CHAPTER 4 REPRODUCTION 生殖/繁殖

Sexual 有性 and Asexual 无性 Reproduction

1. Reproduction is the production 产生 of new individuals 新的个体 from living organism 生物
2. Reproduction
(a) increases 增加 the number 数目 of individuals of the same species.相同物种
(b) ensures 确保 the continuation 延续 of a species.
There are two types of reproduction, namely sexual 有性 reproduction and asexual 无性 reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction 有性生殖

1. Most multicellular 多 细 胞 organisms such as humans and other types of mammals 哺 乳 动 物 , birds,
reptiles 爬行动物, amphibians 两栖动物, fish and insects 昆虫 carry out 进行 sexual reproduction.
2. Sexual reproduction is the production of new individuals 个体 by organisms that involves 涉及 gametes
生殖细胞/配子.
3. The male gamete 雄 配 子 is produced by the male parent 父 本 while the female gamete 雌 配 子 is
produced by the female parent 母本.
4. The fusion 结 合 of the nuclei 细 胞 核 of the male and female gametes is called fertilisation 受 孕 .
Fertilisation produces a zygote 受精卵.
5. Two types of fertilisation are:
(a) External fertilisation 体外受孕
The fusion of the nuclei of the male and female gametes occurs 发生 outside 外面 of the body of the female
organism. Aquatic animals such as frogs and fish which lay eggs in water and then the eggs are fertilised by
the male sperms.
(b) Internal fertilisation 体内受孕
The fusion of the nuclei of the male and female gametes occurs in the body of the female organism. A
zygote develops in the uterus of the female until it is bom. | Occurs in insects, reptiles, birds and mammals.

Asexual Reproduction 无性生殖

1. Simple organisms such as unicellular 单细胞 organisms carry out asexual reproduction.
2. Asexual reproduction does not involve any gametes (reproductive cells) or fertilisation.
3. The offspring 后代 is produced from only one parent 单亲.
4. The new individual formed is identical 相同 to the parent and has the same genetic content 基因成分 as
the parent.
5. Advantage 好处: only involves 涉及 one parent.
6. Disadvantage 坏处: No variation 没有变异 in the characteristics 特征 of the new individual.
7. Animals such as Amoeba, Paramecium, Hydra and plants such as potatoes, moss and algae carry out
asexual reproduction.
8. Examples of asexual reproduction are:
1) Binary Fission 二分裂

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1. Unicellular organisms such as Amoeba 阿 米 巴
and Paramecium 草履虫 carry out binary fission.
2. Unicellular organisms consist of only one cell.
The parent cell divides 分 离 to produce two new
and identical daughter 后代 cells.

2) Budding 出芽
1. A new bud 芽 is formed on the parent organism.
2. The new bud grows bigger and resembles 相 像
the parent.
3. When the bud becomes mature 成 熟 , it breaks
off 脱离 from the parent and starts growing 成长 as
an individual.

3) Spore Formation 形成孢子

1. Organisms such as Mucor 毛霉 (fungi) and ferns

(non flowering plants) reproduce quickly by
forming spores.
2. When the spores settle down 定居 in a suitable 适
合 place to support their growth, the spores
germinate 发 芽 to form a new organism like the
parent.
3. Spores are kept in sacs 囊 called the sporangium
孢 子 囊 . When a mature sporangium bursts 爆 裂 ,
spores are released 释 放 to the environment. The
spores grow to become new individuals when the
conditions 条件 are favourable 有利.

苔藓

4)Vegetative Reproduction 营养体生殖

1. Vegetative reproduction involves vegetative structures such as roots 根, stems 茎 and leaves 叶 which will
grow to be a complete 完整的 plant.
2. Young plants which are produced from the parent plant are genetically identical and share the same
characteristics.
3. The advantages 好处 of vegetative reproduction:
(a) The reproduction process occurs in a shorter time because it does not involve pollination and
fertilisation.
(b) The good characteristics 特征 of the parent plant can be inherited 遗传 by the new plant. The new
plant will resemble 好像 the parent plant.
(c) The bud 芽 can obtains food from the parent plant.

