Unit 9 : Chemicals in Industry

THEME: EXPLORATION ELEMENTS IN NATURE

Learning Area:
9.1 Alloy
9.2 Glass and Ceramic
9.3 Polymer

9.1 Alloy

Examples of alloys based on their composition of elements

1. Alloy is a mixture of two or more several types of metals.

2. Alloys are also produced through the mixture several types of metal and non-metal.
3. Alloys are produced according to the specific ratio or percentage of the mixture.
4. Examples of alloys are as follows: -
Alloy Composition Characteristic Uses
Steel Iron 99%  Hard and strong  Construct building and bridges
Carbon 1%  To make frame of vehicles and
railways tracks.
Pewter Tin 96%  Lustre  To make decorative items such as
Copper 3%  Resistant to photo frames and souvenirs.
Antimony 1% corrosion
Bronze Copper 88%  Hard  To make monuments, metal
Tin 12%  Resistant to sculptures, coins, medals, knives
corrosion and etc.
 Attractive colour
Brass Copper 75%  Strong  To make keys, door knobs, music
Zinc 25%  Shiny surface instruments and etc.
 Malleable
 Gold in colour
Duralumin Aluminium 95%  Light  To make frame of aircraft,
Copper 3%  Strong aeroplane, racing bikes and etc.
Magnesium 1%  Resistant to
Manganese 1% corrosion
5. The characteristics of pure metal are: -
a) Soft
b) Not strong
c) Easily corrode
6. Based on the characteristics of pure metal, it is not suitable to manufacture materials or products
based on pure metal only.
7. This is because the atoms in the pure metal have the same size and are arranged orderly in layers
to form the layers of the atom.
8. Therefore, the layers of atoms in these pure metals can easily slide over each other when force is
applied.
9. When atoms of foreign elements whether metal or non-metal are added to the pure metal, this will
disrupts the arrangement of the layers of the atoms.
10. When force is applied on them, sliding between the layers of the atom is difficult because the
atomic sizes of the foreign elements are different.
11. This process of addition of a foreign element is known as alloying.
12. The purpose of alloying are: -
a) Increasing the hardness of metals
b) Improving the appearance of metals
c) Prevents corrosion of metals

Pure metal Alloy

The atomic layers of pure metal are easy to slide

The atomic layers of pure metal and foreign
when force is applied
elements mixtures are difficult to slide when
force is applied
Uses of alloys in daily life

1. Superconductor is a conductor that can conduct electrical current at high efficiency without
resistance.
2. A metal shows superconducting properties when it is cooled below ambient temperature and
causes the metal to lose all electrical resistance.
3. Superconductor alloys are mixtures of several types of metal and non-metal elements.
4. Superconductor alloys allow electric current to flow without loss of energy
5. Superconductor alloys have very special properties as it can resist magnetic fields. Therefore, the
superconductor alloys can cause the superconducting material to float when placed on the magnet.
6. For example the superconductor alloys are used to build the railway track for the Maglev train.
7. The Maglev train can reach very high speeds as it does not experience the friction between the rail
and the track, so it moves by floating.
8. The uses of superconductor alloys in various fields are as follows: -

Field Uses
Medicine  Superconductor alloys such as niobium-titanium and niobium-tin are
used in the construction of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) for
medical imaging.
Transportation  Superconductor alloys are used in the construction of railway tracks for
high-powered train which prevent friction between the railway and the
body of the train. This can make the train floating and increase its speed.
 Duralumin is used in the manufacture of aeroplane’s body because it is
lightweight and strong.
Construction  Steel is used in the construction of skyscrapers due to its properties
which is hard and resistant to corrosion
Manufacture of  Brass is used in the manufacturer of musical instruments such as
equipment trumpets and saxophones due to its properties which is shiny and
corrosive

Trumpet
Maglev Train
MRI
Experiment to compare alloys with its pure metals

Experiment 1
Aim : To study the hardness of alloys compared to pure metals
Problem : Is alloy harder than pure metal?
statement
Hypothesis : Alloy is harder than pure metal
Variables a) Constant: Diameter of the steel ball, the height of the weight from the surface
of the block, the size and mass of the weight
b) Manipulated: Type of metal blocks
c) Responding: Diameter of the dent
Materials : Copper block, bronze block, cellophane tape, thread
Apparatus : Steel ball, 1 kg weight, retort stand and clamps, ruler, metre ruler
Procedure 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.

