Original Article

E-Learning and Digital Media

1–22
English language learning ! The Author(s) 2020
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DOI: 10.1177/2042753020964589
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Zunera Malik
National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences (NUCES),
Islamabad, Pakistan

Sham Haidar
Department of English, Air University E-9, Islamabad, Pakistan

Abstract
The recent years have observed a notable rise in online activities and interactions. One of the
popular online interaction zones are fandom communities comprising fans of any artist, band, TV
show, movie, book, and so on. These fans come together on various platforms to enthuse about
their favorites with people who share their admiration and interests. One such platform is Twitter
and the fandom community is Stan Twitter. Within those fandoms, K-Pop fandom stands out
because of the density of English as a second or foreign language speakers in this community.
Taking this community as its sample, this study explores the ways in which the non-native
English speaking fandom members use English to communicate on this platform. Moreover, the
study focuses on the interpretation and usage of meme discourse by these non-native English
speaking members. The findings reveal that the fandom members learn memetic discourse by
internalizing it in the form of schemas, which means that they learn the whole chunk of interaction
rather than learning individual words. The study has also explored overall language-learning within
this community, and has discussed the implications of fandom activities as potential learning aids.

Keywords
English language learning, social media, informal learning, E-learning, Twitter Fandom Communities,
technology and education

Introduction
The virtual world has made it possible for people to communicate across linguistic barriers,
geographical boundaries, and physical distances (Tuttle, 2016). People, especially youth,

Corresponding author:
Zunera Malik, Department of Sciences and Humanities, National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences
(NUCES), Islamabad, Pakistan.
Email: Zunera.malik@outlook.com
2 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

interact online (Xu et al., 2018). Languages used for communication in this space have
specific patterns, linguistic structures, and rules (Ekundayo, 2014; Thurairaj et al., 2015;
Tuttle, 2016) that are vastly different from those found in the standard English language
(Drouin and Driver, 2014; Grace et al., 2015). Usually, the use of an online variety of
English has a negative impact on a user’s language proficiency (Tayebinik and Puteh,
2012). However, there is evidence supporting some positive impact of the language used
in online communities on a user’s language skills (Chen and Kent, 2020; Ekundayo, 2014).
The negative effect is spelling deficiency and the positive effects are an improvement in
creative skills and expression in writing (Grace et al., 2015).
The language used online is a relatively new area of research exploration from a language
learning perspective (Abrahim et al., 2018; Godwin-Jones, 2018; Holmberg, 2019).
However, we would argue that relevant investigation has been carried out for exploring
sign language and other types of communication, such as analyzing online language like
slang and exploring ways of normalizing and annotating it (Teodorescu and Saharia, 2015),
analyzing sentiment behind the language used online – both textual and visual (Kumar
et al., 2020; Miltner, 2014), or analyzing hidden meanings and messages conveyed through
posts users make on platforms such as Twitter and Facebook (Graham et al., 2013). Of these
research areas, the last two are focused on the meaning behind the online language and not
the language itself (Graham et al., 2013; Miltner, 2014). The first area – normalization and
annotation of internet slang – does focus on the language itself (Teodorescu and Saharia,
2015), but by calling it ‘slang’, the negative connotations associated with the term itself carry
on to the content. Other types of online communication, such as the use of emoticons and
emojis (Daniel and Camp, 2020; Pavalanathan and Eisenstein, 2016), have also been
explored. However, the language itself remains relatively overlooked.
One popular online domain is fandom activity, where people gather to enthuse about
their favorite celebrity figure, idol, musician, model, and TV show (de Kloet and van
Zoonen, 2007; Kang et al., 2019). Cambridge Dictionary defines fandom as a group of
people who are “fans of someone or something” and are very passionate about the subject
or object of their fandom (Fandom, 2019). Fandom practices have also been associated with
negative connotations, such as hysteria, obsession, and addiction (de Kloet and van Zoonen,
2007), thereby leading to a negative perception of some online activities (Livingstone and
Helsper, 2008).
The impact some informal online platforms may have on a user’s language proficiency,
particularly when the user is a non-native speaker of the English language, is relatively
underexplored. These informal platforms have the potential to be language learning sites
(Lyrigkou, 2018). As mentioned, the existing scholarship has focused on the linguistic
characteristics of internet language and the semantic dimension of online discourse, but
the impact of this language on a non-native English user’s English language proficiency
has remained under-explored. Studies on an internet user’s language skills have looked at
sites for fandom of creative productions, such as fanfiction, artwork production websites
(Magnifico et al., 2015), or virtual reality gaming forums (Gee, 2005). One development in
this field has been the investigation of fansubbing1 (Lakarnchua, 2015), but the study is
limited to the question of whether fansubbing helps in language learning and does not
explore the learning processes therein. Since English is the most common spoken language
in the world (Blommaert, 2013, Haidar, 2019a), the language used to interact with other
fandom members is mostly English (Aisyah, 2017). Therefore, this platform, of which most
Malik and Haidar 3