4. The disadvantages of vegetative reproduction:

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 (a) The new plant grows near the parent plant, causing the area 地方 to be crowded 拥挤. Therefore, the
new plant has to compete 竞争 with the parent plant for all the necessities 必需品.
(b) The bad qualities of the parent plant are also inherited by the new plant.
(c) The new plant does not have variation 变异. Therefore, the new plant cannot adapt 适应 itself to new
environment.
5. Parts of plants that can reproduce vegetatively:
a) Stems 茎
i) ii)
a) Runner (植物的)长匐茎，纤匐枝 Tuber 块茎
• A runner is a stem that grows horizontally 横地 • A tuber is the end part of a stem that grows in
on the ground. the soil.
• The buds develop roots to grow into new plants • The tuber keeps food for the growing bud.
Example: Grass, sweet potato and strawberry • The buds grow into new plants.
Example: Potato

iii) iv)
Bulb 球茎 Rhizome 根茎
• A bulb is a short stem underneath 下面的 the • A rhizome is an underground 地下 stem 茎 that
ground. stores food.
• This short stem produces the buds that will grow • It grows horizontally 向横.
to be a new plant. • The bud grows by using food from the rhizome
Example: Onion 洋葱 and lily 百合花 until it can make its own food.
Example: Ginger 姜 and lotus 莲花

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v)
Corm 球根
• A corm is a short underground stem.
• The corm keeps food and grows vertically 垂直
in the soil.
Example: Yam 芋头 plant and turnip 萝卜

b) Leaves 叶子
• The buds form at the sides or surface of the
leaf.
• The buds grow into 长成 new plants.
Example: Bryophyllum 落地生根 and Begonia
秋海棠

c) Roots 根
Roots of some plants store 储藏 food.
New shoots and roots grow when the parent plant
dies.

(d) Sucker 吸根
• A sucker is a stem that grows from the base 底
of a parent plant.
• A sucker develops 发展 into a new plant.
Example: Bamboo 竹 and banana 香蕉

5) Regeneration 再生
The ability of the fragments 片段 of an organism to
grow and develop 发 展 into completely new
individuals is called regeneration.

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6) Tissue Culture 组织培养
• The technique 技术 of propagating 繁殖 new plants from small cuttings of the vegetative structures
of the parent plant, such as leaves, stems, shoots or roots.
• The new plant produced is called a clone.复制品，克隆
• All clones are genetically identical 基因上一模一样 and share 共享有 the same characteristics.
• The culture tissue technique can produce many clones in a short time.
a) b) c)

Small pieces of carrot tissues are

A carrot is cut into small slices.片
placed in a flask containing
A young carrot plant is produced.
nutrient 营养 solution.液
（Sterilised 已消毒的）

Comparison between Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

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 Human Reproductive System 人类繁殖系统
Male 雄 Reproductive System
1. The male gamete is sperm 精子. The sperm is produced by the male reproductive system.
2. The female gamete is ovum 卵子. The ovum is produced by the female reproductive system.

The Male Reproductive Organs and Their Functions

1. Testes 睾丸 (singular 单数: testis)

(a) A male has a pair of testes.
(b) The function 功能 of the testes is to produce 生产 sperms.
(c) The testes are protected 保护 in a structure called the scrotum 阴囊.
(d) The temperature of the scrotum has to be 2 - 4 °C lower than the body temperature because high
temperature affects 影响 the production 生产 of sperms.
(e) The testes also produces the sex hormone 性激素 , testosterone.睾丸素 The testosterone controls the
development of secondary 第二 sexual characteristics 性特征 in males such as growth of moustache 胡子
and beard 胡须.

2. Sperm duct 输精管

(a) The sperm duct is a long tube that connects 连接 the testis to the urethra.
(b) This duct carries 输送 sperms from the testis to the urethra.

3. Seminal vesicle 贮精囊

(a) The seminal vesicle secretes 分泌 fluid 液体 into the sperm duct.
(b) This fluid contains nutrients 营养 for the sperms. The fluid mixes with sperms to form semen 精液.
(c) The prostate gland 前列腺 also secretes a certain kind of fluid.
(d) The seminal vesicle stores 储存 the sperms before they move to the urethra.

4. Urethra 尿道
(a) Urethra is a tube that runs through 贯穿 the penis.
(b) The urethra carries 输送 the urine 尿液 and the semen 精液 separately 分开 out of the body.

5. Penis 阳具/阴茎
(a) Penis is an organ which is found outside the body.
(b) The penis has a lot of blood vessels 血管.
(c) The penis helps to ejaculate semen 射精 into the female's vagina 阴道 during sexual intercourse 性交.

QUICK FACTS
During sexual intercourse, urethra will spray 喷射 about 100 - 500 million 五亿 sperms into the vagina.

Female Reproductive System

Female Reproductive Organs and Their Functions
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1. Ovary 卵巢
(a) A female has a pair of ovaries.
(b) Each ovary alternately 交替的 produces an ovum each month.
(c) The ovary also produces female sex hormones, the oestrogen 雌激素 and progesterone 孕激素/孕酮.

2. Fallopian tube 输卵管

(a) This tube carries the mature ovum from the ovary to the uterus.
(b) The fertilisation of the ovum by the sperm to form a zygote occurs in this tube.

3. Uterus (womb)子宫
(a) The wall of the uterus 子宫壁 is thick and muscular 肌肉发达的.
(b) The implantation 植入 of the zygote 受精卵 and the development of the embryo 胚胎 and foetus 胎儿
occur in the uterus.

