CHAPTER – I

TRIBAL ECONOMY

1.1 Introduction

The term ―Scheduled tribe‖ first appeared in the Constitution of India.

Article 366 (25) defines Scheduled tribes as ―such tribes or tribal communities or

parts of groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under

Article 342 to be scheduled tribes for the purpose of this Constitution‖. Article 342

prescribes the procedure to be followed in the matter of specification of

scheduled tribes [1].

Empowered by clause (1) of Article 342, the President may, with respect

to any State or Union Territory, and where it is a State, after consultation with the

Governor thereof, notifies tribes or tribal communities or parts of these as

scheduled tribes. This confers on the tribe or part of it a constitutional status

invoking the safeguards provided for in the Constitution to these communities in

their respective states/union territories.

Thus, the first specification of scheduled tribes in relation to

particular State/ Union Territory is by a notified order of the President, after

consultation with the State Governments concerned. These orders can be

modified subsequently only through an Act of Parliament. The above article also

provides for listing of scheduled Tribes State/ Union Territory wise and not on an

all India basis.

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The criteria followed for specification of a community as a scheduled tribe is
a. Indications of primitive traits,

b. Distinctive culture,

c. Geographical isolation,

d. Shyness of contact with the community at large, and

e. Backwardness.

This criteria is not spelt out in the Constitution but has become well

established. It takes into account the definitions in the 1931 census, the reports

of the first backward classes commission (kalelkar), 1955, the Advisory

Committee on Revision of SC/ST lists (Lokur Committee), 1965 and the Joint

Committee of Parliament on the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes Orders

(Amendment) Bill, 1967 Chanda Committee, 1969.

In exercise of the powers conferred by clause (1) of Article 342 of the

Constitution of India, the President, after consultation with the State Government

concerned, had promulgated so far nine Orders specifying the scheduled tribes

in relation to the states and union territories. Out of these, eight are in operation

at present in their original or amended form. One Order, namely the Constitution

(Goa, Daman & Diu) Scheduled Tribes Order 1968 has become defunct on

account of the reorganization of Goa, Daman & Diu in 1987. Under the Goa,

Daman & Diu Reorganization Act in 1987 (18 of 1987) the list of Scheduled

Tribes of Goa has been transferred to part XIX of the scheduled to the

constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Order, 1950 and that of Daman & Diu, to part II of

2
the scheduled to the constitution (Scheduled Tribes) Union Territiries Order,

1951[2].

1.2 Tribals in India

The Tribal people are the oldest ethnological segment in the Indian

population.The existance of these tribals in India has been recorded long before

the penetration of Aryan speeking people who came to India following some

ethnic upheaval or change of climate in Central Asia. The scientists trace the

origin of Indian Tribals to three roots ―The Negro, the proto-Astroloid and the

mongoloid. The Tribals with proto-Astroloid root form the major group who came

from the basins of Mediterranean Sea and established themselves in north-east

part of India. A later swarm of Aryan groups in the mountains regions of the south

of Hindu kush and Indo-gangetic plains pushed many of these simple and coy

Tribals to search inhospitable regions which lacked communication facilities and

amenities of daily life. The Tribals put a brave front to all the calamities and

inhospitablities of man and nature and tried to retain unique identity and simplicity

born and brought up in the lap of nature, they never lost contct with their roots.

They were an encapsulated society living in the hills and forests for centuries.

Being early settlers of India, they have tried to retain many traits of primitivism.

Recently, however, the traces of civilization have started surfacing here and there.

A process of social change seems to have set in many tribes [3].

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 The tribals constitute 8.2 percent of total population of India. Though they

are called by different names in different parts of the country, they have in

common, many socio-economic and cultural characteristic features. In the

graded socio-economic inequal structure of Indian society, the tribals are at the

lowest rung and being poor, lead a substandard and subsistence living. The

traders, money lenders, contractors, etc; sordidly exploit the tribals as the latter

are innocent and illiterate. Tribal‘s perpetual indebtedness and alienation of lands

aggravated their misery and inflicted their peace and happiness. Tribal revolts in

the pre and post independent India have their roots in the inhuman exploitation of

tribals.

To ensure social, economical and political justice to this suppressed

segment of the Indian society, the Constitution of India envisaged that the State

shall protect the tribals from all forms of exploitation and take steps to promote

their educational and economic interests. The subject of tribal development has

drawn the attention of planners, politicians, academicians, administrators and

philanthropists. During the era of planning, many strategies have been evolved

and implemented by central and state governments to achieve an all-round

development of tribals.

1.3 State-wise distribution of Scheduled Tribe Population in India

India has a total tribal population of 8, 43,26,240 which constitutes 8.2 per

cent of the total population as per the census of 2001. Data pertaining to

distribution of tribal population in different states and union territories according

4
to 2001 census is presented in Table 1.1. It may be observed from the table that

tribal population as a percentage of its State‘s total population is higher in States

like Mizoram (94.50 percent), Meghalaya (90.20 per cent), Nagaland (89.10 per

cent), Arunachal Pradesh (64.20 per cent) and Dadra & Nagrahaveli (62.20 per

cent). On the other hand, there are States such as U.P., Tamil Nadu, Bihar, Goa,

and Kerala where the tribal population is only around one per cent of their

respective State‘s population. For other states such as Uttaranchal, Himachal

Pradesh, West Bengal, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the share of Tribal

population to the respective states population is between three and seven per

cent.

From the above, it can be concluded that tribals are heavily concentrated

only in few states of India.

Scheduled tribe means any tribe or tribal community or part of or group

within any tribe or tribal community residing in agency tracks and specified as

such by a public notification by the President of Indian Union under clause (1) of

Article 342 of the Constitution. The constitution guarantees them certain

reservations in educational and employment opportunities and the election to

State and Central Legislature is reserved for the tribals of the State. Both the

central and state governments reserved six per cent of educational and

employment opportunities to them.