users are non-native English speakers, is an apt site to explore the learning of English as a
second or foreign language through fandom interaction.
The rest of the paper elaborates on social media and K-Pop, after which follows
a description of memetic discourse, the theoretical framework, and methodology.
This study uses the theory of schematic learning (Rumelhart, 1980) to analyze the inter-
actions within the selected sample of the K-Pop Stan Twitter community. While exploring
language learning processes within the K-Pop Stan Twitter community, this study argues
that the peripheral language learning process is a form of schematic learning through which
the Stan Twitter members internalize the structure and functions of memetic discourse and
learn how to interpret and use it. Finally, in the discussion section, the study proposes that
the internalization of this discourse enables the learners to improve their English language
proficiency, as it opens for them the doors to the understanding, exploration, interpretation,
and usage of figurative discourse.

Social media and K-Pop

More than four billion people in the world use the internet, including 3.196 billion who use
social media (Appel et al., 2020; Kemp, 2018). Technology is at the fingertips of the new
generation (Bennett et al., 2008; Montiel et al., 2020). They actively and readily produce,
share, search, and consume online content (Bolton et al., 2013). They possess “Social Media
Competence” (Xu et al., 2018: 4), which is the ability to interact with social media appro-
priately. The internet has become a hub for creative activity based on both original pro-
duction and existing characters, movies, serials, artists, and so on, allowing for different
ways of creative expression (Ståhl and Kaihovirta, 2019). One popular mode of online
activity is fandom practice, a domain mostly permeated by youngsters (as evidenced by
the polls in Figure 1). Although the term ‘fan’ has often been associated with negative
connotations like hysteria, obsession, and addiction (de Kloet and van Zoonen, 2007),
recent research has found positive aspects of fandom activities (Hills, 2015; Taalas and
Hirsj€arvi, 2013). It has been noted that fandom spaces allow for a variety of creative
practices, with several positive impacts on the users (Taalas and Hirsj€arvi, 2013).
Moreover, a fandom functions like a social community (Jenkins, 2014), wherein members
actively engage in communication with each other (Carter, 2018) and develop interpersonal
relationships.
Fandom activities, when consolidated on and around the famous online platform
Twitter, form a community termed “Stan Twitter”. Stan Twitter is defined as a community
of passionate fans on Twitter (Bellos, 2018), a judgment free zone where people can gather
and talk about their favorite shows, music, and books (Tony, 2017), and a place where
various users from all over the world gather to hype their favorite celebrities (Krishna,
2018). Within K-Pop fandom, there are different factions of fans based on the idol or
groups followed. For instance, the fans of the boygroup Monsta X are called Monbebe, a
title given to them by the official artists.
The K-Pop phenomenon has recently experienced a massive growth, expanding to engage
a broad audience, including the US, UK, Turkey, Egypt, Asia, and Southeast Asia (Choi
et al., 2014). Consequently, K-Pop fandom includes members belonging to diverse countries
and continents. In fact, K-Pop fandom has been a major contributor to Twitter’s growing
popularity as a social media platform (Park, 2019). This fandom has also seen a rapid
growth in research, such as investigating K-Pop’s growing popularity (Choi et al., 2014),
4 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

Figure 1. Answered polls on Stan Twitter members’ ages.

exploring K-Pop as a cultural phenomenon (Meza and Park, 2015), hashtagging in the
K-Pop community (Kim et al., 2014), and exploring how K-Pop has gained a global audi-
ence and has led to cultural diffusion and popularization of Korean culture in the global
market (Xu et al., 2017). Owing to its rise in popularity, the topic of K-Pop and K-Pop
fandom, has become an area of interest for current researchers. K-Pop fandom, when based
on Twitter, is called the K-Pop Stan Twitter community, as previously mentioned.
This community makes use of memes for communicative and expressive purposes, which
is a major aspect of this study.

Memetic discourse
Memes (i.e. internet memes) are figurative expressions that can be presented in the form of a
text, image, video, or a combination of all three. Language memes can be replicated and
transmitted in two ways: the same content being transmitted through different patterns or a
set pattern being filled in with different content (He, 2008). These two ways are also termed
“mimicry” and “remixing”, respectively (Shifman, 2013: 365). In these ways, memes con-
tribute towards language development since they are replicated and transmitted through
language (He, 2008). Memetic discourse can be formulaic sequences processed by the brain
Malik and Haidar 5

as a whole rather than as individual words (Sun, 2016). Formulaic sequences are strings of
lexical items that have long-time existence, community-wide use, and no specific rules that
govern their making or interpretation (Nattinger and DeCarrio, 1992). These sequences are
internalized as a whole rather than as individual words (Sun, 2016). In Stan Twitter, people
with limited knowledge of the English language encounter memetic discourse. This input of
memetic discourse (discourse that is figurative in nature and cannot be understood by
understanding literal meanings of individual words) can be termed as ‘comprehensible
input’ (Krashen, 1981), where input is one level above the learner’s current level. When
faced with this input, the non-native English language speakers are forced to both under-
stand and use this discourse themselves. Inevitably, this process involves some level of
language learning and comprehension on their part. This study explores these language
learning practices of the participants of the community under consideration.