4. Cervix 子宫颈
(a) This is a narrow neck 颈 of the uterus.
(b) During childbirth 分娩, it widens 放宽 to allow the foetus to come out of the mother's uterus.

5. Vagina 阴道 (birth canal 产道)

(a) The vagina which is a muscular 有肌肉 organ connects the uterus to the space 空间 outside the body.
(b) The vagina receives 接收 the sperms from the penis during sexual intercourse 性交.
(c) The vagina acts as a tube for the flow 流出 of menses 经血 during menstruation.月经
(d) The vagina widens 变宽 during childbirth.产子

Changes 变化 in Males during Puberty 青春期

1. Every adolescent 少年 undergoes 经历 puberty before becoming an adult 成年人.
2. The reproductive organs start to release the sex hormone 性激素 when a boy reaches 到达 puberty.
3. The hormone 激素 is responsible for growth and many physical 生理的 and emotional 情绪的 changes
during puberty.
4. The physical changes in males during puberty.
(a) Growth of facial 面部的 hair such as moustache 胡子 above the upper lip and beard 胡须 on the lower
part of the face
(b) Growth of hair 毛发 at the pubic region 阴部, armpits 腋下 and on the chest 胸部
(c) Start to develop a more muscular 肌肉的 body
(d) Penis 阴茎 becomes bigger
(e) Voice 声音 becomes deeper 深沉

The Changes in Females during Puberty

1. Puberty is the time when a girl starts to produce ovum, normally at the age of eleven to thirteen.

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2. The reproductive organs start to release sex hormones which are responsible 负责 for growth as well as
for physical and emotional changes.
3. The physical changes in females during puberty:
(a) Breasts 胸部 grow bigger
(b) Hips 臀部 become wider and rounder 比较圆
(c) Growth of hair at the pubic region 阴部 and armpits 腋下
QUICK FACTS
• The female ovary contains about 40 OOO ova since birth.
• A type of bacteria lives in the vagina to produce a type of acid 酸 to kill other bacteria that enter the
vagina.

Structure 结构 of Sperm
1. The sperm is the smallest cell in the human body.
2 A sperm can be divided into three parts: head, middle piece 中段 and tail 尾巴.
3 The head contains nucleus that carries genetic 遗传的 materials.物质
4. The tail helps the sperm to swim towards the Fallopian tube to fertilise the ovum.

Structure of Ovum
1 The ovum is the biggest cell in the human body.
2.The ovum is sphere in shape and has a nucleus and cytoplasm.
3.The structure of an egg or ovum (plural 复数: ova) is round like a ball and is surrounded 包围 by a layer
of jelly 胶状物.
4. Ovum cannot move by itself

Comparison between a female and a male gametes

Characteristics
Female gamete
Male gamete (sperm)
(ovum)
• The biggest 最大的 cell in the
• The smallest 最小的 cell in the human body
Size 尺寸 human body
• Size is between 0.01 mm to 0.05 mm
• Diameter 直径 is 0.1 mm
• Only one ovum is produced
Number 数量 • Millions of sperms are produced in the testes everyday
each month
• Very mobile 可移动
Mobility 移动性 • Cannot move 不能动 by itself • Tail helps the sperm to swim from the vagina towards
the ovum in the Fallopian tube
Production 生产 • By the ovaries 卵巢 • By the testes 睾丸

4.4 Menstrual Cycle 月经周期

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1 Menstruation 经期
(a) Is the shedding 脱落 of the uterus lining 子宫内壁 and the flow of blood through the vagina 阴道
(b) Involves breaking down 瓦解 and building up 建立 of the uterine wall 子宫壁 and blood vessels
(c) Involves the production and release 释放 of a mature 成熟的 ovum
(d) Is influenced 影响 by female sex hormones
(e) Begins when a female reaches 到了 puberty 青春期
(f) The ovulation 排卵 and menstruation which occur in a cycle is called the menstrual cycle 月经周期,
which lasts about 28 days
(g) This process takes 3 to 6 days.

2 Menstrual cycle occurs in the following sequence:

(a) The lining 内层 of the uterine wall together with blood vessels break down and are discharged 释放
through the vagina.
(b) Lining of the uterine wall starts to build up 建立, becomes thicker and richer 丰富 in blood vessels.
(c) Ovulation 排卵 occurs. Ovulation is the release 释放 of a mature ovum (egg) from one of the ovaries
into the Fallopian tube. The rippling 起涟漪的 movements of muscles in the fallopian tube and the sweeping
扫 motion of the cilia 纤毛 push the ovum along the fallopian tube towards the uterus.
(d) The uterine wall becomes thicker and richer in blood vessels. This is to prepare the uterus for the
implantation 植入 of a fertilised ovaim (embryo 胚胎) If fertilisation does not occur, the lining of the uterine
wall and blood vessels start to break down. If the ovum fails to be fertilised by a sperm, it will die.