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 Table – 1.1: State-wise distribution of Scheduled Tribe population in India

Scheduled Tribe Percentage of ST Population

S.No State/Union Territory Population to the total population of the
(2001) State
1. India/States 8,43,26,240 8.20
1 Andhra Pradesh 50,24,104 6.60
2 Arunchal Pradesh 7,05,158 64.20
3 Assam 33,08,570 12.40
4 Bihar 7,58,351 0.90
5 Chattisgarh 66,16,596 31.80
6 Goa 566 0.01
7 Gujarat 74,81,160 14.80
8 Hariyana - -
9 Himachal Pradesh 2,44,587 4.00
10 Jammu & Kashmir 11,05,979 10.90
11 Jharkhand 70,87068 26.80
12 Karnataka 34,63,986 6.60
13 Kerala 3,64,189 1.10
14 Madhya Pradesh 1,22,33,474 20.30
15 Maharastra 85,77,276 8.90
16 Manipur 7,41,141 34.20
17 Meghalaya 16,82,670 90.20
18 Mizoram 8,39,310 94.50
19 Nagaland 17,74,026 89.10
20 Orissa 81,45,081 22.10
21 Punjab - -
22 Rajasthan 70,97,706 12.60
23 Sikkim 1,11,405 20.60
24 Tamilnadu 6,51,321 1.0
25 Tripura 9,93,426 31.10
26 Uttat Pradesh 1,07,963 0.10
27 Uttaranchal 2,56,129 3.00
28 West Bengal 44,06,794 5.50
II. Union Territories
Andaman and Nicobar
1 29,469 8.30
Islands
2 Chandigarh - -
3 Dadra & Nagarhaveli 1,37,225 62.20
4 Daman & Diu 13,997 8.80
5 Delhi - -
6 Lakshnadweep 57,321 94.50
7 Pondichery - -
Excludes Mao Maram, paomata and Purul sub-divisions of Senapati
District of Manipur State, Source: Census of India 2001.

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 1.4 Scheduled areas

The scheduled Tribes live in contiguous areas unlike other communities. It

is, therefore, much simpler to have area approach for development activities and

also regulatory provisions to protect their interests.

In order to protect the interests of the scheduled tribes with regard to land

alienation and other social factors, provisions of ―Fifth Schedule‖ and ―Sixth

Schedule‖ have been enshrined in the Constitution.

The Fifth Schedule under Article 244 (1) of the Constitution defines

―Scheduled Areas‖ as such areas as the President may by Order declare to be

Scheduled Areas after consultation with the Governor of that State.

The Sixth Schedule under article 244 (2) of the Constitution relates to

those areas in the north east, which are declared as ―tribal areas‖, and provides

District or Regional Autonomous Councils for such areas. These councils have

wide ranging legislative, judicial and executive powers.

Fifth schedule areas

The criteria for declaring any area as a ―Scheduled Area‖ under the Fifth
Schedule are:

 Preponderance of tribal population,

 Compactness and reasonable size of the area,

 Available administrative entity such as district, block or taluk, and

 Economic backwardness of the area as compared to neighbouring areas.

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 The specification of ―Scheduled Areas‖ in relation to a State is by a

notified Order of the President, after consultation with State Government

concerned. The same applies for altering, increasing, decreasing, incorporating

new areas, or rescinding any orders relating to ―Scheduled Areas‖.

The Scheduled area of Andhra Pradesh has been amended twice during

the year 1950. These two amendments are The Schduled area (Part- A States)

order, 1950 by C.O.9 on 26th Jan, 1950 and The Schduled area (Part- B States)

order 1975 by C.O.26 on 7th Dec, 1950 [4].

Scheduled Areas and Acheduled Tribes Commission

To give a further thrust to the welfare and development of the Scheduled

Tribes, Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes Commissions has been set up

vide order 18th July 2002 under the Chairmanship of Shri Dileep Singh Bhuria,

former MP with ten other members. The last such Commission was set up in

1960. The Commission shall examine the development strategies followed so far

in the wefare and development of the Scheduled Tribes, and suggest an outline

of a viable comprehensive tribal policy.

1.5 Tribals in Andhra Pradesh

The State Government of Andhra Pradesh has played a pioneering role in

the development of its tribals who constitute 6.6 per cent of the State population

by the establishment of Girijan Co-operative Corporation in 1956 with the prime

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objective of uplifting the tribals through marketing and credit activities. Efficiency

in the marketing function of the Corporation is sine-qua-non of the magnitude of

economic benefits to tribals. Finance function is one of the determinants of the

efficient performance of marketing function. Efficient management of marketing

and finance is of paramount important if the Corporation is to function

successfully in attainment of its goals being the maximum benefit to maximum

number of tribals.

Andhra Pradesh now has the largest concentration of tribals in Southern

India. The forest – clad hill ranges and the forests flanking the mighty Godavari

and Krishna rivers constitute the traditional habitat of as many as 33 forest tribes.

It is in these isolated parts that each tribe has fashioned its artifacts, manifests

and socio facts in consonance with their environs and according to its genius.

However, the identical environment and long interaction among the tribes who

shared the same habitat in harmony for several centuries resulted in certain

degree of unity within diversity in ways of life of the co-existing tribes of a cultural

region. On the basis of geographical propinquity and cultural affinity, the tribal

areas of the State are therefore divided into seven cultural zones viz., (1)

Vamsadhara – Vegavathi basin : (2) Machkund – Gosthani basin : (3) Godavari

basin : (4) Penganga – Pranahita basin: (5) Nallamalai region : (6) Rayalaseema:

and (7) Guntur – Nellore seema [5].