Schematic learning and memetic discourse

The phenomenon of a non-native English speaker with limited proficiency being able to
understand memetic discourse in English is explored in this study. The learning process is
unconscious and unintentional, as most members join the community due to their shared
interest and not primarily for the purpose of learning English. This study argues that
members understand the content through schematic learning. In schematic learning, the
learner unconsciously internalizes patterns and organizational structures of conversations
upon repeated encounters (Rumelhart, 1980). A schema is defined as a structure or pattern
in the learner’s mind that aids in making predictions based on a general structure of a body
of information (Rumelhart, 1980; Zhang, 2010). Information is theorized to be stored in the
form of units or patterns and, based on these internalized patterns, one can predict future
information units in a particular context (Bartlett, 1932; Rumelhart, 1980). Repetition is a
key factor, as repeated encounters with certain patterns and sequences are internalized faster
(Zhang, 2010). New information, upon entering the learner’s system, interact and modify
schematic patterns and, at times, form new schematic structures in the mind (Rumelhart,
1980; Zhang, 2010).
The idea of schema theory has been found to be effective for reading comprehension
(David et al., 2015; Li, 2006; Zhang, 2010) and listening comprehension (Gilakjani and
Ahmadi, 2011). Being a psychological theory by origin, it has been applied to the study
of behavioral patterns as well (Carmon et al., 2010). These studies see schematic patterns in
the offline world, and are mostly guided or indicated by visual cues, such as visual cues to
guide listening and reading, and gestures and postures in the study of behavioral patterns.
Self-instruction is a form of schematic learning in which learners control and design the
conditions to facilitate their own learning (Martin, 1984). Self-instruction in fact works
through the creation and modification of schematic patterns (Martin, 1984).
As discussed, social media platforms use memetic discourse or meme content frequently,
and an encounter with this discourse in the online world is inevitable and unavoidable
(Shifman, 2013). An example of this is shown in Figure 2, wherein the content of the
tweet is largely memetic discourse, and its intended meaning cannot be understood through
the literal meaning. Parts (a) and (b) are from Monsta X Stan Twitter – the K-Pop Stan
Twitter community dedicated to the boygroup named Monsta X, whereas (c) is an example
from a general Stan Twitter account. As evident, the meaning intended is not literal –
Monsta X member Wonho did not save the ‘fish turtles and the oceaan’, Kihyun did not
6 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

Figure 2. Memetic Discourse on Monsta X Stan Twitter.

eat CDs and is not a CD, and a K-Pop song was definitely not the national anthem of the
tweeter’s country (or any country in general). Rather, the tweets mean to convey the depth
of the admiration and passion the fans carry in their hearts for their idols.
Stan Twitter and the different fandom factions within Stan Twitter attract people with
the promise of an interactive and lively gathering (Highfield et al., 2013). In addition, one of
the most sought-after communities by a fan is a place where they can talk freely about their
likes and dislikes to others having similar interests (de Kloet and van Zoonen, 2007). They
will, therefore, find it unavoidable that they start learning to communicate using the meme
discourse, predominantly used on social media platforms (Shifman, 2013). Since there is no
formal way of learning memetic discourse, their learning will consist mainly of self-
instruction. In this study, we measure the participants’ learning by looking at their contri-
bution to the discussions and through their perception as they answer questions related to
their language learning experiences during the interviews.

Methodology
Human knowledge is socially constructed through life experiences (Crotty, 2003; Guba and
Lincoln, 2000). The study is guided by the interpretivist paradigm and its belief in a socially
constructed reality (Check and Schutt, 2012). The study explores research participants’
experiences within the fandom community using qualitative methods. Qualitative research
allows the researcher to collect in-depth data in a natural setting, focusing on the partic-
ipants’ perspectives (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Marshall and Rossman, 2011). Since the
learning processes happening in the community were mostly covert – the real reason for
the gathering of the people being their shared admiration for the idols they follow – direct
Malik and Haidar 7

Table 1. Particulars of the research participants.

Duration as a
Participant stan twitter Native Follower Following
pseudonym Age member Nationality language count count

Rou 20 1.5 years Spain Spanish 254 80

Dali 21 1 year Syria Arabic 1670 357
Hanna 27 2 years Spain Spanish 705 1629
Chang 21 1 year Philippines Filipino 363 1165
Ayako 16 1 year Italy Italian 4951 909
Sunny 35 2 years Serbia Serbian 733 604
Vik 18 4 years England Urdu 1270 854
E 17 1 year Singapore Bahasa Melayu 910 127
Sammy 20 4 years Philippines Filipino 229 1135
Skye 23 2 years Serbia Serbian 309 613

observation of the learning process was difficult. As such, the only way to understand the
community was through participation in the community. Therefore, the qualitative method
was chosen for the study, as it allowed us to take into consideration the descriptive answers
given by the research participants.

