1

VASANTRAO NAIK MARATHWADA AGRICULTURAL

UNIVERSITY,PARBHANI

POST GRADUATE INSTITUTE OF AGRI-

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT,CHAKUR

ASSIGNEMENT

Seed Production Technology & Management

Acadmic Session:- 2021-2022

Course No:- ABM-522
Semester :- 3rd Sem

Submitted By:-
Mast. Pratik Narayanrao Moghe
Reg No:- 2020/MBA/18/MC

Submitted To:-
Prof. Sudhakar More
(Dept of Agri-Business Cooperative Mgt)
2

PGI-ABM,Chakur.

Seed Marketing

Seed Marketing refers to the actual acquisition and selling of packed seeds,
intermediate storage, delivery and sales promotional activities.

It comprises of :
1.Demand Forecasts
2. Marketing Structure
3.Arrangements for storage of seeds
4.Sales promotional Activities
5. Economics of seed production and seed pricing

1.Demand Forecasts-
 The principal in making demand forecasts is that the seed supply keeps pace
with seed demand in terms of quantity, quality, price, place and time.
 The following factors must consider -
a. Total cultivable area, seed rate, seed multiplication ratio
b. Impact of extension efforts
c. Current area under high yielding varieties, amount of seed sold in last
year
d. Cultivator peferences for varieties, package size, quality
e. Number and size of competitors
f. Kinds of publicity and sales promotion
g. Climate of the area where seed is marketed.

 The demand of high quality seed for self pollinated crops is normally not higher
than 25 to 30% of the total requirement for areas under irrigated, and high
fertile conditions.

 Uses of demand forecasts;

i. Long term demand indicates in terms of quality, quantity and prices,
how to invest, how to organize maketing.
ii. Intermediate range demand forecasts helps to make necessary actions
to minimize profits by balancing production and sales.
iii. Short term demand forecasts includes production planning and
scheduling, determination of targets and quotas for dealers and salesman, modifications
of prices, policies.
3

2. Marketing Structure-
 Establishment of effective channel of seed distribution.
 Depends on needs of seed company.
 Present status of seed distribution.

a. Farmers to Farmer distribution-

Farmers obtain their requirements from neighbours either on cash or exhange.

b. Distribution by cooperatives-
Procurement of seeds by cooperatives and its subsequent distribution.

c. Distribution by Departments of Agriculture-

Seeds are purchased by the Govt, and distributed through Dist Agricultual and
Block Developmental officers.

d. Distribution of seeds by Non Govt Agencies-

Distributed through netwok of seed distributers and seed dealers.

3. Marketing Organization-

- Central marketing cell is responsible for planning, seed movement, pricing, financing
etc.
-Regional officers are responsible for seed supply,expansion into new market areas.
-Dealers involved in selling agricultural inputs.

3.Arrangements For Proper Storage Of Seeds-

4

It is desirable to establish seed marketing regional offices in the end-use areas and to
arrange buffer godowns.
• Advantages-
Assures timely supply, minimize the risk of Seed getting damage.
• Disadvantages-
Need of regional offices in such areas

4. Sales Generation Activities-

A sound and effective sales programme must be based on judicious use of three basic
tools, i.e., advertising, publicity and public relations.

Promotional Media:
1. Newspapers- It gives briefly advantages of good Seed, price, location of dealer, variety
names.
2. Cinema slides- These should emphasise the local dealer and seasonal crops.
3. Hoardings- Ear round publicity. Good locations are Near rural bazars, railway station
etc.
4. Radio- Important tool for increasing sales.
5.Melas- Participation in Kisan Melas, Krishi Vignan Melas organized by agricultual
Universities is also an imp media.
6. Field Demonstrations- Inspires confidence in farmers to adapt agricultural pactices
and use of high quality seeds.

5.Post Sales Service-

 Education of the farmers

 Technical help
 Quick follow up are factors of most crucial impotance.

6. Economics of Seed Production and Seed Pricing-

 Seed production cost- It includes all cost of crop poduction, cost of foundation
seed,specialized planting, additional supervision required in seed raising, seed
cetification fee, seed marketing, storage, transportation etc.

 Seed Pricing-
 The fixed price must be reasonable enough.
 The final marketing price of certified seeds is a result of a number
of interacting component factors.
5

1.Input costs-distribution costs, wholesale margin, retail margin, sales promotion

etc
2.Supply and Demand-If supply is short, seed sold at high prices and vice versa.
3.Prices of other farm poducts and time trend.

