QUALITY CONTROL

• Quality: Total Quality Management - Quality

Specifications, Costs of Quality, Continuous
Improvement, SPC Tools, Benchmarking, Fail-safing, ISO
9000, six sigma.
Defining Quality

The totality of features and

characteristics of a product or service
that bears on its ability to satisfy
stated or implied needs
American Society for Quality
QUALITY
• The ability of a product or service to consistently meet
or exceed customer requirement or expectations.
• Performance of product or services
• How closely a good/service conforms to specified
standard.
PRODUCT QUALITY
• Performance: main characteristics of the product (fit and finish)
• Aesthetics: appearance, feel, smell, taste
• Special features: extra characteristics
• Conformance: how well a product correspondents to design
specification
• Reliability: dependable performance
• Durability: ability to perform over time
• Perceived quality: indirect evaluation of quality (reputation)
• Serviceability: handling of complaints or repairs
• Consistency: quality doesn’t vary
SERVICE QUALITY
• Convenience: the availability and accessibility of the service
• Reliability: the ability to performance a service dependably, consistency
and accuracy
• Responsiveness: the willingness of service providers to help customers in
unusual situations and to deal with problems
• Time: the speed with which services is delivered
• Assurance: ability to convey trust and confidence
• Courtesy: the way customers are treated by employees
• Tangibles: physical appearance of the facilities, equipment, communication
• Consistency: same level of quality repeatedly
• Expectations: meet or exceed customer expectations
QUALITY CONTROL TECHNIQUES

• CONTROL CHART ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING

VARIABLE ATTRIBUTES VARIABLE ATTRIBUTES

CONTROL CHART
• Shows the performance of a process from two points
of view
• It shows a snap shot of the process at the moment the
data are collected
• It shows the progress trend, this helps to identify the
out of control status, if any
• It helps to detect variations outside the normal
operational limit
• To identify causes of variations
 UCL

CENTRAL LINE

LCL

SAMPLE NUMBER
TYPES OF CONTROL CHART
• CONTROL CHART FOR VARIABLE
• X CHART
• R CHART
• CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES
• P chart
• C chart
 X and R CHART
• Identify the process to be controlled
• Select the variables
• Decide a suitable sample size (n)
• Collect specified number of samples over a given time interval
• Find the measurement of interest for each piece within the sample
• Obtain mean and range
• Establish control limits for both charts
• Incorporate the control limits on charts
• Plot charts with values : X for X chart and R values for R chart
• Hunt for assignable causes when the process is out of control.
Sample group Observations I II III IV V

1 2 3 4 5

1 10 12 13 8 9

2 7 10 8 11 9

3 11 12 9 12 10

4 10 9 8 13 11

5 8 11 11 7 7

6 11 8 8 11 10

7 10 12 13 13 9

8 10 12 12 10 12

9 12 13 11 12 10

10 10 13 7 12
9
 1 2 3 4 5 X R
1 10 12 13 8 9 10.4 5
2 7 10 8 11 9 9 4
3 11 12 9 12 10 10.8 3
4 10 9 8 13 11 10.2 5
5 8 11 11 7 7 8.8 4
6 11 8 8 11 10 9.6 3
7 10 12 13 13 9 11.4 4
8 10 12 12 10 12 11.2 2
9 12 13 11 12 10 11.6 3
10 10 13 7 12 10.2 6
9
X