Setup of apparatus

2. Hang a 1 kg of weight up to 50 cm from the copper block.

3. Release the weight so that it falls on the steel ball attached to the copper
block.
4. Observe and measure the diameter of the dent formed on the surface of the
copper block using a ruler.
5. Repeat experiments on different surfaces to obtain the average diameter of
 the dent on the copper block. Record the observations in Table 1
6. Repeat steps 2 until 5 by replacing the copper block with the bronze block.
Result :
Metal Diameter of the dent (cm) Average diameter
block 1 2 3 (cm)
Copper 4.5 4.3 4.4 4.3
Bronze 3.2 3.1 3.0 3.1
Table 1

Discussion 1. The diameter of dent for the bronze block is smaller than the diameter of dent
for the copper block.
2. The smaller the diameter or dent, the harder the metal becomes.
3. Therefore, bronze is harder than copper.
Conclusion 1. Hypothesis is accepted.
2. Alloy (bronze) is harder than pure metal (copper)

Experiment 2
Aim : To study the resistance to corrosion of alloys as compared to pure metal
Problem : Is alloy more resistant to corrosion compared to pure metal?
statement
Hypothesis : Alloy is more resistant to corrosion compared to pure metal
Variables a) Constant: size of nail, type of solution, duration of experiment
b) Manipulated: Types of nails
c) Responding: The presence of brown layer on the nail
Materials : Iron nail, steel nail, water
Apparatus : Test tube, test tube rack
Procedure

Setup of apparatus
 1. Setup two test tubes and label them as A and B.
2. Fill 10 ml of water into test tubes A and B.
3. Insert iron nail into test tube A and steel nail into test tube B.
4. Place both test tubes on the test tube rack and leave them for a week.
5. After a week, record your observations in Table 2

Result :
Types of nail The presence of brown layer on the nail
Iron nail Yes
Steel nail No
Table 2

Discussion 1. There is a brown layer on the iron nail, while the steel nail remains
unchanged.
2. The presence of brown layer shows rusty nails and not resistant to corrosion.
3. Therefore, steel nail are more resistant to corrosion than iron nail.
Conclusion 1. Hypothesis is accepted.
2. Alloy (steel nail) is more resistant to corrosion than pure metal (iron nail).
9.2 Glass and Ceramics

Glass

1. Glass is made of silica.

2. Silica founds naturally in sand.
3. Glass is formed when sand in silica is heated to high temperature until it melts and then cools
quickly.
4. The main characteristics of glass are: -
a) Transparency
b) Brittle
c) Hard
d) Chemically inert
e) Good insulator of heat and electricity
f) Heat and chemical resistance
g) Pressure and breakage resistance

Application of glass
The application of glass in daily life

1. Types of glass, the composition and uses of glasses are in the following tables: -
Glass Composition Properties Uses
Fuse silica glass  Silica  Resistant to heat  Mirror
 Chemically inert  Lens
 Optical fibre
Soda-lime glass  Silica  Low melting point  Bulbs
 Calcium carbonate  Easily shaped  The window
 Sodium carbonate  Bottle
Borosilicate glass  Silica  Very high  Laboratory apparatus
 Boron oxide resistance to heat  Car lamp
 Sodium oxide and chemicals  Cooking utensils
 Aluminium oxide
Lead crystal glass  Silica  Low melting point  Lens
 Lead (II) oxide  Has a high  Glass prism
 Natrium oxide refractive index  Lamps
Ceramic

1. Ceramics are made from clay that is heated to a very high temperature.
2. The main component of ceramics is aluminium silicate.
3. Common characteristics of ceramics are: -
a) Very hard and strong.
b) Brittle.
c) Chemically inert.
d) Does not corrosive.
e) Good insulator of heat and electrical.
f) High resistance to heat and pressure.