Factors Affecting Seed Marketing-

 Clear-cut policy
 Availability of well identified and adapted varieties
 Adequate production, storage and testing facilities
 Official programme
 Demand forecasts
 Market Intelligence
 Transport and storage arrangements
 Nature of poduct
 Quality control programme

GM Of Crop Seeds
Genetically-modified (GM) seeds are a significant step forward in the
production of agricultural crops.
6

 Genetically-modified (GM) Seeds are seeds that have been modified to contain
specific characteristics such as resistance to herbicides (in the case of "Roundup
Ready" products) or resistance to pests (in the case of Bt corn).
 Conventional plant breeding involves crossing species of the same genus to provide the
offspring with the desired traits of both parents.
Genus is a class of items such as a group of animals or plants with similar traits,
qualities or features.
 Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture,
the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant
genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use
of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors.
In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not
occur naturally in the species.
 Genetic modification aims to transcend the genus barrier by introducing an alien
gene in the seeds to get the desired effects. The alien gene could be from a plant, an
animal or even a soil bacterium.
 Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases,
environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical
treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of
the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical
agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as
for bioremediation.

 Bt cotton is the only Genetically Modified (GM) crop that is

allowed in India. It has alien genes from the soil bacterium Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) that allows the crop to develop a protein toxic to
the common pest pink bollworm.
 Herbicide Tolerant Bt (Ht Bt) cotton, on the other hand is derived
with the insertion of an additional gene, from another soil bacterium,
which allows the plant to resist the common herbicide glyphosate.
 In Bt brinjal, a gene allows the plant to resist attacks of fruit and
shoot borers.
 In DMH-11 mustard, genetic modification allows cross-pollination
in a crop that self-pollinates in nature.

Methods:
Genetically engineered crops have genes added or removed using genetic
engineering techniques.

Originally including –

 Gene guns
 Electroporation
7

 Microinjection
 Agrobacterium
 CRISPR
 TALEN

Types Of Modifications:
1.Transgenic:
Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from
another species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom (plant
to plant), or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many cases the inserted
DNA has to be modified slightly in order to be correctly and efficiently expressed in the host
organism. Transgenic plants are used to express proteins, like the cry toxins from B.
thuringiensis, herbicide-resistant genes, antibodies, and antigens for vaccinations.] A study
led by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) also found viral genes in transgenic plants.

2. Cisgenic:
Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a
closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some breeders and
scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants that are difficult
to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and that plants in the cisgenic
category should not require the same regulatory scrutiny as transgenics.
3. Subgenic:
Genetically modified plants can also be developed using gene
knockdown or gene knockout to alter the genetic makeup of a plant without incorporating
genes from other plants. In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the
creation of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes that
encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The researchers deleted all three
copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid genome. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene
editing tools without adding or changing any other genes. No field trials were immediately
planned. The CRISPR technique has also been used by Penn State researcher Yinong Yang to
modify white button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) to be non-browning, and by DuPont
Pioneer to make a new variety of corn.
4.Multiple trait integration
With multiple trait integration, several new traits may be integrated into a new crop.

Traits-
 GM crops grown today, or under development, have been modified with
various traits. These traits include improved shelf life, disease resistance, stress
resistance, herbicide resistance, pest resistance, production of useful goods such as
biofuel or drugs, and ability to absorb toxins and for use in bioremediation of
pollution.
8

 Recently, research and development has been targeted to enhancement of

crops that are locally important in developing countries, such as insect-
resistant cowpea for Africa[108] and insect-resistant brinjal (eggplant).

Issues involved:
Genetic modification brings about changes that can be harmful to humans in the long run.
The long-lasting effect of GM crops is yet to be studied. Some of the issues involved:
1.Threat to Biodiversity-
-Cross Pollination in GM crops paves the way for herbicide-resistant superweeds that can
further threaten the sustenance of other crops and pests because of their uncontrolled growth.
In short, biodiversity gets threatened.
-GM crops because of their pest resistance characteristics could eliminate important species
of pests that are responsible for sustaining domestic varieties and can pose serious threats to
biodiversity. They Can affect the food chain also.
2.Nutrition issues-
BT brinjal poses risk to human health as its resistance to antibiotics can turn medicines
ineffectively & may results in the formation of new toxins & allergens.
3.Implications for consumers and farmers-
It is claimed that patent laws give developers of the GM crops a dangerous degree
of control/dominance over the food supply that results in the over domination of world food
production by a few companies.

What is the legal position of genetically modified crops in India?

In India, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) is the apex body that allows
for commercial release of GM crops. In 2002, the GEAC had allowed the commercial release
of Bt cotton. More than 95 per cent of the country’s cotton area has since then come under
Bt cotton. Use of the unapproved GM variant can attract a jail term of 5 years and fine of Rs
1 lakh under the Environmental Protection Act ,1989.
Way Forward:

-Environmental impact assessment should be carried out by independent

environmentalists, as farmers do not and cannot assess the long-term impact of GM crops
on ecology and health.
-Ensure that an unapproved variety of GM seeds is not available in markets.
9

-In order to curb the illegal cultivation of GM seeds, the Genetic Engineering Appraisal
Committee (GEAC) should:

o Collaborate with state governments and launch a nation-wide

investigation drive.
o Take action on threats of deliberate GM crop cultivation.
o Investigate and prosecute those involved in the illegal supply of
GM Seeds.
o Encourage organic farming.
-The government should go for commercialization of GM seeds only after the core and
deep research on the long term prospects and benefits of commercialization of GM seeds
in India.
10