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 Table – 1.2: Names of Scheduled Tribes Living in Different Parts of
Andhra Pradesh
1 Andh, Sadhu Andh 19 Kulia
Malis (Excluding Adilabad,
Hyderabad, Karimnagar,
2 Bagata 20 Khammam, Mahabubnagar,
Medhak, Nalgonda, Nizamabad and
Warangal Districts)
3 Bhil 21 Manna Dhora
4 Chenchu 22 Mukha Dhora, Nooka Dhora
Gadabas, Bodo Gadaba, Gutob
Godaba,Kallayi Gadaba, Parangi
5 23 Nayaka (in the agency tracts)
Gadaba, Kathera Gadaba, Kapu
Gadaba
6 Gond, Naikpod, Rajgond, Koitur 24 Pardhan
7 Goudu (in the adency tracts) 25 Porja, parangiperja
8 Hill Reddis 26 Reddi, Dhoras
9 Jatapus 27 Rona, Rena
Savaras, Kapu Sanaras, Maliya
10 Kammara 28
Savaras, khutto savaras
11 Kattunayakan 29 Sugalis, Lambadies, Bhanjara
Thoti (in Adilabad, Hyderabad,
Karimnagar, Khammam,
12 Kolam, Kolawar 30
Mahabubnagar, Medak, Nalgonda,
Nizamabad and Warangal districts)
Valmiki (in the Scheduled Areas of
Visakhapatnam, Srikakulam,
13 Konda Doras, Kubi 31
Vizayanagaram, East Godavari and
West Godavari districts)
Yenadis, Chella Yenadi, Kappala
14 Konda Kapus 32 Yenadi, Manchi Yenadi, Reddi
Yenadi
YErukulas, Koracha, Dabba
15 Konda Reddis 33 Yerukula, Kunchapuri Yerukula,
Uppu Yerukula
Kondhs, Kodi, Kodhu, Desaya Kondhs,
16 Dongria Kondhs, Kuttiya Kondhs, 34 Nakkala, Kurvikaran
Tikiria Kondhs, Yenity Knodhs, Kuvinga
Dhulia, Paiko, Putiya (in the districts
Kotia, Bentho Oriya, Bartika, Dulia,
17 35 of Visakhapatnem and
Holva, Sanrona, Sidhopaiko
Vizayanagaram)
Koya, Doli Koya, Gutta Koya,
Kammara Koya, Musara Koya, Oddi
18 Koya, Pattidi Koya, Rajah, Rasha
Koya, Lingadhari Koya (Ordinary).
Kottu Koya, Bhine Koya, Raj Koya
Source: Annual Report- 2006-07, Ministry of tribal Affairs, Govt. of India.

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 Andhra Pradesh is one of the states having large tracts of hilly and agency

areas and sizeable scheduled tribe population. According to 2001 census, the

population is 50, 24,104 lakhs constituting 6.6 per cent in the total scheduled

tribe population of the State. It may be observed from table 1.3 that out of total

50,24,104 lakhs of total scheduled tribe population of the state 25,48,295 lakhs

are males and 24,75,809 lakhs are females. In Andhra Pradesh the schedule

area comprises of 29,683 square kilometers, which forms 10.7 per cent of the

total geographical area of the State and 11.00 per cent of the total scheduled

area of the country. The tribal villages are inhabited by a variety of tribes.

A major population of the tribals in the State of Andhra Pradesh lives in

villages. Table 1.4 shows district-wise rural – urban share of tribal population in

Andhra Pradesh as per 2001 census. It is clear from the table that the

percentage share of tribal population residing in rural parts of the three regions of

the State is very much higher compared to those living in urban areas. The

percentage share is 91.94 per cent in Coastal Andhra, 86.67 per cent in

Rayalaseema and 93.69 per cent in Telangana region. On the whole, as much as

92.49 per cent of the tribals in the State of Andhra Pradesh are living in rural

areas.

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 Table – 1.3: District-wise population of Scheduled Tribes of A.P-2001 census

% of STs
Name of the Total ST ST ST
S.NO. to
district Population Male Female Total
Population
Andhra
0 76210007 2548295 2475809 5024104 6.59
Pradesh
1 Adilabad 2488003 209586 206925 416511 16.74
2 Nizamabad 2345685 83135 82600 165735 7.07
3 Karimnagar 3491822 45807 44829 90636 2.60
4 Medak 2670097 68966 65567 134533 5.04
5 Hyderabad 3829753 17862 16698 34560 0.90
6 Rangareddy 3575064 75054 71003 146057 4.09
7 Mahabubnagar 3513934 143115 135587 278702 7.93
8 Nalgonda 3247982 178373 164303 342676 10.55
9 Warangal 3246004 235451 222228 457679 14.10
10 Khammam 2578927 344027 338590 682617 26.47
11 Srikakulam 2537593 75284 75965 151249 5.96
12 Vizayanagaram 2249254 106079 108760 214839 9.55
13 Visakhapatnam 3832336 278399 279173 557572 14.55
14 East Godavari 4901420 95234 96327 191561 3.91
15 West Godavari 3803517 47887 48772 96659 2.54
16 Krishna 4187841 55201 52410 107611 2.57
17 Guntur 4465144 106101 102056 208157 4.66
18 Prakasam 3059423 60670 57571 118241 3.86
19 Nellore 2668564 123554 118703 242257 9.08
20 Cuddapah 2601797 31643 29728 61371 2.36
21 Kurnool 3529494 36097 33538 69635 1.97
22 Anantapur 3640478 65722 61439 127161 3.49
23 Chittoor 3745875 65048 63037 128085 3.42
Source: Census of India, 2001

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 Table – 1.4: District-wise rural and urban Scheduled Tribe population and
their percentage – 2001 census

% of S.T. % of S.T.
Rural Urban
S. No. District Rural Urban Total Population Population
to Total S.T. to Total S.T.
Population Population
1 Srikakulam 148757 2492 151249 98.35 1.65
2 Vizayanagaram 208633 6206 214839 97.11 2.89
3 Visakhapatnam 538608 18964 557572 96.60 3.40
4 East Godavari 181589 9972 191561 94.79 5.21
5 West Godavari 88863 7796 96659 91.93 8.07
6 Krishna 88711 18900 107611 82.44 17.56
7 Guntur 170459 37698 208157 81.89 18.11
8 Prakasham 99116 19125 118241 83.83 16.17
9 Nellore 211264 30993 242257 87.21 12.79
COASTAL ANDHARA 1736000 152146 1888146 91.94 8.06
10 Kurnool 58240 11395 69635 83.64 16.36
11 Anantapur 111457 15704 127161 87.65 12.35
12 Cuddapah 53187 8184 61371 86.66 13.34
13 Chitoor 111879 16206 128085 87.35 12.65
RAYALASEEMA 334763 51489 386252 86.67 13.33
14 Ranga reddy 119781 26276 146057 82.01 17.99
15 Hyderabad 0 34560 34560 0.00 100.00
16 Nizamabad 161610 4125 165735 97.51 2.49
17 Medak 130108 4425 134533 96.71 3.29
18 Mahabubnagar 273558 5144 278702 98.15 1.85
19 Nalgonda 326906 15700 342676 95.40 4.60
20 Warangal 444409 13270 457679 97.10 2.90
21 Khammam 641727 40890 682617 94.01 5.99
22 Karimnagar 81530 9106 90636 89.95 10.05
23 Adilabad 396531 19980 416511 95.20 4.80
TELANGANA 2576160 173546 2749706 93.69 6.31
ANDHRA PRADESH 4646923 377181 5024104 92.49 7.51

Source: Census of India, 2001.