The Menstrual Cycle

3. Just before menstruation, a female may experience 经历 premenstrual syndrome.综合征 The symptoms
include anxiety 忧虑, moodiness 情绪化, lethargy 困倦 and abdominal cramps.腹部抽筋
4. Woman stops menstruating in between 50 and 55 years old.
5. This stage is called menopause 停 经 and marks 意 味 着 the end of their fertile 可 生 育 years. The
symptoms include hot flushes 热痱 and depression.忧郁
6. Hormone imbalance 激素不平衡 can cause irregular 不规律 menstrual cycles. As a result, it is difficult to
predict 预测 the fertile phase 可生育时期 in a woman.

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QUICK FACTS
• The ovaries take turn 轮流 in releasing ovum. If the left ovary release an ovum this month, the right ovary
will do so the following month, and so on.
• Hormonal imbalance 激素的不平衡 during adolescence 青春期 will make the menstrual cycle irregular 不
规律.
• We depend on menstrual blood in our mother's womb during the embryo or foetus stage 阶段 for food and
oxygen. When fertilisation does not occur, this blood has to be eliminated 去除 to be substituted 代替 with
new blood.

Personal Hygiene 个人卫生 during Menstruation

1. Personal hygiene 个 人 卫 生 during menstruation is very important to prevent infection 人 感 染 by
microorganisms 微生物 that can lead to diseases such as urinary tract infection (UTI).尿道感染
2. The use of suitable sanitary pads 卫生棉 can make the females involved feel clean and comfortable 舒服.
3. The used sanitary pads must be disposed off 处理 properly 正确的.
4. Cleanliness 干净 of the whole body must be maintained by taking a bath 冲凉 twice 二次 daily.
5. Clothes, especially the undergarments 内衣 must be changed and washed regularly 按时.
6. Maintaining personal hygiene can prevent 阻止 the body from any kind of infections 感染 and diseases 疾
病.
7. If the body is healthy and free from bacterial or viral 病毒的 infections, the mind 心里 will be healthy
too.
8. Healthy mind ensures 确保 concentration 集中 in studies 念书 and other work.

Fertilisation 受孕 and Pregnancy 怀孕

Fertilisation
1. During copulation 性交, millions of sperm cells are transferred 输进去 from the penis to the vagina.
2. However, only about 100 sperms will reach the ovum and from these, only one sperm will successfully 成
功地 fertilise 受孕 the ovum.
(a) The sperms swim with the help of their tails through the cervix 子宫颈 until they reach the Fallopian
tube.
(b) Only one sperm will penetrate 穿入 the membrane 膜 of the mature ovum leaving the tail outside. A
membrane is formed 形成 immediately 立刻 around the ovaim to prevent 阻止 other sperms from entering
进入 the ovum.
(c) The nucleus of the sperm fuses 结 合 with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote 受 精 卵 . This
process is called fertilisation.

Pregnancy 怀孕期
1. The period of pregnancy is from fertilisation until the birth of the baby.
2. In uterus, the embryo 胚胎 grows into a foetus 胎儿 and finally into a baby.婴儿
3. Pregnancy lasts about 9 months or 40 weeks.(280 days)

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1.Ovulation 排卵
One mature 成熟 ovum is released 释放 by the ovary into the Fallopian tube 输卵管
2. Fertilisation
• Occurs 发生 in the Fallopian tube
• One sperm successfully 成功 penetrates 穿入 the membrane of the ovum
• Fusion 结合 between the nucleus of the sperm with the nucleus of the ovum to form a zygote 结合体
3. Formation of zygote
A zygote is formed after fertilisation. The zygote undergoes 进行 cell division 细胞分裂 repeatedly 重复地
4. Formation of embryo 胚胎
The zygote divides for several times to form a ball of cells which is called embryo
5.Implantation 植入
The embryo is implanted in the uterine wall 子宫壁 7 to 8 days after fertilisation

The Development 发展 of an Embryo into a Foetus until Birth

Development of the embryo and foetus
1 The placenta 胎盘 is where the exchange 交换 of nutrients 营养, oxygen, carbon dioxide and waste
materials 排泄物 occur between the blood of the mother and the foetus. The placenta is formed from the
tissue of the uterine lining 子宫内膜 and the developing 正发展的 embryo.
2. The umbilical cord 脐带 is a tube which connects the placenta to the foetus.
The umbilical cord has veins 静脉 and arteries.动脉
(a) The vein transports 运输 blood rich in nutrients and oxygen from the placenta to the foetus.
(b) The artery transports waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide away from the foetus.
3. The foetus grows inside a sac called amnion.羊膜
4. The fluid inside the amnion acts as a cushion 垫子 to absorb 吸收 shocks 震荡 so as 以便 to protects 保护
the embryo from physical shocks.