Seed industry before independence:-

 In 1905 five agriculture colleges (Sabour, Lyallpur, Pune, Kanpur,

Coiambatore) took up the task of agriculture research and
developed the strains of Cotton, Wheat, Groundnut and
Sugarcane.
 State department of Agriculture took up the task of distribution
of seeds of improved strains by two methods
 By the first method department multiply the seeds at one
location and distributed to farmer.
 By the second method department distribute small quantity of
seed to the farmers and expect that farmer will multiply their
own seed.
 First method applied on Bengal for jute and paddy seeds.
11

 Second method applied on UP (United Province) for paddy

seeds.
 Second method is very effective and recommended by (Howard
1928)
 Several seed multiplication laboratory was established in the
state.
 Seeds are further multiplied on land lord farms.
 Provision of liberal loans were also made for th encouragement
of usage of good quality Seeds ,particulary during uncertain
weather. *In 1922 on United province (UP) establish seed store
in each Tehsil.
 In 1925 Royal commission on agriculture constituted.

Suggestion of Royal Commission

• There should be separate department with in agriculture to deal

seed distribution and seed testing.

• Seed distribution unit should be self sustaining.

• Seed distribution should be organized by cooperatives, other
associations, Seed merchants, seed agents and others.

• Seed merchants of proven enterprise should be given

encouragement.

GOI execution of Royal commission

suggestions:-
12

 Establishment of crop research institutes of different crops on

different states.
 Improved strains of paddy, wheat ,sugarcane cotton, jute etc
developed.
 Strains were howsoever developed but seed multiplication and
seed distribution work did not took pace.

Seed industry status on Pre-

Independence era:-

• Seed was multiplied on seed farms of agriculture department and

on the farms of registered seed growers.

• Up to the yr 1939 vegetable seeds were brought from abroad.

. By the year 1945 Pvt. vegetable seed companies produced seeds in

Quetta and Kashmir valley for temperate vegetable.

• On the year 1946 vegetable seed producing companies went under

the association formation called as All India seed growers, Merchants
and nursery men association.

Seed industry after independence:-

• First five year plan (1951-56)

13

 Grow More Food Enquiry Committee 1952 reported that seed

impurity was the main cause of program failure.
 Expert standing committee 1952 by ICAR for the formulation of
sound seed improvement programme.
 Benefits of the plan was the formation of seed distribution
mechanism around the states.

• Second five year plan (1956-61)

 First AICRP (All India Coordinated Maize Programme) by ICAR in

collaboration with Rock feller foundation on maize was
launched on yr.1957
 On the year 1961 four maize hybrids released. • On the year
1960 AICRP on Sorghum & Bajra launched.
 Setting of 4328 farms of 10 hectare each for the multiplication
of nucleus seeds at the block level.
 First Indo-American Agricultural production team (1959)
headed by Dr Sherman E. Johnson from Ford Foundation
examined India's food production problem.

Their suggestions are :

1. Proper education of farmers for improved seed usage by the

extension workers of all levels.

2. Agriculture department work on seed certification.

3. Cooperatives and private seed growers take care the work of

seed supply.
14

4. Setting up of seed testing laboratory on the states.

5. Development of Uniform Seed Certification standards, Seed

laws and Favourable economic climate.

 Indo-American Agricultural Second production team

(1959) headed by Dr Randhawa endorsed the first team
observations.

Evaluation of 2nd five year plan

Review made by PEO Programme evaluation organization 1960

• Block farms of 10 hec ran into losses and

handled mostly by non Agri -Graduates.

• Five % seeds farms are maintaining the purity.

• Large quantity of improved seeds are not used for sowing

• Only hybrid maize, bazra, sorghum are included in the seed
programme.
• Several varieties were grown on the same farm of the same
crop.

• Community development blocks were not made for the

production of specific variety.

• The foundation seed was not fully utilized.

• Improper inspections were made.

. Marketing work lies on the head of producers.

15

• Non usage of improved seeds. • Faulty seeds procurement.

• Defective seed processing.

• Germination and purity regarding complaints. • Cooperatives

not interested in sale of seeds.

Committee on Plan Projects review

1961

Seed multiplication team made under the committee reviewed

the seed schemes with following recommendations.

• Multiplication and distribution of millets, oilseeds and pulses

should be carried out.

• Breeder seeds should be under the control of crop specialist.

• Plan to cover all the important

• Adequate provisions to be made for seed distribution.

• Suggested to maintain the seed standards.

Third five year plan 1961-66

• First four hybrids of maize released on yr 1961 • HYVP 1966,
for Maize, Bajra, Paddy and Wheat.

