1

DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA
NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY
SABBAVARAM, VISAKHAPATNAM, AP., INDIA.

PROJECT TITLE

‘POWERFUL SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN INDIA’

SUBJECT

SOCIOLOGY

NAME OF THE FACULTY

Prof. Lakshmipati Raju

NAME OF THE CANDIDATE: JAHNAVI GOPALUNI

ROLL NO. 2020LLB035

SEMESTER II
 2

CERTIFICATE
Title of the subject: Sociology
Name of the faculty: Prof. Lakshmipati Raju

I, Jahnavi Gopaluni, hereby declare that this project titled “POWERFUL SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN
INDIA” is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the
sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any
plagiarism issue.

Name: Jahnavi Gopaluni

Roll No. 20LLB035

Semester II

“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”

“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”

“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”

“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”

“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”
“This is submitted by me is an original work undertaken by me. I have duly acknowledged all the sources from which the ideas have been taken. To the best of my knowledge, the essay is free from any plagiarism issue.”

ACKNOLEDGEMENT
 3

I would like to sincerely convey my heartfelt appreciation to our respected sociology professor, Dr.
Lakshmipati Raju Sir for giving me a great opportunity to make this essay and for providing me with
the guidance to finish the essay work successfully.

I would also like to thank my classmates for giving their valuable insights and for co-operation.

I have attempted to collect information and compiled it here to the best of my knowledge.
 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS Pg. No

1. INTRODUCTION 5-6

2. REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS 6-9

3. REFORMIST MOVEMENTS 9-10

4. CIVIL LIBERTIES MOVEMENT 11-12

5. ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS 12-15

6. RESISTANCE/ POLITICAL MOVEMENTS 15-18

7. FEMINIST/ LGBTQ RIGHTS MOVEMENTS 18-21

8. CONCLUSION 22

9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 23
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INTRODUCTION
A social movement is organized but long-term campaign in support of a social aim, usually
the implementation or avoidance of a change in society's framework or norms. A social
movement is an organized attempt by a large group of people to achieve or prevent social,
political, economic, or societal change. The word "social movement" describes a type of
collective action. They are large informal gatherings of people or organizations that are
focused on specific problems in society and politics. They push about, or build  resistance
to, particular policies or practices, or they negate a social shift, to put it another way.
General goal is to bring about a social change. 1

“ Sociologists identify several types of social movements according to the nature and extent of
the change they seek. This typology helps us understand the differences among the many
kinds of social movements that existed in the past and continue to exist today. ”
2

 Reform Movements: Reform movements are organized to carry out reforms in some
“

specific areas of society or political policies for example: Civil Rights Movement,
Women's Liberation Movement, Brahmo Samaj Movement etc.”
 Revolutionary Movements: The revolutionary movement seeks to overthrow the
“

existing social system and replace it with a greatly different one. The reform movement
wants to correct some imperfections in the existing social system but a revolutionary
movement wants to root out the system itself. For example: Indian freedom movement,
peasant and tribal revolutions etc. ”

 Resistance Movement: These movements are formed to resist a change that is already
“

taking place in society. These can be directed against social and cultural changes which
are already happening in the country. The D. M. K. movement against Hindi can be
termed resistance movement. ”

1
Turner, Ralph H., Smelser, Neil J. and Killian, Lewis M, ‘Social movements’ (Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 19 November 2020) <https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-movement> Accessed 21
June 2021.
2
Snow D. A. & Soule S. A., ‘A primer on social movements’ (NY: W. W. Norton, 2010) Accessed 21
June 2021.
 6

 Environmental movements: These are the movements addressing environmental issues.

“

The environmentalists advocate for sustainable use of natural resources by inculcating

personal changes as well as policy changes. For example: Chipko Movement, Narmada
Bachao Andolan, Silent Valley Protests etc. ”

 Feminist movements: Feminist movements are aimed at achieving gender equality,

“

empowerment of women, safety and security of women, equal rights to all genders.
Example: Nirbhaya movement, stop acid sale, Me Too etc.”

Social movements have been soul of Indian history, earlier or pre-historic era ended with
great beginning of cultural movements.

REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS

1. TRIBAL AND PEASANT REBELLIONS (18TH TO 19TH CENTURY)

“ The early resistance and revolts began during colonial period when the British extended their

hegemony into the tribal areas. This caused an array of radical revolts of the Oraon, Bhumij,
and Kol in 1830–1832, Santal in 1855–1857, Munda in 1874–1901, and the Kherwar in1877–
1880 in eastern India against oppression and infringement on their lives and culture
by government officials, moneylenders, Christian missionaries, and businessmen. The tribes
also participated in the nationalist movement, in radical peasant movements like Tebhaga
(1946–1947), Telangana (1948–1952), and Naxalite (1967–1971), and in environ-mental
movements to protect their autonomy and identity. Tribal movements in India have mostly
remained localized and violent and their mediating ideology is grounded in these movements’
connection to the land, the forest, and nature. India has historically been a land of villages
and agriculture and has witnessed a series of violent and nonviolent peasant movements.”

