▶ In a more meaningful form, this means that the current

in the RL circuit shown here is given as

i(t) = A cos (ω t − θ) (9)
where
VM
A= √ (10)
R2 + ω 2 L2
 
−1 ωL
θ = tan (11)
R

13 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 19 17/131

Commenting on Eqs. (9) to (11) [HKD12; pp. 380, 381]
The Amplitude A
▶ is proportional to the forcing function
▶ this is a natural outcome of the fact that the circuit is
linear

14 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 20 18/131

Commenting on Eqs. (9) to (11) [HKD12; pp. 380, 381]
The Current i
▶ lags the voltage vs by an angle of tan−1 ωL


R (which
is between 0◦ and 90◦ )
▶ this is a natural outcome of the fact that the circuit is
linear
▶ when
ω = 0 or L = 0 the current is in phase with the
voltage
R=0 the current lags the voltage by 90◦

15 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 21 19/131

Commenting on Eqs. (9) to (11) [HKD12; pp. 380, 381]
The Term ωL
▶ is of special interest
▶ it is called the inductive reactance
▶ it has a unit of ohms
▶ it is a measure of the opposition of the inductor to
the sinusoidal current

15 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 22 20/131

▶ Note that when ω = 0, the inductive reactance is also zero
d the inductor thus behaves like short-circuit when the frequency is very low

▶ This agrees with RL circuits in Electric Circuits I course because inductor

behave like short-circuit
 Complex Forcing Functions
▶ According to circuit theory, for any linear electrical
network, if the forcing function is sinusoidal, then
all voltages and currents are [IN15; p. 309]
d sinusoidal
d of the same frequency as that of the forcing function

▶ For example, assuming i(t) is the output

d when the forcing function is a source whose time
domain response is v (t) = VM cos (ω t + θ)
d then the current is of the form i(t) = IM cos (ω t + ϕ)

16 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 24 21/131

▶ We assume that the current of interest has the form
i(t) = IM cos (ω t + ϕ)
▶ Thus, our main task main task is to determine the
matnigude IM and the phase shift ϕ of the output
current
▶ Similar idea applies to voltages across any two
points in the circuit

17 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 25 22/131

▶ According to Euler’s formula, it is possible to write a sinusoidal wave as follows
[IN15; p. 311]

e j (ω t+θ)
= cos (ω t + θ ) + j sin (ω t + θ )
Euler’s formula (12)
(Alternative Form)
▶ Thus, cosine and sine waves can be written as
h i
cos (ω t + θ ) = ℜ ej (ω t+θ) (13)
h i
j (ω t+θ)
sin (ω t + θ ) = ℑ e (14)

here, j is the complex operator 1∠90°

18 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 26 23/131

▶ Using such type of notation may appear initially as complicated
d however, we will see how the concepts presented here help us apply a useful thing
called frequency domain

▶ By converting the time-domain relationship (i.e., with differential equations)

into algebraic frequency domain relationships . These algebraic equations are much
easier to solve, especially when we have a lot of meshes and nodes in the circuit
▶ In the circuit shown here, we write the KVL as
[HKD12; p. 374]
di
L +Ri = VM cos(ω t)
dt
▶ Note here, we know that the current must be of
sinusoidal form. Substituting IM ej (ω t+ϕ) for the value
of i and VM ej ω t for vs
d IM ej (ω t+ϕ) j (ω t+ϕ)
L + R IM e = VM ej ω t
dt
taking the derivative
j ωLIM ej (ω t+ϕ) + R IM ej (ω t+ϕ) = VM ej ω t (15)

18 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 28 24/131

▶ Dividing all terms in Eq. (16) over the factor ej ω t
j ωLIM ej ϕ + R IM ej ϕ = VM (16)

▶ Eq. (16) can be rewritten as

VM
IM ej ϕ = (17)
R + j ωL
converting the right hand side of Eq. (17) to polar form
  
−1 ωL
VM j − tan
IM ej ϕ = √ e R (18)
R2 + ω 2 L2

19 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 29 25/131

▶ Eq. (18) clearly indicates that the magnitude and phase are
VM
IM = √ (19)
R2 + ω 2 L2
 
−1 ωL
ϕ = − tan (20)
R
▶ The solution of i is thus
  
VM −1 ωL
i(t) = √ cos ω t − tan (21)
R 2 + ω 2 L2 R
which is very similar to the results in Eqs. (9) to (11)
d this suggests that complex forcing functions can be used to calculate the steady-state
solution for a sinusoidal input

20 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 30 26/131

▶ The equations are ▶ When using complex forcing
function, it was relatively easy to
i(t) = A cos (ω t − θ) convert a differential equation into
an algebraic equation (see Eq. (15))
where
VM ▶ We can use complex numbers
A= √
R + ω 2 L2
2 notation to represent output in a
  sinusoidal circuit in terms of a
−1 ωL
θ = tan magnitude and a phase shift
R
(Eq. (17))
 Phasors
▶ For a voltage whose time-domain ▶ For a current whose time-domain
representation is representation is

v (t) = VM cos (ω t + θ) (22) i(t) = IM cos (ω t + ϕ) (24)

the quantity the quantity

V = VM ∠θ (23) I = IM ∠ϕ (25)

is called its phasor (or frequency is called its phasor (or frequency
domain representation of v) domain representation of i)

21 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 32 27/131

▶ Note that the quantity ω in both of Eqs. (23) and (25) does not appear since the
frequency is implicit in phasors [IN15; p. 313]

21 % Al-Motasem Aldaoudeyeh, PhD Slide 1 of 1 Page 33 28/131

▶ Also, note that phasors are more compact than sinusoids, which means that
solution using frequency domain could be more concise and neater
Conversion Between Frequency and Time Domains [IN15]
▶ Convert the quantity v = 18 sin (2513t + 20◦ ) V to phasor form
▶ Convert the phasor I = 10∠20° V to time domain given that the frequency is 400 Hz
Conversion Between Frequency and Time Domains [IN15]

◦
v = 18 sin (2513t + 20 ) V

▶ Add −90◦ to convert to cos

v = 18 cos (2513t + 20◦ − 90◦ ) = 18 cos (2513t − 70◦ ) V
applying Eqs. (22) and (23) to convert to a phasor yields
◦
v = 18 sin (2513t + 20 ) V ↔ V = 18∠−70° V
| {z } | {z }
Time Domain Frequency Domain