• Commencement of NSC (National seed corporation)1963 by

Agriculture ministry with the following objectives. .
1.Establishment of foundation and certified seed corporation.
16

• 2.To encourage and assist production and marketing of seeds,

seed certification programme and seed law enforcement.
3.Impart training on seed programme.

• 4.Acts as coordinator of seed programmes.

Salient achievements of NSC

• Establishment of a scientific seed industry. Encouragement of

Indian Manufacturers for seed processing equipments.

• Development of field inspection methods, seed standards for

seed certification and labelling.

• Multiplication of Pre released varieties of national importance.

Annual plans 1966-1969

• Enactment and Enforcement of seed act 1966

• Review of seed status by Seed Review Team 1968.

• RECOMMENDATION OF SEED REVIEW TEAM. 1968

 Registration of Varieties .
 Elimination of doubtful varieties,
 Avoidance of pre release publicity,
 SAU role for foundation seed production, • Involvement of
cooperative and private sector for seed production.
17

Fourth five year plan (1969-74)

• GOI plan to select areas on basis of assured rainfall for food
production target, by the supply of inputs for agriculture.

• Indian society of seed technology (ISST) formed on yr

1971 for sharing experience through seed research and seed

technology news on yearly basis.

• Establishment of Tarai Development Corporation

limited 1969 (TDC) with the assistance of world bank under
National Seed programme.

• TDC has became an ideal organization for corporation for other

states and in developing countries.

. TDC has been renamed as U.P. Seeds and Tarai development

corporation wef 01" july 1978.

Unique features of TDC:-

. Involvement of GBPUA&T for Supervision and guidance.

• Integrated development approach Viz. Land

levelling,mechanization,irrigation, electrification and credit
also.

• Concept of shareholders for seed growers.

18

. Compact area approach under this scientist must be available

on target area for the supervision and guidance. . Strict quality
control: Additional inspections made by

GBPUA&T scientist, other than SSCA

. Testing of raw seed samples to ensure quality before packing.

• Money back guarantee in case of Sub standard lot.

• Integrated approach of marketing to those dealers who

simultaneously market fertilizer and pesticides.

Fifth five year plan (1974-79)

National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) reviewed Indian seed

industry and submitted its final report on 1976 with the
recommendations expansion, varietal on registration, seed
insurance, tax benefits, seed processing,storage, seed research,
seed law enforcement, seed certification, grow out tests and
inclusion of seed tech as a course in Agril. university.
19

National seed programme

(NSP)1975-76

• National Seed Programme (NSP) was launched with the

collaboration of world bank.
• NSP Phase I was launched in first four states Punjab, Haryana,
Maharastra and AndhraPradesh with the establishment of state
seed corporation on their territory.

• NSP Phase II was launched in five states Karnataka, Rajasthan,

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa with the establishment of state
seed corporation on their territory.
20

Sixth five year plan (1980-1985)

• Seed control order 1983 passed and enacted and declared that
seed as an essential commodity under Essential Commodity Act
1955.

Seventh five year plan (1985-1990)

• Strengthening of infra structure, facilities for seed production

both in public and private sectors.

• NSP Phase III launched in four states namely Assam, West

Bengal, Madhya Pradesh & Gujarat with the establishment of
state seed corporation.

• Introduction of New Seed Development Policy (1988 1989) was

yet another significant mile stone in the Indian Seed Industry,
which transformed the very character of the seed industry. The
policy gave access to Indian farmers of the best of seed and
planting material available anywhere on the world.

Eighth five year plan (1992-97)

• High targets of seed production has been fixed.

Emphasis given on seed production of Hybrid Varieties of Rice

and other crops.
21

ROLE OF PUBLIC & PRIVATE SEED SECTOR

 The number of companies engaged in seed production or

seed trade is around 400 or 500.

 The main focus of private seed companies has been on the

high value low volume seeds viz. maize, sunflower and
cotton. However, in the case of vegetable seeds and
planting materials of horticultural crops, the private sector
is the dominant player..

 The main focus of Public sector has been on for low value
high volume seeds viz. cereals, pulses and oilseeds.
22

Introduction

Send is the starting point of agriculture and dictates ultimate

productivity of other inputs Good quality seed alone increases
the yield by 15-20 per cent The seed village programme includes
the participation of state government, SAJ system, public sector,
cooperative and private sector institutions Quality seed the key
input for realizing potential productivity ideally seed should be
replaced every year for hybrids and every three to four years for
23

non-hybris The non-availability of quality seeds in oilseeds and

pulses is one of the main reasons for its lower seed replacement
rate.
The concept of seed village which advocates village self-
sufficiency in production and distribution of quality seeds is
getting inumentum.

