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Reproduction
The process of generating new individuals or
offspring by living organisms
Regeneration
Vegetative
propagation
Sexual reproduction
Internal fertilisation External fertilisation
The male releases the gametes into Male parent and female parent release the
the female parent body. gametes out of their respective bodies.
Sperm
Ovum
Male gametes and female gametes Male gametes and female gamete are
are fertilized within the body of the fertilized outside the female parent body.
mother. Zygote is formed in the This fertilization usually occurs in water.
mother body
External fertilization
Internal fertilization
The number of female gametes The number of female gametes produced
produced is small because the is abundant because the opportunity to
opportunity to fertilize is high. fertilize is small.
Zygote
Happens in humans, mammals, External fertilization involves fish and frogs.
reptiles, birds and insects.
Reptiles Fish
Asexual reproduction
• Binary fission
● Amoeba ● Bacteria
●Paramecium
● Budding
● fungi ● mushrooms
● ferns ● moss
● Vegetative propagation
New plant
Shoots
Buds
Corm
Roots
Rhizome
Runner
Strawberry: breed
Ginger: breed
through runner
through rhizome
(stem)
Tuber
● Regeneration
1. By regeneration, the body parts of an organism split then
grow and become a new organism.
2. For example, flatworms (planaria) and Spirogyra can multiply
asexually when the body is cut into several parts.
3. Each piece will regenerate to produce new organisms as
shown below.
• Tissue culture
3. Each explant is
sterilized in a
bleach solution.
4. Under sterile
conditions, the
explants are
transferred into
gelatine containing
nutrients and
hormones.
5. Explants
expand. Shoots
and roots grow.
7
No. Structure Function
1 Sperm duct Conduct the sperm from the testis to the urethra.
2 Seminal Produces fluids that provide nutrients for sperm to
vesicle ensure sperm is alive.
3 Prostate Generates a nutritious fluid as a medium for sperm
gland swimming in it.
4 Penis Transfer the sperm from the male body into the
female vagina during intercourse.
5 Urethra Conduct urine or sperm out of the body.
6 Testis Produces sperm (male gametes) and male sex
hormones.
7 Scrotum Protect and hold the testicles off the body and
maintain optimum temperature for the testis.
3. Sex glands for men comprise seminal vesicle and prostate glands.
4. The sperm produced in the testis is stored temporarily in these
glands.
5. Fluids produced in the seminal vesicle along with the sperm from
the cement fluid.
6. The testicles start producing sperm and sex hormones when men
reach puberty.
Neck Nucleus
Cell membrane
Length 0.01 – 0.05 mm
(a) Sperm Diametre 0.05 mm
(b) Ovum
5. Both gametes are involved in human reproduction.
6. The genetic material that carries the genetic information of an
individual is contained in the nuclei of sperm and ovum.
7. Sperm has tail that moves into the fallopian tube.
8. The map below shows a comparison between sperm and ovum.
Produced Produced
in the inside
It is the testes the ovary It is the
smallest Reproductive largest cell in
cell in the cell the female
male body
body
SPERM
OVUM
Cannot
Can move by
move itself
by itself Generated Carry
in huge genetic Only one is
amount for information released for
fertilization
fertilization
Puberty
5. Ovum is issued on the 13th to the 15th day in the menstrual cycle.
The release of the ovum from the ovary is referred to as an
ovulation.
6. Women may experience premenstrual syndrome immediately before
menstruation. Symptoms include abdominal pain, headaches, stress,
anxiety and moody emotions.
7. Stage when women stop having menstruation is called menopause.
Relationship between the Time of Waiting Cycle with the
Fertilization Process
Pregnancy
1. The pregnancy process only begins after fertilization.
2. After fertilization, the zygote moves down the fallopian tube to the
uterus.
3. On the way to the uterus, the zygote passes through multiple cell
divisions to become a cell ball called the embryo.
4. The embryo then attaches itself to the lining of the uterine wall and
develops into the foetus.