Study participants
The community chosen as the population for the study was the K-Pop Stan Twitter com-
munity, the boygroup Monsta X. This group was chosen due to its recent rise in interna-
tional acclaim since they are slowly building up their international fanbase (Deen, 2018;
Herman, 2018; Hodoyan-Gastelum, 2018; Park, 2019). The sample was collected through
convenience sampling by selecting those participants whom the author was already in con-
tact with, as a member of K-Pop Stan Twitter herself. The researcher first shortlisted active
Stan Twitter members by browsing through the replies under the ten most recent tweets
posted by the official Monsta X account. The thirty shortlisted users were then asked to fill
out a Google form, on which they had to provide some basic demographic details such as
their name or a pseudonym, age, nationality, and native language. Moreover, they were
made aware of the study and asked for their participation through a written online inter-
view. Although all thirty users were eligible, some of them showed hesitance in sharing their
experiences and letting their twitter feed be used in the research, while some had time
constraints due to work and other responsibilities. The study, thus, had ten willing research
participants. Each of these participants opted to use a pseudonym for their representation
in this study, and the details of their demographic data along with their chosen names are
given in Table 1.

Data collection
The research tools employed in this study were participant observations and interviews.
Participant observers are also a part of the community, which helps the researcher become
aware of some of the key issues or trends within the community (Rubin and Rubin, 2012). It
thus sensitizes the researcher towards the contents of the responses they will receive in the
interview. The researcher usually plays a very low-key role to reduce the possibility of the
8 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

data being affected by his/her presence (Rubin and Rubin, 2012). The first author was the
participant observer for five months (i.e. August 2018–December 2018). Although she was a
member of the fandom community for quite some time, the data for the study were collected
during that time. In the first stage of sample collection, the thirty active users were contacted
and informed of the participant observer’s identity as the researcher. The first author
observed the discussion in the group, focusing on the production and interpretation of
the memes by members in the comments. She recorded the activities in the field notes.
The participant observer took notes on all the activity happening in the group and wrote
daily field notes to record the activity (Nespor, 2006). She also noted down the group
dynamics and relationships among the group members. These notes allowed us to keep
track of events that happened during the data collection process.
Interviews are ideal research tools for researchers interested in other people’s stories,
(Siedman, 2006) and thus, serve as a useful tool for this study. We used a semi-structured
interview that contained limited pre-planned questions. The researcher made follow-up
questions based on the responses she received from the interviewees (Rubin and Rubin,
2012). The respondents had a limited grasp of the English language and there was the
possibility that there would be need for further clarifications and additional questions.
Semi-structured interviews allowed a margin for the modification of questions during the
interview. The interviews were conducted online, as the users lived faraway, making physical
interviews impossible. The time span of an interview was about two to three (i.e. 2–3) hours,
due to the asynchronous nature of online communication. The interviewees were given a
choice to either complete the interview in one session or to break it into two or three
sessions. Except one participant, all other participants were interviewed in one session.

Data analysis
The data were manually coded, which allowed the researcher to make sense of large
amounts of raw data (Basit, 2003), and to identify patterns within the data (Charmaz,
2014). A code is most often a word or a phrase used to label a portion of the qualitative
data (Salda~ na, 2013), generated based on the activity happening within that particular
portion of the data. We used a descriptive coding technique, wherein a data strand is
labelled based on the content in that strand (Salda~ na, 2013). In other words, data is
coded (can be at word, clause, phrase, sentence, or line level) on the basis of the content
within the particular strand separated (e.g. if data strands are separated at sentence level, as
was done in the current study, one sentence of the data would make one data strand). This
resulted in the generation of a list of primary codes, which were then refined and revised to
increase accuracy (Figure 3). Then, the most frequently occurring codes were shortlisted
(Charmaz, 2014), and similar codes were grouped under one category (Figure 4). The var-
ious emergent categories were then studied to identify thematic relationships between them
(Figure 5), and the resultant themes are presented.

Results
Language learning
The Stan Twitter community is directed towards the expression of love and admiration
towards the members’ favorite idols. This community unites people from all over the
Malik and Haidar 9

Searching for
Joining stan
meanings on
twitter because of
Google/Urban
Dictionary shared interests

Online language
learning Shared interests

Figure 3. Revision of primary codes in secondary coding stage.

Interactive Learning

Asking for mistakes and

corrections
Natural interaction with
native speakers

Asking for meaning

Practicing English
interaction

Figure 4. Grouping of similar codes under one category.

Language Learning

Forced practice in target

language
Google, Urban Dictionary, etc.