What is seed village

A village, where in trained group of farmers are involved in

production of seeds of various crops and cater to the needs of
themselves, fellow farmers of the village and i farmers of
neighbouring villages in appropriate time and at affordable cost
is called "a seed village"

Concept

Organizing seed production in cluster (or) compact area

Replacing existing local varieties with new high yielding varieties
Increasing the seed production

To meet the local demand, timely supply and reasonable cost

Self sufficiency and self reliance of the village Increasing the seed
replacement rate

Features
24

 Seed is available at the door steps of farms at an

appropriate time. Seed availability at affordable cost even
lesser than market price increased confidence among the
farmers about the quality because of known source of
production Producer and consumer are mutually benefited

 Facilitates fast spread of new cultivars of different kinds

Establishment of seed village

The present programme of seed village scheme is having two

phases

1. Seed production of different crops

II. Establishing seed processing unit

1. Seed production of different crops

Seed village concept is to promote the quality seed production

of foundation and certified seed classes. The area which is
suitable for raising a particular crop will be selected, and raised
with single variety of a kind.

 Selection of area

The area with the following facilities will be selected.

1. Irrigation facilities.
2. Suitability of climatic conditions to raise the crop for more
than one season .
25

3.Labour availability and Knowledge of local farmers on that

particular crop.

4. Occurrence or out break of pest and diseases

5. Past history of the area for suitability to raise seed crop

6. Average rainfall and distribution

7. Closeness to a urban area for easy movement of seed and

other inputs

 Seed Supply

Suitable area for seed production will be identified by the

Scientists The foundation/ certified seeds or University labeled
seeds will be supplied by the University through Krishi Vigyan
Kendras (KVKS) and Research Stations at 50% subsidy cost to the
identified farmers in the area.

The farmers will use these quality seeds and take up their own
seed production in al small area (1 acre) for their own use.

The crops are Rice, Pulses and Oilseeds.

 Capacity building

In order to harness the synergy between technologies and the

community. participation, special emphasis is being given to
build farmer's capacity to produce quality seeds. A training on
seed production and seed technology to the identified farmers
26

for the seed crops grown in the seed villages will be given for
technology empowerment of farmers.

Training to the farmers

 First one day training: At the time of sowing

Training on Isolation distance, sowing practices, seed treatment,

and other agronomic practices.

 Second one day training During flowering

Training on: Identifying off types and removal, maintenance of

seed plots, plant protection measures, maturity status and
harvesting methods.

 Third one day training After harvest

Training on Seed cleaning, grading, seed treating, bagging and

storage aspects, sampling and sending to seed testing laboratory
for analysis.
A seed grower forum will be organized for further
empowerment of technology and marketing.

II. Establishing seed processing unit

 Post-harvest seed handling is a vital component of the total

technology in marketing available good quality seeds of
improved varieties If the seeds are not processed and
27

handled properly, all the past efforts in production may be

lost.

 Thus seed processing and packaging is very important

aspect in seed production.
 The location of seed processing centres is based on the
available infrastructure and convenience.

 Such a place will be well connected with roads and

transportation facilities

Each seed processing centre will have the following:

1. Infrastructure need for seed processing unit-

2. Seed garden cum clearer

3. Bag closer, trolleys, scales and furniture

4. Building to house equipment Seed storage structure

5. Seed threshing and drying yard

6. Information centre

Advantages

1. Solve the problem of isolation. Mainly in cross pollinated crops

lke mace, sunflower where it requeed more sulation distance
the pristlern wt be solved by raining a single variety is a large
area
2. Mechanication is posible from sowing to harvesting
28

3 Postharvest handing of seed is easy Because of a single variety,

the problem of varietal admisture during processing, drying will
be avoided

4. Increased food security

5. Seed certification official will cover large area per unit time 6.
Totally it reduces the cost of cultivation 7. Seed will be with high
genetic, physical purity

Live example

1. Red sorghum Ankapur village Nizamabad District.

2. Rice seed-Nepal

 What is seed storage –

 Preservation of seed with initial quality until it is needed for planting.

 The ability of seed to tolerate moisture loss allows the seed to maintain the
viability in dry state.
 Storage starts in the mother plant itself when it attains physiological maturity.
After harvesting the seeds are either stored in ware houses or in transit or in
retail shops. During the old age days , the farmers were used farm saved
29

seeds, in little quantity, but introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids
and modernization of agriculture necessitated the development of storage
techniques to preserve the seeds.

 Objective of seed storage

To maintain initial seed quality viz., germination, physical purity, vigour etc., all along
the storage period by providing suitable or even better conditions. Since the main
objective of seed storage is maintenance of an acceptable capacity for germination
and emergence, it can only be accomplished by reducing the rate ofdeterioration to
the degree required to maintain an acceptable level of quality for the desired period .

Purpose of seed storage

Seed storage is the maintenance of high seed germination and vigour form harvest
until planting. Is important to get adequate plant stands in addition to healthy and
vigourous plants. Every seed operation has or should have a purpose. The purpose
of seed storage is to maintain the seed in good physical and physiological condition
from the time they are harvested until the time they are planted. Seeds have to be
stored, of course, because there is usually a period of time between harvest and
planting. During this period, the seed have to be kept somewhere. While the time
interval between harvest and planting is the basic reason for storing seed, there are
other considerations, especially in the case of extended storage of seed.