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Birth 出生 of a baby
1. When the foetus is fully 完全 developed at the end of nine months, the foetus rotates 转 its body until the
head is pointing towards 指向 the cervix.子宫颈
2. When the foetus is ready to be born, the amnion breaks and the amniotic fluid 羊水 flows out.流出
3. The muscles of the uterine wall 子宫壁 contract 收缩 strongly 强烈地 to push 推 the baby out through the
cervix and the vagina.

Factors Affecting the Development of a Foetus and Baby

1 A pregnant woman needs a balanced 平衡的 and nutritious diet 饮食 for the growth foetus.
2 A balanced diet contains all seven classes 类 of food in the correct ratio 比例 amount.量
3 A pregnant woman has a higher energy requirement 需求 and needs 需要 more proteins, iron, calcium and
vitamins than a non-pregnant woman.
4. Malnutrition 营 养 不 足 among pregnant women is harmful 有 害 because it can cause the baby to be
unhealthy and easily infected 感染 by diseases.

Table 4.1 The sources and functions of different nutrients required by pregnant mother

Nutrient 营养 Sources 来源 Function 功能

Carbohydrates 碳水化 Rice, bread, potatoes and milk Supply energy 提供能量 for mother
合物 and fats 脂肪
Proteins 蛋白质 Chicken, beef, fish and legumes Formation of new cells in the foetus
豆类
Iron 铁 Liver, red meat and tuna Formation of haemoglobin
Fibre 纤维 Cereals 谷类, vegetables and Facilitate bowel 肠 movement of the mother.
fruits Prevent the pregnant mother from getting
constipation.便秘

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Folic acid 叶酸，维生 Broccoli 花椰菜, spinach 菠菜, Development of the foetus’ nervous 神经
素B almonds 杏仁 and peanuts 花生 system 系统
Calcium 钙 and Anchovies 凤尾鱼，江鱼仔, Formation of healthy bones and teeth of the
phosphorus 磷 cheese and milk foetus
Vitamin C Citrus 柑橘类 fruits, tomatoes, Maintain healthy skin in mother and foetus
guavas 番石榴 and vegetables

Harmful Substances to the Foetus

A pregnant 怀孕的 woman must avoid 避免:
1. smoking 吸 烟 - can cause the baby to be born dead, underweight 体 重 不 足 or physically 生 理 and
mentally retarded 智障. Nicotine and other substances in the cigarette smoke are harmful to the mother and
foetus. Carbon monoxide 一氧化碳 in cigarette smoke combines 结合 with haemoglobin 血红素 to form
carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces 减 少 oxygen that is transported to the foetus and may cause 导 致 an
abnormal 不正常的 foetal brain development.
2. alcoholic 酒 精 drinks - harmful to the liver 肝 and nervous system. The foetus may also have mental
retardation 智障
3. abusing drugs 滥用毒品 - possibility of her baby to be deformed 畸形 and the baby may suffer from brain
damage 毁坏
4. some types of medicines 药 物 (unless they are prescribed 规 定 的 by doctors) - cause the baby to be
physically 肉体 handicapped 残障

Advantages and Effects of Breastfeeding 喂人奶

1. Breast milk contains antibodies 抗体 to prevent infectious 感染性的 diseases.
2. It contains 含有 all the nutrients needed 需要 for the development of babies.
3. Breast milk does not cause allergies.敏感
4. It is easier to digest.消化
5. Breastfeeding promotes 促进 a close relationship 关系密切 between the mother and her

4.6 Infertility 不孕 and Contraception 避孕

Sterility 不孕
1. Sterility (infertility) is the inability 不 能 to produce offspring 后 代 . It affects 影 响 both males and
females.
2. The reasons for sterility are summarized in the following table.
Males
Females
• Sperms do not exist 存在 in semen 精液
• Blocked 堵塞 fallopian tubes 输卵管
• Low sperm count 精虫数量少
• Ovaries cannot produce ova
• Low quality 低品质 of sperms
• Abnormal 异常的 ova
• Impotence 阳痿不举
• Abnormal 反常的 uterus
(problems related to erection 勃起 of penis)
• Hormone imbalance 激素不平衡
• Infections 感染 and diseases 疾病
Sterility in males and females