Online learning
Interactive Learning
Contextual learning

Figure 5. Similar categories grouped under one theme.

world, who are drawn to each other due to their shared interest. It has been observed that
the members learn to communicate using the English language, even though English is not
the native language for the majority of the fandom members (Fieldnotes). Additionally, they
learn to communicate using the popular online language of meme discourse. This learning is
largely a by-product of the community activities, as the community’s existence is not
10 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

directed towards that particular learning process. Therefore, the increase in knowledge and
skills is a by-product of their engagement within the community.

Learning through Stan Twitter

Stan Twitter communication is mostly carried out in English, where they use it as a lingua
franca (ELF). The respondents of the study responded positively to the question of Stan
Twitter as a language learning platform. Sammy stressed on the role of Stan Twitter as a
place where she can practice her English language skills in a natural setting without fear of
judgment. “In real life, people judge you for your grammar mistakes”, says Sammy. “It’s
sad, really, because you become too scared to even try [speaking English]” (Interview, 19/01/
2019). Stan Twitter allows her to keep track of her favorites and interact with people with-
out fearing judgment on her grammatical mistakes. Vik shares a different perspective on the
role of Stan Twitter in helping people learn English. In order to interact with other members
of the community, you “have no choice but to speak in English” (Interview, 18/01/2019).
The Output hypothesis (Swain, 1985) postulates that language learners need to be forced to
use the target language to improve their language skills (Swain, 1985). This hypothesis
considers produced language as a learning process (Izumi, 2002; Swain, 1985). The situation
described by Vik is a virtual manifestation of the output hypothesis, where non-native
speakers slowly improve their linguistic abilities through the use of English.
Of course, as briefly visited in the preceding discussion, the online communication defies
the rules of English and is a language of its own. As such, there is danger of negative impact
on the users’ language proficiency. The area of negative effects of online language on the
user has been investigated in various studies (Averianova, 2012; Nobata et al., 2016).
In addition, the presence, impact, and implications of offensive language on social media
have also been explored (Chen et al., 2012; Nobata et al., 2016; Pitsilis et al., Ramampiaro
and Langseth, 2018). The current study explores the Stan Twitter space as a possible learn-
ing platform. Through this interaction, the outcome will indeed have both a positive and a
negative impact on the language ability of the members.
An additional point to be noted here is that using English is required for all community
activities (Fieldnotes). The kind of activities the fandom members engage in are birthday
events for each Monsta X member, hashtag trends2 for big and/or small accomplishments
(trending a certain phrase on Twitter by using it in maximum number of tweets), streaming
events (increasing the number of views and/or listens on platforms like YouTube and the
Korean album streaming platform Melon), and various others activities (Vik, Sunny, Dali,
Chang, Interviews; Fieldnotes). These events accomplish the community’s goal to support
Monsta X and promote them, so that they can get more recognition. These events and
activities create stronger ties between community members as well (Chang, Interview).
These bonds lead to more frequent interaction between users, which, in turn, leads to an
improvement in language skills as they communicate in English.

Learning through interaction

Another common string noticed in the interviews is the concept of learning through inter-
action. Respondents such as Dali, Rou, Hanna, and Chang emphasized interaction useful
for learning new vocabulary, new expressions, and new meanings on Stan Twitter. Dali and
Rou especially stressed the role of “ask[ing] someone about the meaning” (Rou, Interview,
Malik and Haidar 11

26/10/2018), when confused about what a “word means or when an expression is

unfamiliar” (Dali, Interview, 13/12/2018). Chang, herself, expressed reluctance to ask,
preferring to wait “until someone else ask about the meaning”, but if no one does, “I ask
[the tweet poster] myself” (Interview, 05/01/2019). She is shy about replying to other
people’s tweets.
The atmosphere of the community is generally very inviting and friendly, and if a member
asks for elaboration, clarification, or any other kind of help, the member will not be ignored
and someone will definitely answer (Fieldnotes, 10/01/2019). Of course, any point of colli-
sion between different people is bound to happen and create conflict, and the same is true
for the Stan Twitter (Figure 6). However, “There are more nice people than [there are] bad
people here” (Sammy, Interview, 19/01/2019), and this is something all the participants
highlighted when asked about possible conflicts or negative interactions with the community
members. Moreover, this factor was also observed during observations (Figure 7), wherein

Figure 6. Examples of negative interactions on Stan Twitter.