 Types of storage

1. Storage at ambient temperature and humidity

Seeds can be stored in piles, single layers, sacks or open containers, under shelter
against rain, well ventilated and protected from rodents and store at least for several
months.

2. Dry storage with control of moisture content but not temperature

Orthodox seeds will retain viability longer, when dried to low moisture content (48%)
and then stored in a sealed container or in a room in which humidity is controlled,
than when stored in equilibrium with ambient air humidity. Cool condition is
especially favourable.
30

3. Dry storage with control of both moisture content and temperature

This is recommended for many orthodox species which have periodicity of seeding
but which are planted annually in large scale afforestation projects. A combination of
4-8% moisture content and 0 to 5° temperature will maintain viability for 5 years or
more.

4. Dry storage for long-term gene conservation

Long-term conservation of gene resources of orthodox agricultural seeds is -18°C

temperature and 5±11% moisture content

5. Moist storage without control of moisture content of temperature

Suitable for storage of recalcitrant seeds, for a few months over winter. Seeds may
be stored in heaps on the ground, in shallow pits, in well drained soils or in layers in
well ventilated sheds, often covered or mixed with leaves, moist sand, peat or other
porous materials. The aim is to maintain moist and cool conditions, with good
aeration to avoid overheating which may result from the relatively high rates of
respiration associated with moist storage. This may be accomplished by regular
turning of the heaps.

6. Moist cold storage, with control of temperature

This method implies controlled low temperature just above freezing or less
commonly, just below freezing. Moisture can be controlled within approximate limits
by adding moist media e.g., sand, peat or a mixture of both to the seed, in
proportions of one part media to 1 part seed by volume, and re-moistening
periodically or more accurately by controlling the relative humidity of the store. This
method is much applicable to temperate recalcitrant genera.

7. Cryopreservation

It is also called as cryogenic storage. Seeds are placed in liquid nitrogen at -196°C.
Seeds are actually placed into the gaseous phase of the liquid nitrogen -150°C for
easy handling and safety. Metabolic reactions come to a virtual standstill at the
temperature of liquid nitrogen and the cells will remain in an unaltered state until the
tissues are removed from the liquid nitrogen and defrosted. Therefore, little
detrimental physiological activity takes place at these temperatures, which prolongs
the storage life of seeds. It is not practical for commercial seed storage, but is useful
to store the valuable germplasm.

 Maintenance of viability in storage

 Store well mature seeds

 Store normal coloured seeds
 Seeds should be free from mechanical injury
31

 Seeds should be free from storage fungi or micro organisms 5. Seeds should
not have met with adverse conditions during maturation. Storage godown
should be fumigated to control storage insects, periodically
 Storage environment or godown should be dry and cool.
 Seeds should be dried to optimum moisture content
 Required R.H. and temperature should be maintained during storage.
 Seeds should be treated with fungicides before storage
 Suitable packaging materials should be used for packing.

 Factors influencing seed storage

1. Biotic
2. Abiotic

1.Biotic factors

a. Factors related to seed

 Genetic make up of seed

 Initial seed quality
 Provenance
 Seed Moisture content

b. Other biotics

 Insects
 Fungi
 Rodents
 Mishandling during sampling, testing

2. Abiotic factors

 Temperature
 Relative humidity
 Seed store sanitation
 Gaseous atmosphere
 Packaging material

An ideal storage facility should satisfy the following

requirements

1. It should provide maximum possible protection from ground moisture, rain, insect
32

pests, moulds, rodents, birds, fore, etc.,

2. It should provide the necessary facility for inspection, disinfection, loading,
unloading,cleaning and reconditioning.
3. It should protect grain from excessive moisture and temperature favourable to
both insect and mould development,
4. It should be economical and suitable for a particular situation.

Types of storage

Seeds can be stored in bulk or in bags

(a) Bulk (open) storage

It is preferred over bag storage for the following

reasons

 Large quantities of food grain can be stored

 No difficulty in loading and unloading of grain
 No need to purchase storage containers like
gunnies
 Insect incidence is less than bag storage, even
this can be eliminated by fumigation in situ
 Avoids waste from leaking bags
 Easy inspections- saves labour and time.

(B) Bag Storage

 Commodities are mostly stored in gunnies. Storage in bags requires

considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent
structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage of being
short-term storage.
 Bag storage can be done under a roof alvanized iron sheets, a plastic
covering where grain is intended for very early onward movement. Bags can
be easily handled for marketing purpose.
 There is no sweating of bags as they are arranged in racks with proper
interbag space, but, initial cost is high and they can easily pickup infestation
and retain even after treatment.

Storage structures used by the farmers

 Gunny bags-
33

 Gunny bags of different capacities (35, 50, 75 and 100 kg) with or without
inside plastic lining
 Mostly used for short term storage
 Generally farmers prefer gunny bags for storage of farm cary over seeds.