Ways 方法 to Overcome 克服 Sterility

1. Infertile 不孕 couples 夫妻 have difficulty in conceiving 怀孕 a child.

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2. They can be assisted 帮助 by several methods:
(a) Surgery 手术
(i) Blockages 堵塞 inside the fallopian tubes can be removed using a laparoscope 腹 腔镜 through
surgery.
(ii) As for males, blocked sperm ducts can be removed by surgery.
(b) Drug 药物 treatment 治疗
(i) Drug treatment is used to treat people with problems related to hormones and gametes.
(ii) Some drugs can promote 提升 the ovaries to produce and release mature ova.
(iii) Males who are impotent 阳痿 or with low sperm count 精子数目少 can be treated with some drugs.
(c) Assisted reproductive technology
(i) In vitro fertilisation (IVF)体外受精
• It is used to solve the problems of blocked or abnormal fallopian tubes.
• The ovum is taken from the female body and fertilised in a glass dish 玻璃皿.
• After fertilisation is done outside the body, the embryo is returned to her uterus for normal
development.
(ii) Intrauterine insemination(IUI)人工授精
It is used in cases of unexplained 原因不明 infertility or sperm problems.
• The best sperms are concentrated 浓缩的 and put in high concentration in the uterus to increase the
chance of the sperms to meet and fertilise the ovum.

Birth Control 节育 Contraception 避孕

1. Birth control or contraceptive methods can be divided into two main group:
(a) Temporary 暂时的 contraceptive methods。 The married couple 夫妻 may conceive 怀孕 again when
they stop using these methods.
(b) Permanent 永久的 contraceptive methods (Surgery 手术 methods and irreversible 不可恢复)
These methods prevent the married couple from having children together ever again.

2. Types of temporary contraceptive methods.

(a) Natural method 安全期避孕法 (rhythm method) - avoiding sexual intercourse 性交 during the fertile
period 会受孕期

(b) Hormonal 激素 method – Contraceptive pills 避孕丸 contains oestrogen 雌性激素 and progesterone 黄
体酮 which suppress 压制 the production and release of the ovum

(c) Physical method –

(i)Condom 避孕套 – worn 穿戴 over the penis before copulation 性交 to prevent sperms from entering
the vagina 阴道
(ii ) Diaphragm 子宫帽- fitted 套在 at the cervix 子宫颈 of a female to prevent sperms from entering her
uterus
(iii)Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)子宫节育器 - to prevent a fertilised 已受精的 ovum from
being successfully implanted 植入 into the uterus

(d) Chemical 化学 method - Spermicides 杀精剂 are chemical substances in the form of foams, jellies or
creams placed in the vagina before copulation to kills the sperms that are released into the woman's body.

(e) Surgery 手术 method

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i). Male sterilisation (vasectomy)输精管切除术
involves a surgery to remove a section of each
sperm duct 输精管 and then tying 打结 its open
ends. Therefore, the flow 流出 of sperms to the
urethra is stopped.

ii). Female sterilisation (ligation 结 扎 ) involves a

surgery to remove a portion of each fallopian tube
and then tying its open ends. Thus, the ova are
stopped from passing along the fallopian tubes.

QUICK FACTS
The principle 原理 used in birth control are:
- to prevent the ovum from being fertilised by a sperm
- to prevent an embryo that is formed from implanting itself to the uterus wall

Reproduction in Plants

1. The flower is the sexual reproductive organ 器官

of flowering plants.
2. Flowering plants such as durian, mango and
morning glory 牵 牛 花 carry out sexual
reproduction.
3. The main function of flowers is to produce seeds
种子 in the fruits.

4. Sepal 萼片
(a) The sepal is the outermost 最外的 whorl 层 of a flower
(b) It protects 保护 the flower while it is in the bud stage 蕾状期.

5. Petal 花瓣
(a) The petal is normally big and coloured.有彩色
(b) It attracts 吸引 animals and insects for pollination 传播花粉

6. Stamen 雄蕊

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 (a) The stamen is the male reproductive part of the flower.
(b) It is made up of the anther 花粉囊 and filament 花丝
(c) The anther produces pollen grains 花粉粒 which contain the male gametes.
(d) The filament supports 支撑 the anther.

7. Pistil 雌蕊
(a) The pistil is the female reproductive part of a flower.
(b) It is made up of the stigma 柱头, style 花柱 and ovary 子房.
(c) The stigma has a sticky surface to receive 接受 pollen grains.
(d) The style that connect the stigma to ovary supports the stigma.
(e) The ovary protects the ovules which contain the female gametes.
Part of a flower Function
Sepal • To protect the flower at the bud 发芽 stage 阶段
Petal • To attract 吸引 animals and insects
Stamen (male part)
• To produce pollen grains
• Anther
• To support the anther
• Filament
Pistil (female part)
• To receive 接受 pollen grains
• Stigma
• To support the stigma
• Style
• To protect the ovum inside it
• Ovary
Ports of a flower and their functions
8. Flowers can be divided into two types:
(a) A bisexual flower 两 性 花 is flower which
contain both the male and female reproductive
parts. The examples are hibiscus 大 红 花 and
flowers of flame of the forest 火凤凰.
(b) A unisexual flower 单性花 is a flower which
contain either the male or female reproductive part.
The examples are flowers of maize 玉 蜀 黍 and
papaya.木瓜

9. The pollen grain contains male gamete

10. Pollen grains are produced by the anther. When

the anther matures, it bursts 爆裂 or splits open 裂
开 and releases 释放出 the pollen grains.