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 Tribal population in the State consists of different names. Table 1.5 shows

distribution of Tribal population in the State of Andhra Pradesh by different

names as per 2001 census. As can be seen from the table ‗Sugali‘ tribe also

known as Lambadis popularly, which are found in Rayalaseema, Warangal and

Mhaboobnagar districts accounts for a major share (41.35 per cent) followed by

Koya (11.30 per cent), Yanadi (9.19 per cent) and Yeruka (8.70 per cent). In

Srikakulam District which is the study area only Savaras, Jatapus and Gadabas

are popular tribes.

The tribals spread over different parts of the country are called by different

names (i.e. Vanavasi, Pahari, Adimajati, Anusuchiti, Janajati, Girijans, etc.)

Among these terms, adivasi is known most extensively and Anusuchiti, Janajati

or scheduled tribe is the constitutional name covering all the names, The term

‗Tribe‘ is derived from a latin root, the middle English term ‗Tribuz‘ meaning the

three divisions into which the early Romons were grouped, came to evolve into

the modern English ‗Tribe‘. According to the anthropologist and sociologists of

Western Origin, the term ‗tribe‘ denoted ―a race of people‖, now applied

especially to a primary aggregated group of people in a primitive or barbarious

condition, under a headman or chief, a tribe may be defined as a social group

usually with a definite area, dialect, cultural homogeneity and unifying social

organisation.

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Table – 1.5: Tribe-wise and sex wise Scheduled Tribe population in Andhra
Pradesh – 2001 census

S. No. Name of the Total S.T Population % Total

Tribe Total Male Female Tribe
Population
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Andh 9735 4920 4815 0.19
2 Bagata 133434 66920 66514 2.65
3 Bhil 421 213 208 0.00
4 Chenchu 49232 24962 24270 0.98
5 Gadaba 36078 178836 18242 0.72
6 Gond 252038 125212 126826 5.02
7 Goudu 7749 3796 3953 0.15
8 Hill Reddi 77 37 40 0.00
9 Jatapu 118613 58021 60592 2.36
10 Kammara 45010 22188 22822 0.89
11 Kattunayakan 161 85 76 0.00
12 Kolam 45671 22863 22808 0.90
13 Konda Dhora 206381 103468 102913 4.10
14 Konda Kapu 11780 5820 5960 0.23
15 Kondareddi 8396 41459 41637 1.65
16 Kondh 85324 42530 42794 1.71
17 Kotia 48408 23781 24627 0.96
18 Koya 568019 283106 284913 11.30
19 Kulia 368 182 186 0.00
20 Mali 2513 1242 1271 0.05
21 MannaDhora 13579 6828 6751 0.27
22 Mukha Dhora 37983 18941 19042 0.76
23 Nayak 14222 7104 7118 0.28
24 Pardhan 23724 12029 11695 0.47
25 Porja 32669 16132 16537 0.65
26 Reddi Dhora 1721 874 847 0.03
27 Rona 200 104 96 0.00
28 Savara 122979 61410 61569 2.44
29 Sugali 2077947 1071589 1006358 41.35
30 Thoti 2074 1032 1042 0.04
31 Valmiki 66814 33195 33619 1.33
32 Yenadi 462167 236137 226030 9.19
33 Yerukula 437459 220518 216941 8.70
Generic Tribes 26458 13761 12697 0.52
All Scheduled Tribes 5024104 2548295 2475809 100.00
Source: Census of India, 2001

15
 Wherever they live the tribals have many socio-economic characteristic

features in common. They live in remote hills and forests and have been leading

a life of their own for centuries, generally uninfluenced by the main currents of

development in the outside world. They have their own culture and tradition

which are different from those of the non-tribals. According to Haimendorf, there

are no people in India poorer in material possessions than the Jungle chenchu

tribes. Bows and arrows, knives and axes, digging sticks, etc., constitute their

entire belongings. Most of them are unambitious, simple, honest, innocent,

ignorant, and lead a food gathering and pastoral life. The tribal people suffer from

malnutrition and under – nutrition. However, they very much like to enjoy the

forest life with its wild profusion of tinted flowers, murmuring brooks, the

enchanting streams and the green hills. Thus, the basic characteristic features of

the tribals are poverty and misery but they are a highly contended people not

worrying anything about their future. They are cut off from the progress of the

plain areas and remain in the marooned camps, the isolated world of their own in

thick forests and hills. The tribals depend on a subsistence of economy and they

adopt primitive technology which fits well with their economical surroundings.

Low fertility of soil, extremely inadequate irrigation facilities, primitve and

outdated methods of cultivation, etc., are the inhibitory factors for the growth of

tribal economy. About 82 per cent of tribals are engaged in agriculture. The

technology adopted by the tribals is simple and primitive and their economy

shows endless variations from shifting cultivation to settled cultivation in India,

from the malayars of Malabar Coast to the Nagas of Nagaland, many a tribal

16
group resorts to shifting cultivation as a means of livelihood. It is called by

different names by different tribal groups inhabitating in various states of our

country. It is called ‗Kumri‘ by the Malayars, ‗Podu‘ by the tribes of Andhra

Pradesh. ‗Bewar‘, by the Baigas of Madhya Pradesh and ‗Jhum‘ by the Khasis of

Asam and Nagas of Nagaland. After selecting the suitable parches, the tribals cut

the trees and clear the bushes and leave them on the Podu patches to dry for

about one month. When the branches are sufficiently dried up, they set fire to

them. As early as the monsoon season begins, seeds are dibbled in these podu

fields for two or three years and after the patches are exhausted, they are

abandoned and another plot is selected to repeat the process.