 Mud and earthen structures-

 Clay, straw and cow dung- 3:3:1. Earthen structures are made, sun dried and
then burnt in fire. Used for storage of Paddy, wheat, sorghum,oil seeds and
pulses.
 Life 8- 10 years. During rainy season develop cracks and moisture absorption
followed by insect and mould infestation.
 Capacity is 5 to 10 q.

 Bamboo structures
34

 Split bamboo woven in the form of a cylinder with wide base and narrow
mouth
 Used for the seeds of Paddy, wheat and sorghum
 Life 4-5 years. Weight loss due to insect attack is 5 % in paddy and 15 % in
sorghum.
 Capacity is 500 Kg

 Wooden structures

 Local wood is painted black. At the top, 30 cm x 20 cm in let and at the bottom
30 cm x15cm outlet is provided
 Life15- 20 years. Neither airtight nor moisture proof.
 Used for stoage of paddy seeds with the capacity of 10 q

Storage godown and their maintenance

Seeds undergo deterioration due to aging in storage. This is accelerated by climatic

factors and external biotic factors like insects and pathogen. In addition to seed
borne pathogen and storage insects, seeds are damaged by birds and rats for their
feed. Clean and hygienic godowns protect the seed from external insects and
35

preserve the seed. Hence care should be taken in construction of godown. The
points to be noted are as follows.

 Seed godown should be in a place where transport facilities are easily

available.
 Seed godowns should not be constructed in areas near seashore. Since the
high RH of atmospheric air accelerate the deterioration of seed.
 Seed godown should not be constructed in low lying water stagnating areas.
 Seed godown should be constructed in places where atmospheric RH is low,
free circulation of air is possible, sunlight is adequate and elevated in nature.
 The ventilators should be at bottom for free air circulation.
 Ground moisture should not reach the floor.
 Should be rat proof with wire mesh
 Should not be near industries as smoke is injurious.

What is meant by seed packaging?

36

This is the placing of a counted or weighed sample of seeds of an accession into a

container which is then hermetically sealed ready for storage.

Why are seeds packaged?

Seeds are packaged to prevent absorption of water from the atmosphere after
drying, to keep each accession separate and prevent contamination of the seeds
from insects and diseases.

When should seeds be packaged?

The best time to package seeds is directly after the moisture content has been
determined and found to be within the required limits for safe storage. Seeds will
always show an equilibrium between their moisture content and the relative humidity
of the environment and therefore, if possible, seeds should be packaged into
containers and hermetically sealed in the drying room or without delay on being
removed from it.

How should seeds be packaged?

Different containers and special equipment for sealing are available for the storage
of seeds. Storage containers for base collections should be hermetically sealed and
moisture-proof. Cans, bottles, and laminated aluminium foil containers are all
acceptable for both base and active collections. The techniques used will vary with
the type of container and the equipment that your genebank is using. The general
steps outlined in this section could be followed.

Moveable racks make the best use of available space and are ideal to store
containers in walk-in stores. Small containers or aluminium foil packets can be filed
in boxes for ease of locating individual accessions. Coding systems by number or
colour are also helpful in exactly locating accessions.

Chest freezers are adequate for the maintenance of small collections. Filing systems
have been developed to hold the containers in freezers and allow easy location of
material. Some examples of filing systems are shown here.
37

STEP 1. PREPARE FOR PACKAGING

1. Work in the drying room or, if not possible, expose the seeds to the ambient
relative humidity for the shortest possible time.

2. Write on the outside of each container or on an adhesive waterproof label. Also

prepare a label for inclusion with the seeds. Record the accession number, date of
storage, genus and species if required. Use permanent markers for this.

Notes and Examples

Adhesive labels can be used for the outside of containers, but they must be
waterproof and remain adhesive for long periods at low temperatures.
Equipment
Labels
Permanent markers
Laminated aluminium foil containers, cans or bottles
Machines for sealing
Coarse balance
Scoop/spoons

STEP 2. PACKAGE THE SEEDS

1. Weigh out or count samples of seeds to fit the containers used in your genebank.

2. Fill the labelled containers with the seeds. Add the label prepared for the inside.

3. Seal immediately, so that the moisture content of the seeds does not increase due
to equilibration with ambient relative humidity.

4. Note the weight or number of seeds in each container.

Notes and Examples

38

It is important that the containers used should be moisture-proof and sealed. The
exact sealing technique will depend on the type of containers and sealing methods
that are available.

Laminated aluminium foil bags are easy to package, can be cut to size to save space
and can be sealed again after use. However, they are difficult to stack and must be
made of good quality material and have good seals or leakage may occur.

Cans are rigid and easy to stack and usually will not break open if dropped.
However, some types of cans are not resealable and therefore are expensive to use.
A standard size can with only a few seeds inside wastes space in the store.

Glass bottles can usually be sealed again and the amount of seed left is visible.
However, a standard size will waste space and bottles are easily broken.