“ The major cause of the civil rebellions was the rapid changes the British introduced in the
economy, administration and land revenue system. The revenues were enhanced by
increasing taxes. Thousands of zamindars and poligars lost control over their land and its
revenue either due to the extinction of their rights by the colonial state or by the forced sale of
 7

their rights over land because of their inability to meet the exorbitant land revenue
demanded. 3 ”

The After-effect: The British introduced various Forest rights Acts to confer the traditional
forest rights to the original inhabitants of forests. After paralyzing India’s traditional and
ancient village/ agricultural economy with exploitative land revenue policies, upon facing
with stiff resistance in the form peasant uprisings as a result of horrible famines in rural parts
of the country, British made some amendments to their exploitative policies fearing more
uprisings.

2. SEPOY MUTINY (1857 Revolt)

“ The Sepoy Mutiny was a violent and very bloody uprising against British rule in India in
1857. It is also known by other names: the Indian Mutiny, the Indian Rebellion of 1857, or
the Indian Revolt of 1857. The first war of Indian Independence. In the late 1700s and early
1800s, sepoys tended to take great pride in their military prowess, and they exhibited
enormous loyalty to their British officers. But in the 1830s and 1840s, tensions began to
emerge. A number of Indians began to suspect that the British intended to convert the Indian
population to Christianity. Increasing numbers of Christian missionaries began arriving in
India, and their presence gave credence to rumours of impending conversions. The traditional
story of the Sepoy Mutiny is that the introduction of a new cartridge for the Enfield rifle
provoked much of the trouble. ”
4

“ The cartridges were wrapped in paper, which had been coated in grease which made the
cartridges easier to load in rifle barrels. Rumours began to spread that the grease used to
make the cartridges was derived from pigs and cows, which would be highly offensive to
Muslims and Hindus. On March 29, 1857, on the parade ground at Barrackpore, a sepoy
named Mangal Pandey fired the first shot of the uprising. His unit in the Bengal Army, which
had refused to use the new rifle cartridges, was about to be disarmed and punished. Pandey
rebelled by shooting a British sergeant-major and a lieutenant. He was shot dead. Triggered
by this incident, units of Indian troops mutinied against the British. More and more units of
army and civilian elements also joined the war against the British. 5
It was such a ferocious
3
Singh, K.S., ‘Tribal Movements in India’ (Manohar, vols. I& II, New Delhi, 1983).
4
McNamara, Robert, ‘The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857’ (ThoughtCo, 7 November 2020)
<thoughtco.com/sepoy-mutiny-of-1857-1774014> Accessed 21 June 2021.
5
Ibid
 8

and bloody revolution especially in Delhi and kanpur that it shook the British crown in
England to its core.”

The After-effect: The immediate result of the mutiny was a general housecleaning of the

“

Indian administration. The financial crisis caused by the mutiny led to a reorganization of the
Indian administration’s finances on a modern basis. The Indian army was also extensively
reorganized.”

Another significant result of the mutiny was the beginning of the policy of consultation with
Indians. Accordingly, the new council of 1861 was given an Indian-nominated
element. Finally, there was the effect of the mutiny on the people of India themselves. There
emerged a strong middle class with a heightened sense of Indian nationalism. 6

3. SWADESHI MOVEMENT (1905)

The Swadeshi movement contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism as part of the Indian
independence movement. One of the most effective anti-British movements, the movement
began in 1906 by Indian people opposed to the Partition of Bengal. Mahatma Gandhi focused
on Swadeshi, which he defined as "the movement that led to India's effort to remove the
British Empire from authority while becoming Swadesh, or self-sufficient." A large number
of Indians joined the movement and boycotted imported imports. They set fire to all of their
imported clothing, boycotted British goods, and resurrected home manufacturing.

4. NON-CO-OPERATION MOVEMENT (1920)

Gandhiji initiated the Satyagraha campaign against British oppression on August 1, 1920. It
was a nonviolent, countrywide movement in response to the British's discriminatory laws and
conduct. Rowlatt Act and the Jallian wala Bagh Massacre were the initial triggers for these
protests. Indians boycotted imported products and goods, resigned from British government
positions, and demonstrated in a variety of ways. Despite the fact that the movement was
mostly peaceful, it is considered the most powerful and revolutionary in Indian independence
history.

5. QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT (1942)

6
The Editors of Britannica Encyclopaedia, ‘Indian Mutiny’ (Encyclopedia Britannica, 3 May 2021)
<https://www.britannica.com/event/Indian-Mutiny> Accessed 22 June 2021.
 9

“ Congress passed Quit India resolution on July 14, 1942, at Wardha. The resolution demanded that
the British rule in India be ended immediately, giving India independence. It was carried on under
the leadership of mahatma Gandhi. The of nationalist feeling and massive protests was all time high
with the whole country gathering up to express strong dissent. The movement placed the demand
for complete independence at the top agenda of the freedom movement. anti-British
sentiment was enhanced to whole new level. This movement, though short-lived, had a very
powerful final impact on British rule. 7 ””

“ The After-effect: Though the movement singularly did not have any significant impact for
immediate independence, the movement did cause a further loss to already weakened British
powers due to engagement in world war. It was final nail in the coffin of British rule in
India.” ”

REFORMIST MOVEMENTS
1. BRAHMO SAMAJ

“ Brahmosamaj was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who is called the father of

Indian renaissance. It was established as Brahmosabha in 1828 in Kolkata and was one

of the earliest reformist movements in India. The foundation raised voice against

Sathi, juvenile marriage, polygamy and casteism.  It was one of the most influential

religious as well as reformist movements in India. From the Brahmo Samaj springs

Brahmoism, the most recent of legally recognised religions in India and Bangladesh,

reflecting its foundation on reformed spiritual Hinduism with vital elements of Judeo-Islamic

faith and practice.” 8

After Math: A number of radical and far-reaching social reforms like female education and
“

total eradication of class distinction started taking place. Since the foundation of Brahmo
Samaj of India, a number of reformed marriages began to multiply which led to the
enactment of Indian Marriage Act, initially drafted as Brahmo Marriage Act which validates

7
Pati, Biswamoy, ‘The climax of popular protest: The Quit India Movement in Orissa’ The Indian
Economic & Social History Review (1992, 2) 1–35. 
8
"Official Brahmo website" <www.Brahmosamaj.in.> Accessed on 23 June 2021.
 10

inter-caste marriage in March 1872.  Following the activities of Brahmosamaj, Sathi was
9
banned in 1829 by the then Governor General Lord Bentick. ”

2. ISHWAR CHANDRA VIDYASAGAR

“ Ishwar Chandra Bandyopadhyay, was an Indian educator and social reformer. He was the

most prominent campaigner for Hindu widow remarriage, petitioning the Legislative council
despite severe opposition. Vidyasagar championed the upliftment of the status of women in
India. Vidyasagar was well known writer, intellectual and above all a staunch follower of
humanity. He brought a revolution in the education system of Bengal. He continued the social
reform movements started by Raja ram Mohan Roy. ”
10

3. THE RAMA KRISHNA MISSION

“ The movement represented by Ramakrishna and his disciples such as Vivekananda was the

result of an inner resurgence of the Hindu spirit to recover and reassert itself. He became a

missionary of spiritual awakening in an era of mental stagnation. He travelled far and wide

with a message of spiritual awakening. In 1893, he proceeded to America to attend the

Parliament of Religions at Chicago where he propounded the true meaning of Hinduism

which exudes the merits of worldly optimism. Ever since its inception, the Ramakrishna

Mission has always been in the forefront of social reforms. To spread the meaning of

Vedantic spiritualism far and wide. To strive for a synthesis among various faiths and cults.

To regard the service to mankind as service to God. to propagate social welfare. It laid

emphasis not on personal salvation but on social good and social service. 11”

CIVIL LIBERTIES MOVEMENT

9
Ibid
10
The Editors of Encyclopaedia ‘Isvar Chandra Vidyasagar’ (Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 September
2020) <https://www.britannica.com/biography/Isvar-Chandra-Vidyasagar> Accessed 21 June 2021.
11
BELUR MATH, ‘About us’ <https://belurmath.org/about-us/> Accessed 21 June 2021.
 11

The civil liberties movement in India may be dated back to the pre-independence era, when

the fight for independence from colonial control was in full swing. Unrestricted incarceration

without charge or trial was a major focus of both movements. The civil liberties movement

was integrated into the national movement as a result of problems like these. After the

declaration of emergency in 1975, the civil liberties movement resurfaced post-independence.