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11. The texture 结 构 of the pollen grains are
normally rough 粗 糙 and sticky 粘 的 . These
features 特征 help them to stick onto the stigma 柱
头.
12. The ovule 胚珠 contains female gametes.
13. Ovules which produced by the ovary, stick to
the wall of the ovary in various patterns.

After fertilisation, the ovule developes into a seed 种子.

Pollination 传播花粉
1. Pollination is the process of transferring 传送 the pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
2. Agents of pollination include organisms or media 媒介 that transfer the pollen grains from the anther to
the stigma.
3. Table below shows the examples of agents of pollination and the plants involved.
Agent of pollination
Plants
传播花粉媒介
Insect 昆虫 Hibiscus 大红花, rose, orchid
Wind 风 Maize 玉米, paddy 稻米, grass 草
Water Lotus 莲花, water hyacinth 水葫芦
Agents of pollination and the plants involved
Flowers Pollinated by Insects
1. These flowers have attractive 有 吸 引 力 的
colours or strong scent 香味.
2. Insects are also attracted to the nectar 花蜜 or the
pollen grains as their food.
3. Some flowers have characteristics that enable
pollen grains to stick to the body parts of an insect.
The pollen grains are transferred to other flowers
when the insects visit the flowers.
4. The short filament is situated 位 于 inside the
flower so that the body part of an insect will be
touching it.
5. The short style has a sticky 粘的 stigma.

Flowers Pollinated by Wind

1. The flowers are small in size and the colour is
unattractive.没有吸引力
2. The flowers do not have nectar and are not
scented.
3. The filament is long so that the anther is located
outside the flower. This helps the wind to carry the
pollen grains easily.
4. The style is long and the stigma is located
outside the flower.
5. The stigma is feathery 有 毛 的 to receive the
floating 漂浮的 pollen grains in the air.

Characteristics Flowers that are pollinated by insects Flowers that are pollinated by wind

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Size of flower Large Small
Colour of flower Bright Pale or dull
Scent 香味 Scented Not scented
Filament 花丝 Short Long
Size of anther Small Big
Position of anther Inside the flower Outside the flower
Stigma Sticky Feathery
Style Short Long
Nectar Present Not present
Pollen grains Less, big, rough and sticky Plenty, small, smooth and light
Comparison between flowers pollinated by insects and wind

Flowers Pollinated by Water

1. Aquatic plants such as lotus 莲花, water hyacinth
and water lilyshuilian are pollinated by water.
2. Water current 水流 helps to release pollen grains
from aquatic plants 水生植物 to the water.
3. The flowers normally have these characteristics:
(a) The flowers can float 浮 on the water surface.
(b) The pollen grains are small, light 轻 and
produced in big numbers.

Self-pollination 自花授粉
Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma of the same flower or of
different flowers but from the same plant.

Cross-pollination 异花传粉
1. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to the stigma of a different flower
from different plants of the same species.

2. Cross-pollination is better than self-pollination. Their comparison is shown below.

Similarities
 Involve flowers
 Produce seeds
Differences
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Involve only one flower or flowers in the same plant Involves two different flowers from different plants
of same species

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The seeds have the same genetic material and quality The seeds have different qualities

QUICK FACTS
• A single maize plant can produce more than 1 & million pollen grains. Some plants pollinated by birds and
insects only produce a few thousand pollen grains.
• Some pollen grains can be dispersed by wing as far as 150 km from the plant.

Advantages 好处 of cross-pollination over self-pollination

1 The combination 结合 of genetic materials from two different plants of the same species 物种 produces
new varieties 新品种 of young plants.

2 The young plant inherits 遗传 the characteristics 特征 from both the parent plants.
For example, cross-pollination produces
(a) plants which are more resistant 抵抗 to diseases 疾病 and pests,害虫
(b) plants which are able to adapt 适应 to a changing 一直改变的 environment,环境
(c) more abundant 比较多 produce,产量
(d) better quality 比较好品质 fruits,
(e) better quality seeds.

3 Examples of plants that are produced from cross-pollination:

(a) The oil palm 油棕 variety known as Tenera that can produce a higher yield 产量高 and better quality
palm oil
(b) The maize 玉蜀黍 plants, Masmadu which produces sweeter corn.
(c) The papaya plant called Eksotika produces fruits which are sweeter and orange-red in colour.