The application of ceramics in daily life

1. The uses and examples of ceramics based on their properties are shown in the following Table:
Properties
Hard and strong
Attractive, easily moulded and
glazed
Chemically inert and non-
corrosive
High melting point and good
insulator of heat
Electrical insulator
Inert and non-compressible
Uses
Building materials
Home equipment and
decorative household
Kitchenware and utensils
Insulation
Insulating parts in electrical
appliances
Medical and dental tools
Examples
Tiles, bricks, cement
Pots, sink, bath tub
Cooking pots, dishes, bowls
Lining of furnace, engine parts
Insulators in ovens and electric
cables
Dentures, artificial bones

Applications of ceramic
9.3 Polymer

Natural polymers and synthetic polymers

1. Polymers are a combination of small units or monomers that form a large molecular chain.
2. Monomers are small units that make up polymers.
3. Polymers are classified into two: -
i. Natural polymers
ii. Synthetic polymers

4. Natural polymers
 Are exist naturally
 Made from living things.
 Examples and uses of natural polymers: -
Polymer Monomer Uses
Starch Glucose Produces energy
Protein Amino acid Build and repair cells and tissues
Natural rubber Isoprene Produce of rubber-based products

5. Synthetic polymers
 Are man-made polymers.
 Made from chemical substances s such as petroleum.
 Examples and use of synthetic polymers: -
Polymer Monomer Uses
Polythene Ethene To make plastic bottles, plastic bags, pails
Polystyrene Styrene To make a packaging container, board
Perspex Methyl To make lenses, car mirrors, aeroplane windows
methacrylate
Synthetic rubber Neoprene To make car tyres, shoe soles, gloves

The process of polymerisation and depolymerisation

1. Polymerisation is a process of joining the monomers to produce large and long-chain polymers
through chemical bonding.
2. While depolymerisation is the process of separating long chain polymer molecules into their
monomers through chemical reactions.
3. Addition polymerisation is a process in which the same monomers combine to form polymers
without any side product.
4. The same monomers will break the double bond between them and form a single bond.
5. For example, ethene has a double bond between its carbon atoms.
6. When additional polymerisation reactions occur, the double bond is broken down and forms a
single bond with the other ethene’s monomer to form the long chain of this polymer known as
polythene.

Additional polymerisation

Natural rubber

1. Natural rubber is obtained from the stems of rubber trees in the form of milky liquid, also known
as latex.
2. The latex is then processed into natural rubber.
3. Natural rubber is a type of polymer formed from a combination of isoprene monomers.
4. Characteristics of natural rubber are:-
a) Elastic
b) Soft
c) Cannot withstand heat
d) Good electrical insulation
e) Is not permeable to air
Rubber particle structure

1. In latex, there are rubber molecules covered by negatively charged protein membranes.
2. Under normal condition, rubber particles having the same charge will repel each other.
3. This will prevent the rubber particles from coagulating. So latex will appear as a liquid form.

Action of acid and alkali on latex

Action of acid on latex Action of alkali on latex

 Action of acid on latex
When acid is added to the latex,
 Positively charged hydrogen ions will
neutralise the negative charge on the surface
of the protein membrane.
 When there is no negative charge, this causes
the rubber molecules to collide with each
other.
 This will break the protein membranes and
causes the polymer chain to escapes.
 Polymer chains in rubber molecules combine
to form coagulated latex.
 Polymer chains in rubber molecules will
combine and latex coagulated in solid form.
Action of alkali on latex
When alkali is added to the latex,
 Hydroxide ions from alkali will neutralise
hydrogen ions from acids.
 When there is no acid, the negative charges
remain on the protein membrane.
 This causes the rubber molecules to always
repel each other and not collide.
 Therefore, rubber molecules are prevented
from coagulating and latex remain in liquid
state.