Owing to the low fertility of soil, scant irrigation facilities, primitive

agriculture practices, etc., the income of the tribals from agriculture is too meager

to sustain them even for a few months in a year. Fromces Sinha and Canjay

Sinha‘s study reveals that agricultural income for a majority of cultivating tribal

households was barely at subsistence level-below Rs.800 per year. The

incidence of unemployment is very high among tribals. For most of the days in a

year they remain without work. D.V.Singh and J.P.Bhats survey has brought to

light that in the hill areas of Himachal Pradesh, a tribal male worker was found

unemployed on an average for 151 days on marginal farms, 128 days on small

farms and 129 days on medium farms. Unemployment among female tribal

labour was estimated as 157 days, 130 days and 160 days per annum on

marginal, small and medium farms, respectively. Consequently, they had to lead

a substandard and subsistence level of living and their income from agriculture

17
and manual labour is too inadequate to sustain them round the year. They

supplement their income by going on hunting and fishing.

1.6 Tribal economy and its marketing features

The tribals of India are often referred to as Vanajati, Vanavasi, Pahari,

Adimjati and Anusuchit Janajati. All these different names denote them as castes

of forests, inhabitants of forests, hill dwellers, original communities first settlers,

folk people, primitive people or scheduled tribes respectively. Among all these

terms, Adivasi is known most extensively and Anusuchit Janjathi or scheduled

tribe is the constitutional name covering all the names [6].

The largest concentration of tribal people in the entire world next to Africa

is in India. Tribals in India form the very segment of the weaker sections of the

society with their traditional skills and resources. They live in remote and

exclusive areas in the forests, on the hill-slopes and plateaus and generally in

areas with poor natural resource endowment. This isolation has deprived them

out of the fruits of scientific and technological advances on one hand and it has

led to their distinctive life-style, cultures and languages on the other hand. Age-

old exploitation and repression of tribals by the heartless moneylenders and

other rested interests in different spheres of economic activities particularly in the

field of credit and marketing have cut them off from the mainstream of socio-

economic development of the country over the decades. Due to this, the

protection has been envisaged under the Constitution of India to the tribals by the

Government of India. As a policy, Govt of India emphasized various steps which

18
prevent alienation of tribals land, ensure fairness in marketing transactions of

sale and purchase, avoid cheating by money lenders, liquor-vendors, Contractors

etc., by building strong and sound infrastructural facilities in the tribal areas

during the plan period.

According to 2001 census, the tribals in the country account for 8.2per

cent of the total population. It is estimated that the predominant tribal areas

comprise about 15 per cent of the total geographical area of the country. At the

same time, the tribal population in India presents a varied picture as some areas

have high tribal concentration, whereas others have no tribal population at all.

About 300 scheduled tribe communities speaking about 105 languages and 225

subsidiary languages are diffused along the length and breadth of the country.

Each community, irrespective of its numbers has come to occupy a place of its

own in national life, retaining its own identity and culture. Their economy is

largely self-sufficient, unstructured and non-specialized. The tribals had become

the forgotten citizens of hills and forests, who for ages by - passed by history

were left behind by the progress of plains.

The glaring features of the tribal economy are the traditional type of

agriculture, high rate of illiteracy, inaccessibility to road, low and primitive type of

technology, and very low rate of per capita income. The tribals generally grow

food crops and the produce is mainly used for domestic consumption. In majority

of the cases, the agricultural output is hardly sufficient to sustain the tribal

household through out the year. However a marginal quantity of agricultural

producer oozes itself into the market, not because there is marketable surplus, but

19
because of their necessity either in lieu of loans taken from the traders in the previous

years, or to meet the immediate hard pressing domestic needs. The produce is generally

sold in the weekly *shandies. Next to agriculture, the tribals draw their sustenance

largely from the forests. According to the latest assessment, about 80 million hectares of

land is said to be under forest lands and this works out to nearly 20 per cent of the total

land area in India, and of which more than 20 per cent is inhabited by the tribals.

Besides the agriculture, the tribals are accustomed to collect various items of Minor

Forest Produce (M.F.P.) such as gallnut, tamarind, honey, canes, reeds, spices, oil

seeds, dry fruits, lac, resins, niger seeds, karanj, kusum, harra, sal seeds, dorigums,

chiraji, bamboos, medicines, medicinal items, etc., It is estimated that minor forest

produce collection, processing and marketing can generate a gainful employment of 10

million persons per year.

The tribal market is highly imperfect one, because there are no organized

markets in tribal areas. In view of little monetization, the tribal producers have to barter a

portion of their agricultural or forest produce. They not only sell certain commodities for

their personal use, but also the trading is done at shandies through Girijan Co-operative

Corporation, Domestic Requirement Depots, and in other manners [7].

Most tribals are concentrated heavily in forested areas. In the early 20th century,

however, large areas fell into the hands of non-tribals, on account of

*Shandy is a periodical market where buyers buy and sellers sell the

goods. It is generally held on a particular day in a week which varies from

place to place.

20
improved transportation and communications. Around 1900, many regions were

opened by the Government to settlement through a scheme by which inward

migrants received ownership of land free in return for cultivating it. For tribal

people, however, land was often viewed as a common resource, free to

whomever needed it. By the time tribals accepted the necessity of obtaining

formal land titles, they had lost the opportunity to lay claim to lands that might

rightfully have been considered theirs. The colonial and post-independence

regimes belatedly realized the necessity of protecting tribals from the predations

of outsiders and prohibited the sale of tribal lands. Although an important

loophole in the form of land leases was left open, tribals made some gains in the

mid-twentieth century, and some land was returned to tribal peoples despite

obstructions by local police and land officials.

Improved communications, roads with motorized traffic, and more frequent

government interventions figured in the increased contacts that tribal people had

with outsiders. Commercial highways and cash crops frequently drew non-tribal

people into remote areas. By the 1960s and 1970s, the resident non-tribal

shopkeeper was a permanent feature of many tribal villages. Since shopkeepers

often sell goods on credit (demanding high interest), many tribal members have

been drawn deeply into debt or mortgaged their land. Merchants also encourage

tribals to grow cash crops (such as cotton or castor-oil plants), which increases

tribal dependence on the market for basic necessities.

21
 Government policies on forest reserves have affected tribal people

profoundly. Government efforts to reserve forests have precipitated armed (if

futile) resistance on the part of the tribal people involved. Intensive exploitation of

forests has often meant allowing outsiders to cut large areas of trees (while the

original tribal inhabitants were restricted from cutting), and ultimately replacing

mixed forests capable of sustaining tribal life with single-product plantations.