• UCL = X + A R

• LCL = X – A R

• UCL = 12.582
• LCL = 8.058
 R chart
• UCL = B R
• LCL =C R

• UCL = 2.11* 3.9 = 8.229

• LCL = 0 * 3.9 = 0
CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES
• P CHART
• UCL = P + 3 P (1- P) / n
• LCL = P – 3 P (1 –P /n
• C CHART
• UCL = C + 3 C
• LCL = C – 3 C
• Alpha electric company manufactures cathode ray tubes on mass
production basis. At some intermediate point of production line, 15
sample of size 50 each have been taken. Tubes within each sample
were classified into good or bad. Construct P chart.
SAMPLE NUMBER NUMBER OF DEFECTIVE TUBES
1 10
2 10
3 9
4 10
5 4
6 6
7 2
8 3
9 9
10 4
11 8
12 11
13 8
14 10
15 9
SAMPLE NUMBER NUMBER OF DEFECTIVE TUBES
1 10
2 10
3 9
4 10
5 4
6 6
7 2
8 3
9 9
10 4
11 8
12 11
13 8
14 10
15 9
SAMPLE NUMBER NUMBER OF DEFECTIVE TUBES PERCENTAGE OF DEFECTIVE TUBES
1 10 .20
2 10 .20
3 9 .18
4 10 .20
5 4 .08
6 6 .12
7 2 .04
8 3 .06
9 9 .18
10 4 .08
11 8 .16
12 11 .22
13 8 .16
14 10 .20
15 9 .18
• P = 113 / (k * n)
• = 113 / (15 * 50)
• = .151

• UCL = .301

• LCL = .001
C chart Table gives the number of rivets noted in
a newly fabricated bus. Construct C chart.

Bus 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number

Number 14 13 26 20 9 25 15 11 14 13
of
missing
rivets (C)
CONTROL CHART FOR ATTRIBUTES
• P CHART
• UCL = P + 3 P (1- P) / n
• LCL = P – 3 P (1 –P /n
• C CHART
• UCL = C + 3 C
• LCL = C – 3 C
• UCL = 16 + 3 * 4 = 28

• LCL = 16 – 3*4 = 4
Decision
• The observations are scattered in the chart.
• This may due to very frequent change of workers in the fabrication
section or improper markings before performing riveting operation.
ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• Objectives: whether to accept or reject
• Based on the characteristics of sample
• It is used for attributes and variables
• Accept or reject the raw materials and finished goods
• Size of incoming RM = N
• Sample =n
• Analysing the probability of getting number of defectives
• Definite no. of RM = Binomial
• Lot size is large = normal
• X = central tendency of the sample, average variation between the
sample

• R = Dispersion, spread of observation in the sample

• P = Average defective articles over a period of time

• C = number of defectives in each sample

ACCEPTANCE SAMPLING
• Accept or reject based on samples’ characteristics
• Inspection
• Checking incoming materials
Meaning of SPC

• Statistics: Statistics is a science which deals with a collection,

summarization, analysis, and drawing information from the data.
• Process: It converts input resources into the desired output
(goods or services) with a combination of people, materials,
methods, machines, and measurements.
• Control: System, policies, and procedures in place the overall
output meets the requirement .
SPC
• Statistical Process Control (SPC) is an industry-standard
methodology for measuring and controlling quality during the
manufacturing process.
• Quality data in the form of Product or Process measurements
are obtained in real-time during manufacturing.
• This data is then plotted on a graph with pre-determined control
limits.
• Control limits are determined by the capability of the process,
whereas specification limits are determined by the client's
needs.
• Data that falls within the control limits indicates that everything
is operating as expected.
• Any variation within the control limits is likely due to a common
cause—the natural variation that is expected as part of the
process.
• If data falls outside of the control limits, this indicates that an
assignable cause is likely the source of the product variation,
and something within the process should be changed to fix the
issue before defects occur
Statistical process control (SPC)
• method of quality control which employs statistical methods to
monitor and control a process.
• This helps to ensure that the process operates efficiently, producing
more specification-conforming products with less waste (rework
or scrap).
• SPC can be applied to any process where the "conforming product"
(product meeting specifications) output can be measured.
• Key tools used in SPC include run charts, control charts, a focus
on continuous improvement, and the design of experiments.
Use Statistical Process Control