12 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

Figure 7. Positive interactions on Stan Twitter.

several members banded together to make a Stan Twitter feel better after a negative inter-
action (7a). Members also stated that despite the ‘drama’ on this platform, the positives
outweigh the negatives (7 b).
The platform of Stan Twitter becomes a sort of learning space where people come across
unfamiliar use of words, expressions, and phrases. “The one who posts such words/expres-
sions is always kind enough to reply” (Chang, Interview, 05/01/2019), “but in the few rare
instances they don’t, someone else who has seen people asking for meaning takes the time to
answer” (Dali, Interview, 13/12/2019). Therefore, Stan Twitter provides natural English inter-
action for non-native speakers of the English language, providing them opportunities to learn
and improve their language while they follow and stay updated on their favorite artists.
This interaction is also a requirement for the fandom events. To execute these events
successfully, effective communication and collaboration across the fandom is required
Malik and Haidar 13

(Sunny, Interview). This is because on social media platforms, one’s value is measured not
on the basis of their social, political or economic status in the physical world, but by their
contribution (Levina and Arriaga, 2014; Malik and Haidar, 2020). Users are required to
tailor their contributions according to an imagined audience (Ståhl and Kaihovirta, 2019)
and share content that they feel would be accepted and appreciated within the circle.
The implication is that Stan Twitter members would be known for the content and the
way they contribute towards the goal of the community. Consequently, the content must be
in a language that can be understood by the majority of fandom members. Hence, the use of
English becomes inevitable.

Schematic learning
As has been discussed, the members learn from interaction when asking others about the
meanings and communicating with proficient speakers. However, these techniques remain
secondary, since only active members can learn through these techniques. Everyone is not
confident or outspoken enough to ask about things or to start and/or maintain conversa-
tions, yet they learn new things from Stan Twitter (Hanna, Rou, Interview) as evident:

They [Stan Twitter] come up with new words every day. . . [I get] surprised that they do react to
something with this WORD. Like if I know what it means but never thought of using it there. . .
although I’m getting used to it now. . . It gives a positive effect for learning English in general
because you’ll eventually have to deal with the others here who are better than you. (Dali,
Interview, 13/12/2018)

In schematic learning, learners use stored information and knowledge gathered from their
past experiences that can be used in different contexts (Bartlett, 1932; Shen, 2008).
Responding to a question about the ways in which the interviewees cleared their initial
confusion upon encountering memetic discourse, one process that all the interviewees
emphasized is learning by looking at the context. “Looking at the context helps me learn
how the words are used. . . it happens more often that I learn like that than by asking others”
(Dali, Interview, 13/12/2018). To elaborate, Dali adds that seeing an expression or word
used “again and again in similar contexts” (Interview, 13/12/2018) helped her learn the
expression quickly. Having been a language tutor before, Hanna shares that people learn
best by “example and repetition”; that is, by repeatedly encountering the unfamiliar words
and expressions within “same or similar contexts”, taking those instances as examples, and
then “practicing [using those expressions] themselves” (Interview, 29/12/2018).
In schematic learning, “the idea of comprehension of the whole text” is “based on the
needs matching with one’s knowledge” (Huang, 2009: 139). For people with low English
language proficiency, such as E, Rou, Chang, and Dali, this method works the best, as they
can learn by seeing “more and more example of Stan Twitter meme used” (Rou, Interview,
26/10/2018). When they repeatedly encounter instances of figurative discourse, they look at
the context, and they “know that it [i.e. the memetic expression] is used when the messages
before or after say certain thing” (Dali, Interview, 13/12/2018); that is, they not only mem-
orize the expression itself, but the sequence of patterns in which that expression is used.
Moreover, they do not memorize by repeatedly saying the patterns out loud, as is typically
done when one wishes to memorize something; rather, their mind picks up on those patterns
and internalizes them, so that “the next time we see a similar context, we know at once what
14 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