Non-tribals have frequently bribed local officials to secure effective use of

reserved forest lands.

The general physical traits of the people of Andhra Pradesh are tall,

round-headed and broad-faced with a long arched forehead, thick and protruding

noses, with straight hair and yellow skin. Certain castes of Brahmins and Kapus

of Vizag district, in Andhra Pradesh have the following features which accords

with the description of the sub-races of the Mediterranean belonging to the main

division of Caucasoid; short of medium height, with long and elevated or

medium-sized heads, normal eyebrows, with short broad faces, prominent but

medium-sized noses, straight hair and wavy tufts. The general colour of the skin

is wheat-gray.

The other inhabitants of the Andhra are divided into two classes. The first

of them belong to the forests and hill area of the Deccan Plateau. The others

belong to the extended areas of the doab between the rivers Krishna and the

Godavari. The foresters answer to the description of the Australoid sub-race. The

Chenchus of Srisailam hills belong to this class. They are short, with elevated

22
long heads and possess clear and well-defined eyebrows, with protruding

mouths and snub flat noses. The general colour of the skin is wheat-gray and the

hair is black and crinkled.

Gadabas, Savaras and Koyas belonging to the Bhadrachalam and

Simhachalam hilly areas, bear the complex features of Mongolids and

Australoids. From the earliest times, the Telugu land included among its

inhabitants foresters and hill-men and other tribals. Some tribals inhabited the

sea-board region. Today there are nearly 32 lakh tribals and 50 lakh nomads and

other backward people in Andhra Pradesh. Their habitat spreads along the

coastal and mountain strip of the Bay of Bengal from the Bhadragiri agency in

Srikakulam district to the Bhadrachalam agency in Khammam and Godavari

districts. From there it spreads north-east wards to the Adilabad region. This

tribal area is contiguous to the tribal areas of Bastar, Dandakaranya and

Vidarbha. There are about thirty-three kinds of tribals in eight districts of Andhra

Pradesh. Important among them are the Khonds, Kolamis, Nayakpods, Koyas,

Kondadoras, Valmikis, Bhagatas, Savaras, Jatayus, Gadabas, Yanadis and

Chenchus.

These tribes have absorbed elements of Hinduism. The tribal people

worship their own pantheon of nature gods and goddesses and continue to revel

in their ancient customs and manners. Their languages do not have scripts and

are essentially verbal. Tradition has a firm grip on them. The laws of tradition are

always obeyed scrupulously and any breach is strictly censured. Their social life

23
is obedience to the leader who commands immense respect and holds sway

over all aspects of tribal life. They do not hesitate to participate in the feasts and

festivals of the community. They sing and dance. The Yanadis along the

coastline, the Chenchus of the Srisailam hill area, the Koyas and Savaras of

Godavari and Srikakulam forest areas, and the Khonds of Adilabad forests are

typical in ancient habits. Their beliefs are simple and seek direct uninvolved

expression. They are honest and frailties in character.

In Andhra Pradesh there are certain nomadic tribes. Piccukaguntlu,

Balasanta, Saradakandru, Viramushtivaru, Bavanilu, Birannalavaru,

Gollasuddulu, Davaluru, Jangamulu, Kommuvaru etc are Telugu nomads whose

main occupation is ballad singing. They are favoured by particular castes for

maintaining their family records and singing their past glory. Some of them are

occupied in itinerary trade and commerce, while their womenfolk are engaged in

cottage industries like making toys, baskets, mats, beads and cosmetics. They

are always on the move subject to the changes of weather and this state of living

is traditional. These nomadic tribes have their own forms of recreation and

pastimes which go along way in making their life less rigorous and even

contended. They take suffering in their stride but they know how to seek refuge

from life's worries in a native and pleasant manner.

Among non-telugu nomads, Lambadis also called Sugalis are very

prominent. Originally they were Rajasthanies who took to a nomadic way of life

and moved in batches towards the south of the sub-continent. Some of them are

24
found in rural areas. They are itinerant traders. Besides the Lambadis,

mercenary soldiers of Maharashtrian stock have settled down mostly in

Telangana. They are called 'Are' and they speak a dialect which is a mixture of

Marathi and Telugu. Their occupation is agriculture. They have only a spoken

language. Their manners and customs are different from those of the country of

their domicile. Cultural complexities have arisen due to historical circumstances.

Many foreigners of different faiths have entered Andhra Pradesh and some of

them made cultural conquests through fire and sword. Others prevailed in the

guise of spiritual uplift. Both these foreign elements have disrupted the continuity

and peaceful life of the people and affected their tradition and culture. The Tribal

Welfare and Social Welfare departments are trying to better the lot of the tribals

and backward classes with educational and economic plans.

The Andhras are originally believed to be Dravidians. However, some

theories suggest that they were Aryans by origin, which moved south of the

Vindhyas, and eventually mixed with the non-Aryans. Andhra Pradesh is home of

a diverse range of tribes present in large numbers. The Lambadies ('Banjaras'),

the 'Koyas', the 'Bagatas', the 'Yenadis', the 'Chenchus', the 'Gadabas' and the

'Yerukalas' are the well-known tribes of the State.

1.7 Lifestyle of different types of tribes in Andhra Pradesh

The most striking feature of tribal life is their simplicity. Their demands are

few; the forest is able to provide them with everything. Professionally they are

food-gatherers, hunters, small farmers and nomads. The tribals worship nature

25
and each tribe group has its own totem. It may be a tree or animal. The object of

worship could simply be a wooden pole or a stone or a group of stones arranged

in a circle. Music, dance and craft are important pastimes. Crafts involve making

of useful items like basket weaving or making terracotta pots.