Fertilization Process in Plants

Fertilisation occurs after pollination.
Fertilisation in plants occurs in the ovule 胚珠 inside the ovary 子房 of a flower.

1. As pollen grain 花粉粒 lands on a sticky 黏 的

surface of a stigma.
2.The sugary 有 糖 的 secretion 分 泌 物 on the
surface of the stigma stimulates the germination 发
芽 of a pollen tube.花粉管
3. The pollen tube grows downwards 向下 through
the style cowards the ovule inside the ovary.
4. The nucleus in the pollen grain divides 分 裂 to
form two male gametes.
5. When the pollen tube reaches the micropyle 卵
孔, it enters the ovule,
6. One male gamete fuses with the ovum to form a
zygote. After fertilization the ovule develops into a
seed while the ovary becomes a fruit.

Formation of Fruits and Seeds in Plants

1. After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo.
2. The embryo is made up of the plumule, radicle and cotyledons.
• ovary 子房 develops into the fruit 果实

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• The ovule develops into a seed.种子
• The seed which consists of an embryo and a food storage 储藏 is packed in a protective seed coat or
testa.种皮
• The seed protects the embryo.
• The fruit protects the seeds.
• The seed will germinate 发芽 into a young plant under suitable 适合的 soil conditions.情况
3. Sepals, petals and stamen will die and fall off 跌落

Structure and Functions of a Seed

b) Maize grain

Figure 4.15 The external and internal structure of a (a) green pea (dicotyledonous seed) (b)
maize grain (monocotyledonous seed)

Germination 萌芽 of Seeds
1. The two main parts of a seed are:
(a) seed coat 种皮 which consists of the hilum 核,
micropyle 珠孔 and testa 外种皮
(b) embryo 胚芽 which consists of the cotyledon
子叶, plumule 胚茎 and radicle 胚根

Part Structure Description

Seed coat Hilum A place where the seed is attached to the fruit
Micropyle A small hole for air and water to enter
Testa Protects the seed
Embryo Cotyledon Stores and provide food for the dicotyledonous seed
Plumule Developes into a new shoot

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 Radicle Developes into a new root

2. Plants that have two cotyledons in the seed are called dicotyledonous 双子叶 plants. The examples are
seeds of sunflower 太阳花 and hibiscus plants.
3. Plants that have only one cotyledon in the seed are called monocotyledonous 单 子 叶 plants. The
examples are seeds of paddy and maize plants.

4. Germination is a process when a seed develops into a young plant 株苗.

5. There are three important conditions required for germination:
(a) Water
(i) A sufficient 足够的 amount of water is needed to activate 激活 the enzymes 酶 to break down 分解 the
starch in the cotyledon. This is to produce maltose 麦芽糖 for the embryo,
(ii) Water is also needed to soften the testa so that the radicle and plumule can grow out.
(b) Oxygen
Oxygen is needed for cell respiration to produce energy.
(c) Warmth 温暖
The optimum 最适合 temperature for the enzymes to react 反应 best is from 30°C to 35°C.

Process of Germination

1. When the seed absorbs water and air through

micropyle, the testa become soft, the cotyledon
swells and the testa bursts.
2. The radicle germinates and starts growing
downwards 向下长 to be the roots.
3. Then, the plumule germinates and starts growing
upwards 向上长 to be the shoots 新枝.
4. The cotyledon or endosperm 胚乳 becomes
smaller becausesupplies the food for the growth of
radicles and plumule.
5. When the first leaf is formed, the young plant is
able to make its own food through photosynthesis.
The cotyledon shrivels 枯萎 and falls off 掉落.

Experiment 1 To determine the conditions needed for germination

Problem statement
What are the conditions required for the germination of seeds?

Hypothesis
Water, oxygen and warmth are necessary for the germinations of seeds.

Variables

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1. Controlled: Number and type of seeds
2. Manipulated: Presence of water, oxygen and warmth
3. Responding: Germination of seeds

Procedure
1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram.
2. Keep sets A, B and C at room temperature but place set D in a refrigerator.
3. Observe the sets after five days.

Observation
Set A B C D
Conditions in the test Water, oxygen and warmth Water is not Oxygen is not Warmth is not
tube are present present present present
Seeds do not Seeds do not Seeds do not
Observation Seeds germinate
germinate germinate germinate

Discussion
1. The seeds in set A germinate because water, oxygen and warmth are present.
2. The seeds in sets B, C and D do not germinate because one condition is not present in each set.

Conclusion
The germination of seeds requires water, oxygen and warmth. The hypothesis is accepted.
QUICK FACTS
Ovule loses water from 15% to 90% when changing into a seed. This causes the seed to withstand 忍受 dry
conditions.

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