meme to use there without thinking” (Vik, Interview, 18/01/2019). This implies that there is
no need for them to remember; rather, they look at the context and instantly know what
expression is appropriate.
Therefore, it can be deduced that instead of rote learning, non-native English language
learners find it more helpful to be given a set of examples where the unfamiliar words or
expressions are being used. Upon encountering such instances, they look at the context to
understand the sequence or pattern of usage and internalize those patterns. Upon seeing
similar patterns again, their mind automatically provides them the internalized pattern and
they just ‘know’ what expression or word would be appropriate there. This kind of learning
is called ‘schematic learning’, and the patterns that are internalized during the learning
process are termed ‘schemas’ (Rumelhart, 1980). Once internalized, these patterns help
learners make decisions about what is appropriate or not in a certain context.
For instance, the expression ‘my wig’ is used on Stan Twitter as a reply to any picture,
post or video that took you off guard or caught you by surprise and impressed you
(Fieldnotes, 12/11/2018). Therefore, it is often seen in replies to an idol’s official posts
about their new music videos, their new album announcements, or even their pictures.
A person learning this expression would look at the patterns of its usage; such as, ‘it is
used when the idol posts a picture’, ‘it is used to express admiration’ or ‘it is used when you
really like something’. This arrangement would then be internalized by them. The next time
the idol posts a picture, they would instantly know that one appropriate response to the post
is replying with the words ‘my wig’. Lastly, they might get validation for their memetic
discourse use by other Stan Twitter members either liking or retweeting their reply.
This would help boost their confidence in their Stan Twitter language use and they would
feel more comfortable next time they use a memetic expression.
It has been noted that learning a second language in the form of formulaic sequences
enhances the learner’s oral proficiency in the target language (Boers et al., 2006). Although
the existing scholarship also points towards the effects of formulaic sequences being depen-
dent on the morphological similarities between the first language and target language, the
prevalent notion of positive impact of learning through formulaic sequences on the learners’
oral proficiency still stands strong (Stengers et al., 2011). Moreover, formulaic sequences
have a positive impact on the acquisition of grammar and vocabulary (Ellis, 2012), fluent
expression in target language (Wood, 2009), and reduction of pauses due to hesitation or
insecurity over one’s language skills in the target language (Wood, 2006). As such, it can be
deduced that learning through formulaic sequences has a positive effect on the learner’s
second language learning process.
One last thing that should be mentioned here is that memetic expressions and figurative
discourse are also heavily embedded in the Spanish language. Two of the interview respond-
ents were Spanish. They highlighted the fact that since Spanish “has lots of meme
expressions” (Rou, Interview, 26/10/2018), it was “easy to understand memes in English”
(Hanna, Interview, 29/12/2018). Of course, they had difficulties at first, but they were quick
in picking up the meaning of memetic expressions because their native language contains a
lot of similar expressions.
This is possible because Rou and Hanna have internalized the meme patterns of their
language. Meme expressions are built the same way no matter what language it is: there is a
witty reply, usually a reference to a popular movie or photo or TV show, and over time it
gets modified and molded to suit different contexts depending on who uses it (Knobel and
Lankshear, 2007). This basic pattern of memetic discourse has been internalized by Rou and
Malik and Haidar 15

Hanna in Spanish. When they encounter English memetic expressions, it only becomes a
matter of schematic patterns; they have the Spanish meme schematic structures already
embedded in their brains, and upon encountering English memes, they start to internalize
those schematic patterns as well. This process is expedited by the already existing Spanish
memetic expression patterns in their minds, as the patterns are similar and help to reinforce
each other. As has been theorized, when new schematic patterns are encountered, they either
modify existing schemas or they aid in the creation of new schemas (Rumelhart, 1980).
The process being discussed is a case of merging schemas, where the new input (English
memetic discourse) is incorporated into the existing data (Spanish memetic discourse) and
modifies it. Therefore, these learners can learn and adapt to the Stan Twitter language at a
much faster pace than others.

Discussions and conclusion

The study has revealed that learning takes place within the K-Pop Stan Twitter community.
The community members have stated that the platform improve their English language
skills. They are learning online through search engines, encounters with memetic discourse
on Stan Twitter, interaction, and schematic internalization of patterns and sequences.
The learning processes are peripheral to the explicit goals of the community. The members
work together towards the goal of supporting, promoting, and expressing their love for the
artists they follow. Language learning takes place in the backdrop of these goals.
As has been discussed, the K-Pop Stan Twitter community has members with diverse
linguistic backgrounds (Choi et al., 2014), and the most used language for communication
on this platform is English (Aisyah, 2017). Online platforms make using the English lan-
guage inevitable (Lyrigkou, 2018). Communication takes place largely through the use,
modification, and forwarding of figurative expressions, which pose a problem for new-
comers who are not proficient in the English language. However, with the passage of
time, the members of Stan Twitter start interpreting and using the figurative discourse.
They do not actively try to learn the meme discourse, but seeing it again and again helps
them gain an idea of what expression goes where. Therefore, they internalize certain patterns
and sequences of bodies of information. The idea of memetic discourse as formulaic sequen-
ces also supports this idea, as formulaic sequences are internalized as a whole and not as
individual words (Wood, 2006, 2009). As such, it can be deduced that the members of Stan
Twitter are internalizing the meme expressions in the form of chunks rather than as indi-
vidual words.
Schematic learning (Rumelhart, 1980) is a promising and efficient way of learning
(Zhang, 2010). It works on the principle of internalization of patterns as mental structures
(Bartlett, 1932; Rumelhart, 1980). These structures help individuals make predictions about
what comes next and what is appropriate in each context (Zhang, 2010). The descriptions
given by the interviewees about how they learn to understand and use figurative discourse
falls in line with the tenets of schemata theory (Rumelhart, 1980). Although the schematic
patterns, till now, have mostly been studied in the physical world, the study has revealed
that schematic patterns exist in the virtual world as well. This phenomenon is evident in the
case of memetic discourse – a popular genre due to social media – where learning takes place
by internalizing the concept instead of dividing it into parts. It can be argued that due to
excessive multimodal communication, the information is received in patterns instead of
parts. This can help in improving English instruction in developing countries where students
16 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