• Today companies are facing increasing competition and also

operational costs, including raw material continuously increasing.
So for the organizations, it is beneficial if they have control over
their operation.
• Organizations must make an effort for continuous improvement
in quality, efficiency, and cost reduction. Many organizations still
follow inspection after the production for quality related issues.
• SPC helps companies to move towards prevention-based quality
control instead of detection based quality controls. By
monitoring SPC graphs, organizations can easily predict the
behavior of the process.
Statistical Process Control Benefits
• Reduce scrap and rework
• Increase productivity
• Improve overall quality
• Match process capability to product requirement
• Continuously monitor process to maintaining control
• Provide data to support decision making
• Increase in product reliability
• Opportunity for company-wide improvements
How to Perform SP- process
• 1.Identify the processes: Identify the key process that impacts the output of the product or the process
that is very critical to the customer. For example, plate thickness impacts the product’s performance in a
manufacturing company, then consider the plate manufacturing process.
• 2. Determine measurable attributes of the process: Identify the attributes that need to measure during
the production. From the above example, consider the plate thickness as a measurable attribute.
• 3. Determine the measurement method : Create a measurement method work instructions or procedure
including the measuring instrument. For example, consider thickness gage to measure the thickness and
create an appropriate measuring procedure.
• 4. Develop a subgroup strategy and sampling plan: Determine the subgroup size based on the product’s
criticality and determine the sampling size and frequency. For example collect 20 sets of plate
thicknesses in a time sequence with a subgroup size of 4.
• 5. Collect the data and plot SPC chart: Collect the data as per sample size and select an appropriate SPC
chart based on data type (Continuous or Discrete) and also subgroup size. Xbar -R chart.
• 6. Describe natural variation of attributes: Calculate the control limits. From the above example,
calculate the upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL) for both Xbar Range.
• 7. Monitor process variation: Interpret the control chart and check whether any point is out of control
and the pattern. Example: check Xbar R chart If the process is not in control, then identify the assignable
cause(s) and address the issue. This is an ongoing process to monitor the process variation.
• Control charts : A Control chart is one of the primary techniques of
statistical process control (SPC). The control chart is a graphical
display of quality characteristics that have been measured or
computed from a sample versus the sample number or time.
Furthermore, control chart contains a center line represents the
average value of the quality characteristics and two other horizontal
lines known as upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL)
• X bar – R Charts (when data is readily available) X bar R chart is used
to monitor the process performance of a continuous data and the
data to be collected in subgroups at a set time periods. It is actually a
two plots to monitor the process mean and the process variation over
the time.
• Run Charts (limited single-point data) A run chart displays observed data as they
evolve over time. Just a basic graph that displays data values in a time order. Can
be useful for identifying trends or shifts in process but also allows you to test for
randomness in the process.
• X – MR Charts (I – MR, individual moving range) I-MR chart also known as X-MR
chart. An Individual moving range (I-MR ) chart is used when data is continuous
and not collected in subgroups. In other words collect the single observation at a
time. An I-MR chart provides process variation over time in graphical method.
• X bar – S Charts (when sigma is readily available) X Bar S charts often used control
chart to examine the process mean and standard deviation over the time. These
charts are used when the subgroups have large sample size and S chart provides
better understanding of the spread of subgroup data than range.
• EWMA Chart: The EWMA – Exponentially Weighted Moving Average chart is
used in statistical process control to monitor variables (or attributes that act like
variables) that make use of the entire history of a given output. This is different
from other control charts that tend to treat each data point individually
ISO 9000
• The ISO 9000 family of quality management systems (QMS) is a set of
standards that helps organizations ensure they meet customer and
other stakeholder needs within statutory and regulatory
requirements related to a product or service.
• ISO 9000 deals with the fundamentals of QMS, including the seven
quality management principles that underlie the family of standards.
• ISO 9001 deals with the requirements that organizations wishing to
meet the standard must fulfill.
• ISO 9000 is defined as a set of international standards on
quality management and quality assurance developed to help
companies effectively document the quality system elements
needed to maintain an efficient quality system.
• They are not specific to any one industry and can be applied to
organizations of any size.
• ISO 9000 can help a company satisfy its customers, meet
regulatory requirements, and achieve continual improvement. It
should be considered to be a first step or the base level of a
quality system.
The seven quality management principles
are:
• QMP 1 – Customer focus
• QMP 2 – Leadership
• QMP 3 – Engagement of people
• QMP 4 – Process approach
• QMP 5 – Improvement
• QMP 6 – Evidence-based decision making
• QMP 7 – Relationship management
• Principle 1 – Customer focus: Organizations depend on their customers and
therefore should understand current and future customer needs, should meet
customer requirements and strive to exceed customer expectations.
• Principle 2 – Leadership: Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction of the
organization. They should create and maintain the internal environment in which
people can become fully involved in achieving the organization's objectives.
• Principle 3 – Engagement of people: People at all levels are the essence of an
organization and their full involvement enables their abilities to be used for the
organization's benefit.
• Principle 4 – Process approach: A desired result is achieved more efficiently when
activities and related resources are managed as a process.
• Principle 5 – Improvement: Improvement of the organization's overall performance
should be a permanent objective of the organization.
• Principle 6 – Evidence-based decision making: Effective decisions are based on the
analysis of data and information.
• Principle 7 – Relationship management: An organization and its external providers
(suppliers, contractors, service providers) are interdependent and a mutually
beneficial relationship enhances the ability of both to create value
SIX SIGMA
• Six Sigma (6σ) is a set of techniques and tools for
process improvement.
• It was introduced by American engineer Bill Smith
while working at Motorola in 1986.
• A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all
opportunities to produce some feature of a part are
statistically expected to be free of defects
• Six Sigma strategies seek to improve manufacturing
quality by identifying and removing the causes of
defects and minimizing variability in manufacturing
and business processes.
• This is done by using empirical and statistical quality
management methods and by hiring people who
serve as Six Sigma experts.
• Each Six Sigma project follows a defined methodology
and has specific value targets, such as reducing
pollution or increasing customer satisfaction.
What is Six Sigma?