Starting from one cell, The blastocyst is Looks like a Complete baby (37th
zygote is formed as a produced by human. – 40th week). All
result of the combination zygote through Legs and organs are formed
of ovum and sperm. many times of cell arms can be perfectly and are
Then it divides into two division (up to the clearly seen. capable to function.
cells and so on. 8th week).
5. The duration of the pregnancy starts from the time the embryo
stays in the uterus wall until the baby is born. Pregnancy takes
about 37 - 40 weeks, until the baby is fully formed and ready to be
born.
6. The diagram and table below show the processes involved in
fertilisation and attachment of embryo.
4 3
5
6
2
1
8
Embryo attachment
1. Approximately 7 to 8 days after fertilisation, the embryo arrives in
the uterus and pushes itself to the uterus wall. Attachment of the
embryo on the uterus wall is called implantation.
2. A protective bag and amnion space are formed around the embryo.
3. At this stage, the embryo gets nutrients and oxygen from the blood
vessels on the uterus wall.
Embryo Development Becomes Foetus
1. Embryos continue to grow in the uterus surrounded by a
membrane called amnion.
2. This container contains liquid called amniotic fluid.
3. Approximately 10 to 14 days, the placenta begins to form. The
placenta is built from the embryonic tissue and also the maternal
tissue from the uterine wall.
4. Embryonic cells continue to divide many times. In the 8th week, the
foetus is formed.
5. The foetus is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord.
6. Foetus continues to grow in the uterus. The foetus continues to
grow in the uterus until it is born as a baby
7. Foetus has its own blood circulatory system that does not mix with
the mother's blood.
8. The table below shows a summary of the structural functions
involved in the development of the foetus.
Placenta
Umbilical
cord
Amnion
Amniotic
fluid
- Embryo length - Eyes, hands - The embryo is
is 0.5 cm and feet are now called the
- The heart starts formed foetus
to beat - The organs - The foetus size is
- Spine and are formed 8 - 10 inches
nervous system - Bones replace - All organ
are formed cartilage systems work
- Has a skeletal
system, nerves
and blood
circulation
- Vocals are
formed
Ovulation
Fertilisation
Implantation
Formation of foetus from
embryo
Birth of baby
(b)Hormone treatment
(i) Hormone pills or hormone injection are used to stimulate
ovaries to produce ovum for women.
(ii) The same method is also used to produce active, mature
and healthy sperm for men.
(c) Surgery
Growth of tissue that blocks the fallopian tubes or sperm ducts
can be removed by surgery.
Pistil
Stamen
Example of bisexual
Example of unisex plant
plant
There are two types of flowers:
• unisex flowers that contain either stamens or pistils only
• bisexual flowers containing both stamens and pistils. For unisex flowers,
only female flowers containing pistils can grow and form fruit and seeds.
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a
female part of a plant, enabling fertilisation and the production of
seeds, most often by animal or by wind.
(b)Cross pollination
Cross pollination
Pollen
Grain
Pollinating agent
1. Pollen grains cannot move by themselves and require agents to
help them spread themselves to stigma.
2) Animals, insects, water and wind are the main pollination agents.
3) The flowers which are pollinated by different agents have different
flowering characteristics.
Proses of fertilisation
Bean seeds
(Dicotiledon)
Corn seeds
(Monocotyledon)
Epigeal germination
where cotyledons grow Hypogeal germination where
upwards (bitter guard) cotyledons remain beneath
the ground (corn plant)
Human reproduction
Foetal
Pregnant women must eat
development
nutritious food and stay away
from alcohol, cigarettes and
drugs.
Birth
Sterility
Family planning
- Use of condom
- Use of contraceptives in the uterus (IUCD).
- Consume of contraceptive pills
- Use of implants.
- Vasectomy.
- Ligation.
Breeding of flowering plants (sex breeding)
Cross-pollination
Pollen
grain
Pistil
Female Male
gamete gamete
through
Pollination
Fertilisation Pollination agents (Wind,
water, insects or animals)
Ovary → fruit
Ovule → seed Stimulate Sufficient temperature,
water and air (oxygen) are
Zygote → Embryo adequate.
Seed germination