Activity 1
Aim : To study the properties of natural rubber
Materials : Rubber sheet, water
Apparatus : Boiling tube, retort stand and clamps, Bunsen burner
Procedure :
Procedure Observation
A. The elasticity of natural rubber
1. Stretch and twisting natural rubber Natural rubber stretches and returns to
and release. its initial shape when released
2. Observation is recorded.
B. The effect of heat on natural
rubber .
1. Cut into small pieces of natural Natural rubber melts and becomes
rubber and place in a boiling tube sticky when heated.
containing water. Natural rubber becomes brittle when
2. Then, heat it slowly using a Bunsen cool.
burner.
3. Test the elasticity of rubber pieces
when it has cooled.
Conclusion 1. Natural rubber is elastic.
2. Natural rubber is easy to melt and sticky when heated and becomes brittle after
cooling.
Activity 2
Aim : To study the action of acid and alkali on latex
Hypothesis : Acid causes latex to coagulate while alkali can prevent latex from coagulating
Variables a) Constant: Volume of latex
b) Manipulated: Acid and alkali
c) Responding: Coagulation of latex
Materials : Latex, ethanoic acid, ammonia solution
Apparatus : Beaker, dropper, glass rod
Procedure

Setup of apparatus

1. Prepare three beakers and label them as P, Q and R.

2. Add 10 drops of ethanoic acid into beaker P and stir.
3. Add 10 drops of ammonia solution into beaker Q and stir.
4. Leave the beaker R without adding acid and alkali.
5. Observe the changes occurring in all three beakers and record the observations
in Table 1.
Observation :
Beaker Observation
P Latex coagulates
Q Latex does not coagulates
R Latex coagulates
Table 1
Discussion 1. When ethanoic acid is added to the latex, positively charged hydrogen ions
neutralise the negative charge on the surface of the protein membrane. The
rubber molecule collides and causes the protein membrane to break. Rubber
molecules combine and latex coagulates.
2. When ammonia solution is added to the latex, hydroxide ions from alkali will
neutralise the hydrogen ion from the acid. Thus, negative charges remain on the
protein membrane and cause the rubber molecules to constantly repel each other.
Latex remains in liquid.
3. The latex that left exposed to air containing bacteria. Bacterial action produces
acids and neutralise protein membranes. The protein membrane breaks and the
 rubber molecule joins and eventually the latex coagulate.
Conclusion 1. Hypothesis is accepted.
2. Acid (ethanoic acid) causes latex to coagulate while alkali (ammonia solution)
can prevent latex from coagulating

Vulcanisation of rubber

1. Vulcanisation is the process of adding sulphur into natural rubber through heating.
2. In the vulcanisation process, sulphur atoms are added to the long polymer chain of the natural
rubber.
3. Rubber obtained through this process is called vulcanised rubber.

Vulcanisation of rubber

4. This process causes the formation of a cross-linking of sulphur between the polymers of the
natural rubber molecules.
5. The polymer chain of vulcanised rubber is harder and resistant to high heat.
6. Vulcanised rubber polymer chains are difficult to slide when force is applied to them.
7. The structure of a vulcanised rubber polymer chain is also difficult to break even the heat is
applied on it.
8. The characteristics of vulcanised rubber are: -
a) Harder and more elastic
b) Resistant to heat
c) Good electrical insulator
d) Difficult to be oxidized in the air
e) Not permeable in liquid and air
f) Does not react with acid and alkali
9. The uses of vulcanised rubber are as follows: -
a) Vehicle tyres
b) Shoe soles
c) Gloves
d) Rubber hose

Products of vulcanised rubber

The latest technology based on rubber

1. Some of the latest discoveries have been made through the latest technology based on rubber and
its special properties.
2. Research has been done by the Malaysian Rubber Board (LGM) to produce rubber-based
products in various fields, especially in manufacturing and construction.
3. Examples of rubber-based products using the latest technology: -
a) Cuplump Modified Asphalt (CMA)
 Used as asphalt concrete for road pavement.
 Roads that are constructed are last longer, resistant to high heat, can reduce noise
between vehicle tires and roads and reduce the impact of road crack.
b) Getah Colour
a. Is a painting made from latex.
b. It is used in visual arts.
c) Rail pad
a. Pads are made of rubber
b. It is placed between the railway and the train engine to reduce vibration and noise
sound.