Seeds can be packaged in bulk into large containers and/or sub-samples can be
packaged separately into smaller containers. Although the initial packaging period is
longer, sub-samples can then be removed quickly without having to remove the bulk
of the accession from the store.

STEP 3. ENTER THE DATA INTO THE DATA FILES

1. Enter the relevant data about each accession into the data file.

2. The data should include number of containers per accession, number or weight of
seeds per container, type of container (if not standard) and the date of packaging.

STEP 4. CHECK THE QUALITY OF THE CONTAINERS

1. After sealing, make a visual examination of each container to make sure that there
is no obvious damage and that the seals do not leak.

2. Any containers that are below standard should be replaced immediately.

3. At regular intervals the containers should be checked to see that they remain in
good condition. It is suggested that this check should be carried out routinely once a
year and that individual containers should also be checked whenever they are
removed from the genebank.
39

4. If containers are found to have been leaking and the relative humidity of the store
was not controlled, determine the seed moisture content by using one of the
methods described in Section III.

5. If the moisture content has risen, dry the seeds back to the required moisture
content level as described in Section IV.

6. Enter the value of the new moisture content into the data files. Make a note that
the seeds in that container have been held at increased moisture content for a
limited period and dried again.

7. Check the inventory data file for the descriptor 'date of packaging' and make a list
of any other accessions which were packaged in similar containers on the same day
or one day before or after.

8. Check the containers on this list for leaks and poor condition and replace any that
are faulty using the methods described above.

9. Remember that any containers removed from the cold store should be allowed to
warm to room temperature before opening. This may take several hours especially
with large volumes of seeds.

Notes and Examples

If any defective containers are found, it may indicate that containers made or sealed
at the same time are also faulty or it may just be one faulty container or seal.
Checking those packaged at the same time will show if the problem is widespread.

For subsequent identification, each package of seed, or each aggregation of

packages representing a given seed collection, should be labelled. The information
recorded for the collection of Prosopis fruit from which the seed was extracted should
be repeated(see p.15), plus the following:

Quantity: Number of seeds (estimated)

Extraction: Date

Technique of extraction

Fumigation: Date (if undertaken)

Method of fumigation, including chemicals

Drying: Date
40

Method

Moisture content

Quality: Purity percentage

Number of seeds per unit weight (estimated)

Germination test

Equipment Used for Packaging of Seeds:

1.The Bagger Weigher:

These are small machines which, when properly mounted beneath a bin,
will fill and weight a bag accurately in a single operation. Operational
steps include:

a) The empty bag is suspended on the bagger weigher by a bag clamp.

b) Seed flow into the bag is begun, usually by a trip lever.

c) As seed flows into the suspended bag, a scale –type counter –balance
mechanism is actuated, so that when the proper weight of seed is in the
bag, the seed flow lever is tripped and seed flow is automatically stopped.

d) The bag now filled with the exact weight of seed is removed from the
bagger weigher and is closed.

Bagger weigher and bagging scales, used in seed packaging may be

manual, semi- automatic or automatic.

2.Manual Weighing:

This type of scale, usually a portable plant form is considered inefficient

for volume weighing operations because of high labour requirements and
relatively low capacity, in terms of bags filled per minute. With this scale,
bags are filled to approximate weight, placed on the scale and then ‘even
weighed with a hand scoop. These scales are useful in following
conditions.

a) Weighing bags of non-free flowing seeds.

b) A bagging bin is not available.
c) Labour costs are minimal.

3.Semi-automatic:
41

This is the most widely used scale. The scale is attached to the bottom of
a bagging bin, and the bag is clamped to the bottom of the scale. The
feed gate is opened manually and may be closed either manually or
automatically when the proper weight is attained. The scales have a
capacity to weight four to eight bags of 50 kg per minute, depending
upon the seed being packaged and the skill of the operators.

4.Automatic scales:

Scales of this type are used primarily for small packages, E .g vegetable
and lawn seeds. In these machines the entire weighing and filling process
is done automatically. Installation is similar to the semi-automatic bagger.
Some completely automated systems pick up the empty bag, place if on a
bagger, fill the bag and release the filled bag which then moves by
conveyer to a bag closer.

Several types of conveyors are available for moving unpacked or packed seed into,
through or away from processing plant in vertical, horizontal or inclined directions.
Different types of conveyors are used in processing plants, e.g., bucket elevators,
belt conveyors, vibrating conveyors, pneumatic conveyors, screw conveyors, chain
conveyors and lift trucks. Selection of the proper type of conveyors, for each
operation receiving seed in the plant, moving seed from dryers, shellers and from
one processing machine to another and finally moving packaged seed into storage,
has an important bearing on the efficiency of processing operations. Conveyors
should be selected on the basis of the kinds of seeds handled, direction and length
of conveying, capacity of equipment from which or to which seeds are conveyed and
should be properly cleaned.
42