Inhabited by many large tribes, Andhra Pradesh presents a rich wealth of

traditional folk and tribal dances. 'Dhimsa', 'Lambadi', 'Bathakamma', 'Mathuri',

'Dhamal', 'Dappu' are a few famous tribal dances. Liquor, fermented toddy juice

or fermented rice or garlands made from the flowers of the 'Mohua' tree are

offered to everyone visiting a family in the tribal village. It is considered offensive

to refuse it. During every ritual and festival liquor flows like water [8].

i) Koyas

The Koyas are supposed to have migrated from Bastar in Madhya

Pradesh and form the bulk of the aboriginal population of Adilabad, Warangal,

East Godavari and Krishna districts. They are nomadic by nature and practice

shifting cultivation. They are divided into two sections, the Langadaris and the

Gonus. The Koyas of East Godavari districts are well built.

ii) Lambadies (Banjaras)

Also known as 'Sugalis', Lambadies are found in Rayalaseema, Warangal

and Mahaboobnagar districts. They collect firewood and other minor products

from the forest and sell it in towns and villages. It is said that formerly they

26
worked as carriers, transporting goods and merchandise on bullock backs, but

they have now taken to cultivation.

iii) Hill Tribes

The hill tribes live mostly in the agency areas. They have many castes,

and some of them apparently have come over from the Orissa side of the

frontier, because their language is Oriya. The 'Mokadorlu', however, are distinct

from the rest. So are the 'Bhagatas' and 'Ranas' who wear the sacred thread. So

also are the ‗Jatapus‘ and the Jatapu Doras.

The 'Parojas' are the most numerous among the Oriya speaking tribes.

There are seven different types of them. The 'Gadabas' are palanquin-bearers as

well as cultivators. The 'Savaras' are divided into 'primitive' who live in the hill

areas of 'Gunupur' in Orissa, and the ' civilised' ones who inhabit the Palakonda

hills in Srikakulam District.

Their chief centre of habitation is the 6,000 square miles of mountainous

territory in the East Godavari and Vishakhapatnam districts. About 20 tribes live

in them speaking Dravidian and 'Mudari' dialects. Leading a primitive, and in

many ways precarious existence, they are a happy-go-lucky folk, picturesque in

their costumes, and greatly addicted to dance and music.

27
iv) Savaras

These are the most notable among the Tribals. Their homes are the lofty

hills and deep mountain valleys. They are ingenious people who have built bunds

on mountain streams to water their fields, and even their villages show

systematic designs. The huts are in parallel rows indicating their sense of

orderliness.

v) Chenchus

The Chenchus live in the Nallamalai hills of Kurnool district. They are very

peaceful and inoffensive people who acquire a livelihood on roots, wild game and

fish, and only occasionally cultivate millets in small patches of fields. This tribe is

badly off, and unless they take to full time cultivation there is no hope for them.

And yet, it is difficult to wean them from their habit of wandering off into jungles in

search of minor forest produce such as honey, wild berries and tubers that they

sell in the villages and towns in an effort to eke out a livelihood. The popular

legend is that when Lord Narayana took on Narasimhavatara, the Goddess

Lakshmi was born in the Chenchu tribe, and both were living here happily. This

love of Lord Narasimha with Goddess Lakshmi as 'Chencheta', a Chenchu bride,

is famous in many folk songs of the place.

vi) Yenadis

These people considered partly tribal, their origin is obscure. Their men

are tall, dark, lanky, their muscles soft and flabby, and their cheekbones

28
prominent. They are good 'shikaris' (hunters) and specialise in trapping hares,

rats, cobras and leopards.

vii) Yerukalas

The Yerukalas are semi-tribal people who had been reluctantly granted

status as 'Shudras'. They are basket weavers who often live in separate villages

and speak a dialect different from that of Telugu.

1.8 Review of earlier studies

The tribal consumer behaviour relationships are widely accepted as an

investment in future revenue and competitive advantage (Fournier, 1998; Gomez

et al., 2005; McAlexander et al., 2003; Srivastava et al., 1998). Consumer

behaviour, a customer commitment to repurchase, is particularly valuable as a

competitive advantage due to the difficulty, other commodities have in replicating

the present one (Kumar and Shah, 2004). However, the concept of tribal

consumers as a straightforward compilation of behavioural and emotional

components is of limited value, especially in the case of post-modern

consumption. The context, product and an individual's experiences do not

produce one generic form of consumption that will ensure repeat purchases

(East et al., 2005). An alternative approach is required that considers the

influence of social identity and social context on the formation of consumption.

Emotional connections to the consumers‘ behaviour have been shown to

be linked to the individual's social identity (Bhattacharya et al., 1995). Social

29
identity theory is used by Bhattacharya et al. (1995) to frame the consumer's

enduring consumption as a form of identification with the brand or commodities

and goods. This influence from a social group is also referred to as "bonded

behaviour" (Oliver, 1999, p. 41), where people show a collective responsible

towards a product, brand or company. Bonded purchase between a market and

social group is proposed by Genzi and Pelloni (2004) as means of reducing

switching behaviours and increasing customer perceived satisfaction. However,

research on the nature of social alliances and market trend has focussed on the

internal side of organisations (Alvesson, 2000; Berger et al., 2006) and

distribution channel contexts (Gilliland and Bello, 2002). Consumer-consumer

social alliances and their effect on market preferences have received limited

research.

Socially interconnected groups have been found to consumers as a group

because personal relationships are maintained through shared, regular

consumption (Gainer, 1995). This concurs with Oliver's (1999) concept of bonded

purchase. However, Gainer's (1995) study looks at market sentiment which is

diverse and bound by a group of consumers for purchase of certain goods. In this

sense, they are like a consumer tribe. Meanwhile, studies of consumer-consumer

relationships and their influence on individual consumption have focussed on

subcultures and brand communities (Berger et al., 2006; Muniz and O'Guinn,

2001; Schouten and McAlexander, 1995). This research expands the focus on

social relationships in the consumer behaviour area and looks into the dynamics

of a consumer tribe for marketing opportunities.

30
 Consumer tribes are a relatively new concept in social theory and yet have

made a significant impact on marketing theory development (Cova and Cova,

2002; Cova and Salle, 2008; Gronroos, 2006; Kozinets, 1999; Penaloza and

Venkatesh, 2006; Thompson et al., 2006). Consumer tribes differ from historical

tribes by having a new social order; wherein status within a tribe is achieved by

different and specific values. They are grouped around something emotional
[8]
rather than rational . Consumer tribes differ from subcultures in that their

connections are much narrower, with similar beliefs, values or customs setting

them apart from the dominant societal culture (Schiffman et al., 2008). The term

"brand community" is also an inadequate means of describing a tribe. A brand

community is established around supporting a particular brand or product

(Brownlie et aL, 2007; Burgh-Woodman and Brace-Govan, 2007). This contrasts

with consumer tribes, which in some instances may diminish brand equity, similar

to a consumer activist placing themselves in opposition to mainstream

consumers (Kozinets and Handelman, 2004).

