G. (2020, January 18). Euler's Theory of Column
Buckling. Retrieved April 16, 2020 from
https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/euler-theory-column-buckling/37341/
3. Budiansky, B. (1974). Theory Of Buckling And Post-buckling Behavior Of Elastic
Structures. In Advances in applied mechanics (Vol. 14, pp. 1-65). Elsevier.
4. King, W.-S., Duan, L., Zhou, R.-G., Hu, Y.-X., & Chen, W.-F. (2003, March 3).
K-Factors Of Framed Columns Restrained By Tapered Girders In Us Codes.
Retrieved April 1, 2020, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/014102969390040B
5. Allen, H. G., & Bulson, P. S. (1980). Background to buckling (No. Monograph).
6. Maljaars, J., Soetens, F., & Snijder, H. H. (2009). Local buckling of aluminium
structures exposed to fire. Part 1: Tests. Thin-Walled Structures, 47(11),
1404-1417.
20

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LABORATORY REPORT (CLO 1-PLO4, C2) OPEN ENDED LABORATORY

GROUP MEMBERS: MATRIC NO. DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY REPORT RUBRIC (CLO1 - PLO4, C2) CLO 1 - Converted to 30 Marks -

Methodology are described

Having tremendous value in

CHAPTER 1 TABLE OF CONTENT 1

1.2 Goal And Objectives 3

1.3 Laboratory Scope 4

1.4 Significance Of Laboratory Testing 6

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEWS 7

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS 24

The application of several types of loading or combinations of loading using different

1.2 GOAL AND OBJECTIVES

i. To investigate the existence of internal shear force and bending moment

Figure 1.1 Shear Force In Beam

Figure 1.2 Bending Moment In Beam

Figure 1.3 Deflection Of Beam

2.11 Shear Force

The following is a drawing of a simply-supported beam of length L under a

2.12 Bending Moment

A bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an

2.21 Normal stress

2.22 Shear stress

Normal stress is a result of load applied perpendicular to a member.Shear stress

2.23 Bending stress

Decide the load and distance

Measure the distance from

Check the digital force

Place the hanger with

Calculate the result

3.2.1 Shear Force In a Beam

The following is a drawing of a simply-supported beam of length L under a

This beam has the following support reactions:

3.2.2 Bending Moment In a Beam

(a) one from x = 0 to x = L/2 and

(b) the other from x = L/2 to x = L.

Figure 3.1 Shear Force in a beam machine

Figure 3.2 Bending moment in a beam machine

Figure 3.3 Deflection on beam machine

Figure 3.5 Digital Indicator

Figure 3.5 Hanger

Figure 3.6 Load

Experiment 1 : Shear force in a beam

100g, 150g, 200g and 300g of loads is prepared.

The Digital Force Display is switched on and set to zero.

The reading is recorded.

The hanger is removed.

6 Step 3 to 5 is repeated with differents load.

100g, 150g, 200g and 300g of loads is prepared.

The Digital Force Display is switched on and set to zero.

The reading is recorded and The hanger is removed..

5 Step 3 to 5 is repeated with differents load.

The length of strut is measueres using the vernier calliper.. It is to find

The strut is placed on the support.

300g and 500g of loads is prepared.

The indicator is placed at the point of maximum deflection and the

The load with length which been decided is placed

The reading is recorded and The hanger is removed..

7 Step 3 to 5 is repeated with differents load.

RESULTS, DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

4.1.1 The value and the position of the loading

Length of beam = 440 mm