have limited access to the English language, especially those who belong to low socio-
economic backgrounds (Haidar, 2019b; Haidar and Fang, 2019).
The figurative nature of memetic discourse can aid language learning in ways that differ
from formal learning environments. Formal learning environments carry the danger of
getting monotonous and uninteresting, as the atmosphere differs greatly from how they
would imagine their learning to go (Yim, 2015). As such, they pursue learning platforms
outside school, and these platforms are efficient in enhancing their language learning abil-
ities as well as the speed at which they learn new things (Yim, 2015). As three of the study
participants were school-going, this factor can be considered as an operative aspect in their
attraction towards the Stan Twitter platform as a favorable language learning environment.
Although they do not express strong dislike towards their schools, they emphasize the
unattractive nature of their schools as opposed to the Stan Twitter platform on which
they can learn through interaction and fandom activities with like-minded peers. In fact,
two of the three school-going participants indicated that the process of understanding and
using memetic discourse on Stan Twitter shows the arbitrariness of meaning and its depen-
dence on context, as well as a deeper comprehension of figurative discourse in the English
language. Both factors have, then, boosted up their academic performance as well (Vik,
Ayako, E, Interviews).
The interviewees stated that figurative discourse helped them to explore English language
in ways that they had not imagined. These expressions helped them discover a dimension to
meaning-making that they had not considered; that of meaning beyond the literal words.
Previously, they had been focused on learning dictionary meanings of words and adding
those meanings to their reservoir of slowly increasing vocabulary. Figurative discourse,
however, helped them see both meaning beyond a literal definition and meaning emergent
from a single expression in different contexts. Furthermore, figurative discourse improved
their academic scores, allowing them to progress in their English language classes. As such,
they learned the arbitrary nature of language, and its fickle nature in terms of meaning-
making. Encountering memetic discourse on Stan Twitter, internalizing the patterns of
memetic discourse, and deciphering meaning based on those patterns made this learning
possible. Therefore, the K-Pop Stan Twitter community carries the potential to be a learning
aid for non-native English language speakers.
We argue that the learning of memetic discourse can stand as a positive step in second
language learning of non-native English speakers. It has been discussed that memes can be
considered as formulaic sequences (Sun, 2016) that enhance second language learning
through formulaic sequences. It is a logical deduction that learning memetic discourse
would also have a positive impact on a non-native English speaker’s language learning.
It can be argued, thus, that language learning on Stan Twitter can be done through
the process of schematic understanding. Moreover, since the learning is unconscious and
a by-product of the community activities, it seems more appropriate to classify it as sche-
matic learning.
In conclusion, this study has explored the language-learning experience of the non-native
English-speaking fandom members. It has been revealed that members encountering the
figurative expressions on Stan Twitter internalize not the meanings of the expressions, but
the patterns of their use (Interviews). Through these patterns, they learn how to interpret the
meanings of those figurative expressions, and this process improves their English language
abilities. This process of learning is called schematic learning (Rumelhart, 1980), and it is
one of the most efficient and naturally occurring learning processes (Li, 2006; Zhang, 2010).
Malik and Haidar 17

However, the existence of schemas has usually been associated with the physical world.
This study extends the reach of the theory of schematic learning towards the virtual
world and presents one of the ways to help non-native English language learners improve
their language proficiency.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD
Zunera Malik https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6608-8143

Notes
1. Fansubbing is the phenomenon wherein the fans add subtitles translating the contents of any foreign
language video (e.g. adding English subtitles to Korean dramas or shows).
2. Hashtag trends are created when any word, phrase, or sentence is used in massive amounts by a
large number of users. It gets its name from the necessity to use the ‘#’ symbol before the chosen
content that one wishes to ‘trend’. For instance, a birthday hashtag would be “#HappyBirthday”.
When this hashtag is used in large numbers by a large number of users in a short time span, the
hashtag becomes one of the hot topics (trends) on Twitter.

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Author Biographies
Zunera Malik: was born in Islamabad, Pakistan, and has graduated as a student of Air
University, Islamabad. She has recently received acceptances for oral presentations at the
2019 Purdue Linguistics, Literature, and Second Language Studies Conference, the 1st
International Conference on English Language and Linguistics (ICELL’19) held in the
month of March, 2019, and has presented her paper at the International Conference on
Voices from the Periphery: Language and Literature, held on 17–18 October, 2019.
Currently, she is working as a Lecturer of English at the National Univesity of Computer
22 E-Learning and Digital Media 0(0)

and Emerging Sciences (FAST-NUCES), Islamabad, Pakistan. Her research interests lie in
the fields of English as a lingua franca, education and technology, and the use of social
media platforms as language learning aids.

Sham Haidar: was born in Buner Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. He completed doctoral
studies from Warner School of Education, University of Rochester. He is currently serving
as assistant professor in the Department of Humanities, Air University Islamabad,
Pakistan. His research interests lie in sociolinguistics, equity in education, language and
power, language ideology, English and globalization, technology and language teaching,
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) and critical discourse analysis.
He has published articles in journals including International Journal of Bilingual Education
and Bilingualism, English Today and Issues in Political Discourse Analysis.