Shared consumption is the post-modern consumer's means of creating a

social link and building bridges between individuals (Cova and Salle, 2008;

Simmons, 2008).Therefore, consumer tribes present an opportunity to connect

with elusive post-modem consumers. These are self-formed groups that hold

meaning and relevance for the individuals within them, rather than attempting to

create a homogenous segment from arbitrary characteristics.

31
 Bauman (1992) considers consumer tribes, or neo-tribes, as solely

existing around the use of symbolism to show allegiance to the group. This

symbolic consumption is used to create a social link that is expressive of self-

identity (Cova, 1997). The benefit of marketing to consumer tribes is that social

influences are the most important influence on an individual's consumption

decisions (Bagozzi, 2000). Involvement with a tribe is an expression of self-

identity, so the consumer tribe shares not only moral values or opinions, but

consumption values and preferences. This provides opportunity for marketers to

access a group of consumers, like a market segment, that actually connect with

each other and share consumption preferences.

The relationship between consumption and self-identity among consumer

tribes has been widely examined (Belk, 1988; Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967;

McIntosh and Schmeichel, 2004; Sirgy, 1982; Solomon, 1983). Goods and

services have a symbolic function of creating and protecting their self-identity

(Belk, 1988; Grubb and Grathwohl, 1967; Solomon, 1983). This presents an

opportunity to develop customer behaviour through communication of market

behaviour of a production (Leigh and Gabel, 1992). Traditional markets, such as

the sandise, local markets or the place that a group of people gather and

exchange their goods defined the self have largely been replaced by individuals'

consumption (Bagozzi, 2000; Cova, 1997; Goulding, 2003; Kozinets, 1999; Ryan

et al., 2006). Consumption is a contemporary tool for recreating communities in

post-modern society (Cova, 1997). Cova (1996) and Maffesoli (1996) discussed

that the role of products in a post-modern context is not so much in their

32
functionality, but rather their "linking value" between the individual and society.

This implies that self-identity is chosen by the individual through consumption,

facilitating the post-modern individual's creation of multiple self-identities.

However, these identities are not limited to consumption practices alone. Cova

et al. (2007) adopted the term consumer tribe to encapsulate shared

consumption behaviour, activities and social interaction based around explicit

shared values.

The post-modern consumption practices and values assigned to

consumption of certain products and brands by a tribe provide unique

characteristics for marketers to explore and leverage. Customer co-creation and

co-production has been recognised as an area of consumer behaviour theory

that cannot be ignored in the process of gathering marketing intelligence (Rowley

et al., 2007). Researched areas such as product development, experience

environments, loyalty schemes and virtual communities have all been identified

as key points for customer involvement (Rowley et al., 2007). Tribal marketing

scrutinises how tribes consume and "co-create" products for their own uses. This

gives marketers another avenue for creating social interaction around their good,

service or brand.

Tribal membership is fluid and can fluctuate according to the involvement

of the individual (Maffesoli, 2007). This poses a challenge for marketers in

identifying and building long-term loyal relationships with individuals.

Understanding why people participate in a particular tribe would provide direction

33
in identifying when individuals are "in" a tribe and what is important to them in

terms of the individual-social links associated with tribal membership. Kozinets

(1999) found two antecedents of tribal membership in an online context. The first

is the centrality of tribal consumption to a self-concept, or self-identity. This refers

to how important the shared activity, passion or belief a tribe holds is to the

individual. The second is the intensity of social relationships with other members.

The strength of these antecedents will affect the degree of participation and

involvement an individual has with the tribe (Kozinets, 1999). The tribal activities,

consumption and shared belief(s) of a particular consumer tribe may place more,

or less, importance on these antecedents, and perhaps include others related to

linking value of tribal consumption. This linking value has been conceptually and

empirically studied within tribes (Cova et al., 2007; Muniz and O'Guinn, 2001;

Patterson, 1998; Ryan et al., 2006). However, there is an opportunity to further

explore Cova and Cova's (2002) direction and examine how a tribe's antecedents

of membership (beyond the online context) and values can be leveraged as a

loyalty-building tool.

Bordieu's (1989) concept of "cultural capital" is used by Cova et al. (2007)

to explain the knowledge, rules and hierarchy within a tribe. In the tribal context,

cultural capital "consists of a set of socially rare and distinctive tastes, skills,

knowledge and practices" (Cova et al., 2007, p. 136). With a tribal marketing

approach, the company acts in a support role to the relationships within a group
[9]
(Cova and Cova, 2002), with the goal being to build bonded loyalty . An

understanding of the specific cultural capital of a tribe and its symbolic meaning

34
presents an avenue for marketers to reach tribal members and develop a

collective and bonded loyalty. Understanding the cultural capital of a tribe could

also provide insight into ways of engaging members in the co-creation of

products and, more importantly, the experiences they deliver (Rowley et al.,

2007).

The social dynamics of tribes also provide insight for connecting with

members on an affective level. Cova and Cova (2002) found four different roles

to exist amongst consumer tribe members. These range from low participation

(the sympathiser), to active members, to practitioners and lastly to devotees who

have high level of involvement and emotional attachment (Cova and Cova,

2002). The practitioner in a tribe has a similarity with the opinion leader concept;

they influence the exchange of certain information among peers due to their own

knowledge and authority in the area (King and Summers, 1970; Robertson and

Rogers, 1972). In a post-modern consumer tribal context, it is fitting to use King

and Summer's (1970) description of opinion leaders as people with influence

over the exchange of certain information.

It can be concluded from the foregoing studies that in-depth research

studies on tribal consumer behaviour in the Indian context is scanty and the

present study is selected to bridge this gap.

35
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3. Devendra Thakur., D.N.Thakur (1996), ‘Tribal life in India-6, Tribal Women‘

Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, pp 1

4. Government of India: Planning Commission,―Eighth Five Year Plan‖ pp 419-20

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36