• Six Sigma is a term used to define various techniques and

management tools designed to make business processes
more efficient and effective.
• It provides statistical tools to eliminate defects, identify the
cause of the error, and reduce the possibilities of error.
• Six Sigma creates an environment of continuous process
improvement, enabling businesses to provide
better products and services to customers.
• It was developed by Motorola, Inc. in 1986.
Objectives of six sigma

1.To give good performance and reliability.

2.To provide value to the end customer.
3.Reducing or minimizing defects in any type of process
4.To eliminate wasteful practices i.e. the practices which do not
provide any value to the process, should be eliminated.
5.Providing after sales service quality.
6.Improving the quality of the product.
7. Satisfying both internal and external customers.
Benefits of Six sigma

1. Transaction involving six sigma provides services and products,

free from defects.
2. Lower production, inspection and warranty costs, with tension
free conditions for working.
3. Greater satisfaction of the customer, resulting in better place
and better reputation in the market.
4. Moving from % defect to zero defect (Zero variation), which
automatically results in achievement of excellence in the process.
Principles of six sigma

1. The use of pro active thinking to achieve perfection.

2. Top priority should always be service towards customer, stress
towards understanding their needs and expectations and trying to
fulfill them.
3. Boundary less collaboration, supported by data and fact driven
management.
4. Failure is allowed but through risk management techniques.
Steps to calculate process sigma

1. Defining one’s opportunities.

2. Defining the possible defects.
3. Measuring opportunities and defects, this step is very
important as an opportunity tells the minimum defect that is
noticeable by a customer.
4. Calculating the yield.
5. This is the last step which involves looking up one’s sigma on a
sigma conversion table.
DMAIC
• DMAIC stands for Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control.
• DMAIC is a Six Sigma methodology which is used to improve work processes by
eliminating defects.
• It is defined as a set of practices that improve efficiency of a process.
• DMAIC generally is used for projects aimed at improving an existing business process.
• Therefore it can be safely said that when considering continuous improvement programs
the DMAIC approach is more applicable to the projects focusing on incremental change
than to projects focusing on radical change.
• A DMAIC methodology is used when a product or process is in existence at a company
but it is not meeting customer specification or is not performing adequately.
• This methodology is also referred to as ‘improve for Six Sigma’.
• It succeeds by measuring defective processes and then improving them.
• As long as there is no challenge of new products and services, the DMAIC approach is
acceptable.
• This methodology of Six Sigma is a list of process steps which when executed in sequence
helps in achieving an end goal of reduction in the number of process defects.
• DMAIC is a closed-loop process that eliminates unproductive steps, often focuses on new
measurements, and applies technology for continuous improvement.
• Define: A process is identified to be in need of improvement and the goals of the
improvement activity are stated based on the needs of the customer, which are obtained
through various forms of communication. The project goals are aligned with the strategic
objectives of the company.
• Measure: To define baseline measurements on current process for future comparison.
Map and measure process in question and collect required process data.
• Analyze: To verify relationship and causality of factors. What is the relationship? Are
there other factors that have not been considered?
• Improve: To optimize the process based upon the analysis using techniques like Design
of experiments (DOE) and poka yoke.
• Control: Setup pilot runs to establish process capability, transition to production and
thereafter continuously measure the process and institute control mechanisms to
ensure that variances are corrected before they result in defects.
DFSS or DMADV

• DMADV stands for Define, Measure, Analyze, Design and Verify.

• DMADV comes into play if DMAIC has been used fully to optimize the
existing process and still the process doesn’t meet the level of customer
specification.
• Whenever the improvement anticipated is considerably more, there is a
pressing need for DMADV, which is also referred to as ‘design for Six Sigma’.
• For brand new processes or services that are being designed to meet the
quality standards of Six Sigma, a different method called Design for Six
Sigma (DFSS), has been developed. It is a generic term used to define the
approach of different individual methods that try to achieve the Six Sigma
level of quality.
• Basic DMADV methodology consists of the following five phases:
• Define: Formally define the goals of the design activity that are consistent
with customer demands and enterprise strategy.
• Measures: To identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), product
capabilities, production process capability,risk assessment, etc.
• Analyze: To develop and design alternatives, create high-level design and
evaluate design capability to select the best design.
• Design: To develop detail design, optimize design, and plan for design
verification.This phase may require simulations.
• Verify: To design, setup pilot runs, implement production process and handover
to process owners. This phase may also require simulations.
• DMAIC and DMADV sound very similar. The acronyms even share the first three
letters. But that’s about where the similarities stop.
• DMAIC
•
The DMAIC project methodology has five phases:
•
Define the problem, the voice of the customer, and the project goals, specifically.
• Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data.
• Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that
all factors have been considered. Seek out root cause of the defect under investigation.
• Improve or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake
proofing, and standard work to create a new, future state process. Set up pilot runs to establishprocess capability.
• Control the future state process to ensure that any deviations from target are corrected before they result in defects. Implement control
systems such as statistical process control, production boards, and visual workplaces, and continuously monitor the process.

•
DMADV

•
The DMADV project methodology, features five phases:
•
Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy.
• Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), product capabilities, production process capability, and risks.
• Analyze to develop and design alternatives, create a high-level design and evaluate design capability to select the best design.
• Design details, optimize the design, and plan for design verification. This phase may require simulations.
• Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it over to the process owner.
•
BENCHMARKING
• Benchmarking is a process of measuring the performance of a company’s products, services, or
processes against those of another business considered to be the best in the industry, “best in
class.”
• The point of benchmarking is to identify internal opportunities for improvement.
• By studying companies with superior performance, breaking down what makes such superior
performance possible, and then comparing those processes to how your business operates, you
can implement changes that will yield significant improvements.
• That might mean tweaking a product’s features to more closely match a competitor’s offering, or
changing the scope of services you offer, or installing a new customer relationship management
(CRM) system to enable more personalized communications with customers.
• There are two basic kinds of improvement opportunities: continuous and dramatic.
• Continuous improvement is incremental, involving only small adjustments to reap sizeable
advances.
• Dramatic improvement can only come about through reengineering the whole internal work
process.