1. EMERGENCY AND CIVIL LIBERTIES MOVEMENTS

“ Major phase of the civil rights movement began after 1975, with the imposition of the

national emergency. The national emergency imposed in India by the then Prime Minister

Indira Gandhi is considered to be a blot on Indian democracy. There were numerous excesses

by the government including detention without trial for a large number of people, censorship

on the press, trespassing private premises without legal sanction, and constitutional

amendments curtailing basic rights to life and freedom. There were widespread protests

against this anti-democratic move by the government. People from all quarters, from politics

to academics, were taken aback by the authoritarian tendencies within the political system

and the violation of basic civil liberties. This formed the intellectual and political setting that

led to the origin of the civil and democratic rights movement. A number of civil liberties

organisations emerged during this period to fight for civil and democratic right.”

2. AFSPA AGITATION:

“ Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) has been in force in the North-East and
Jammu and Kashmir, and the 'draconian' law has been the reason of wide protests. AFSPA
empowers the governor of the state, or the central government to declare any part of the state
as a 'disturbed area', if in its opinion there exists a dangerous situation in the said area which
makes it necessary to deploy armed forces in the region. 12 Under Section 4 of the AFSPA, an
” “

authorised officer in a disturbed area enjoys certain powers. The authorised officer has the
power to open fire at any individual even if it results in death if the individual violates laws. 13
Irom Sharmila was 28 at the time of the Malom Massacre and began a fast-in protest on
12
Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958.
13
Ibid Section 4.
 12

November 2, 2000. Her primary demand has been the repeal of the Armed Forces (Special
Powers) Act [AFSPA]. She vowed not to eat, drink, comb her hair or look in a mirror until
the act was struck down. She holds the record for adhering to her fast for the longest time. 14 ”

Thousands of people gathered to show support to her in the movement against AFSPA law.

Aftermath:
“ There were questions about the constitutionality of AFSPA, given that law and order is a
state subject. The Supreme Court has upheld the constitutionality of AFSPA in a 1998
judgement, but gave certain guidelines for proper implementation of the rules under this act.”

“ On November 19, 2004, the Central government appointed a five-member committee headed
by Justice B P Jeevan Reddy to review the provisions of the act in the north eastern states.”

The committee submitted its report in 2005, which included the following recommendations:
(a) AFSPA should be repealed and appropriate provisions should be inserted in the Unlawful
Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967;

(b) The Unlawful Activities Act should be modified to clearly specify the powers of the
armed forces and paramilitary forces and

(c) grievance cells should be set up in each district where the armed forces are deployed.

However, these recommendations haven’t been implemented.

ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS

1. CHIPKO MOVEMENT

“ The Chipko movement or Chipko Andolan was a forest conservation movement started in the
year 1973 in Uttar Pradesh now in Uttarakhand by an environmental activist Sundarlal
Bahuguna. The movement against deforestation and maintaining ecological balance
originated in the Chamoli district of Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand) in 1973 and never
spread to other states in northern India. The name ‘Chipko’ is derived from the word ‘hug’ as
the villagers hug and surround the trees. The Chipko movement became a benchmark for
socio-ecological movements in other forest areas. Its leaders and activists are mainly rural

14
‘All you wanted to know about the AFSPA’ (Prsindia, <https://www.prsindia.org/media/articles-by-
prs-team/all-you-wanted-to-know-about-the-afspa-2051/> Accessed on 22 June 2021.
 13

women who work for their livelihood and to protect their communities. However, men have
also been included, some of whom have provided broad leadership to the movement. ”
15

In 2009, Bahuguna received the Padma Vibhushan, India’s second-highest civilian honor.

Aftermath:
“ The main influence of the Chipko movement was to persuade the Central Government to
amend the Indian Forest Act of 1927 and to introduce the Forest Conservation Act 1980.
which ensures conservation of forest and its resources. That same year, in another historic
order, commercial green harvesting was banned in forests over 1,000 meters high. 16”

2. SILENT VALLEY PROTESTS

Protests were held against the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB), which plans to build a
hydroelectric dam over the Kunthipuzha River in Silent Valley, submerging 8.3 square
kilometres of unspoiled damp rain forests. The opposition groups received unwavering
support from the media and publications. The valley became the main focus of the Save
Silent Valley Movement, India's major environment battle of the century.

Aftermath:

Indira Gandhi, the then prime minister, gives in to mounting scrutiny and declares that Silent
Valley would be safeguarded. The project has been abandoned since then.

3. NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN

“ Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is an Indian social movement spearheaded by native tribals

(adivasis), farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against a number of large
dam projects across the Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh and Maharashtra. Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the biggest dams on the
river and was one of the first focal points of the movement. Medha Patkar has been at the
forefront of the movement. She has organised several fasts and satyagrahas, and been to jail
several times for the cause. ”

15
‘The Chipko movement history causes and objectives’ (Takshashila, 2018)
<https://www.takshilalearning.com/what-is-chipko-movement-objective-of-chipko-andolan/>
Accessed on 22 June 2021.
16
Forest (Conservation) Act,1980.
 14

The After-effect:

NARMADA BACHAO ANDOLAN VS. UOI 17

“ A three judge Bench of this court by a judgement disposed of the said writ petition upon
issuing various directions. The court opined that :
”

“The displacement of the tribal and other persons would not per se result in violation of their
fundamental or other rights; on their rehabilitation at new locations, they would be better off
that what they were; at the rehabilitation sites they will have more and better amenities than
those they enjoyed in their hamlets; and the gradual assimilation in the mainstream of the
society would lead to betterment and progress.”

“ Supreme Court gave the approval for the construction of Sardar Sarovar Dam. The court
decided that the height of the dam be raised to 90 m. This height is much higher than the 88
m which anti dam activists demanded, but it is lower than the proposed height of 130 m. after
the Supreme Court Judgement, the Gujarat Government has taken up the construction of dam.
Expected to be completed by 2025. ”

Kundankulam Nuclear plant agitation:

“ Proposal of nuclear plant in kundankulam, Tamil nadu was fiercely opposed by local farmers.
It was supposed to be the largest nuclear power plant in India. It has faced opposition from
local residents and fishing communities ever since it was first proposed in 1979. Construction
on the plant began in 2001, and it has been operational since 2013. The protestors claimed
that the plant’s effluent, discharged into the sea, releases toxins and impacts the quality of
fish. They feared that the plant will take away their livelihood and that of future generations.
Fish workers said that since the plant has been operational, the quantity of fish has reduced,
and the varieties diminished. Protests against the project picked up speed in 2011 after the
Fukushima disaster in Japan. ”
18

Aftermath: The supreme court said that the nuclear energy is the need of the future and
present generations. Supreme court permitted construction of Kudankulam plant, but gave

Narmada Bachao Andolan Vs Union of India and Others, [(2000 10 SCC 664].
17

18
Pradhan, Satwik, ‘How bad are the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plants?’ (Ayyati, 2010)
<http://www.ayyati.com/2013/08/howbad-are-the-kudankulam-nuclear-power-plants/> Accessed on
23 June 2021.
 15

strict guidelines for disaster management, environmental protection, nuclear leakage, regular
inspection at 3 months interval etc.

RESISTANCE/ POLITICAL MOVEMENTS

1. ANTI-HINDI IMPOSITION (1965)

“ The Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu were a series of agitations that happened in the

Indian state of Tamil Nadu both pre and post independent times. The agitations involved
several mass protests, riots, student and political movements in Tamil Nadu concerning the
official status of Hindi in the state. The first anti-Hindi imposition agitation was launched in
1937, in opposition to the introduction of compulsory teaching of Hindi in the schools of
Madras Presidency. Later in 1965, of switching over to Hindi as sole official language
approached, the anti-Hindi movement gained momentum in Madras State with increased
support from college students. On 25 January, a full-scale riot broke out in the southern city
of Madurai. ”
19

“ To calm the situation, Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri gave assurances that
English would continue to be used as the official language as long as the non-Hindi speaking
states wanted. The riots subsided after Shastri's assurance, as did the student agitation. The
agitations of 1965 led to major political changes in the state. The Official Languages Act,
1963 was eventually amended in 1967 by the Congress Government headed by Indira
Gandhi to guarantee the indefinite use of Hindi and English as official languages. ”
20

2. ANTI-MANDAL AGITATION: (1990)

“ The Mandal Commission, which was officially known as the Socially and
Educationally Backward Classes Commission, was set up on 1 st January 1979. The
Janata Dal set up the commission, headed by the then Prime Minister Morarji
Desai. with a mandate to identify the socially or educationally backward classes of India.
Though the report had been completed in 1983, the V.P. Singh government declared its intent

19
Annamalai, ‘Language movements in India’ (Central Institute of Indian Languages, 1978) <
http://www.ciil-ebooks.net/html/langMove/hinoff.html> Accessed on 23 June 2021.
20
Official languages (Amendment) Act, 1967.
 16

to implement the report in August 1990, leading to widespread student protests. The criticism
was sharp and colleges across the country held massive protests against it. reserving 27%
seats to backward classes in Government services on the basis of recommendations of
Mandal Commission On 19 September 1990, Rajiv Goswami, a student of Deshbandhu
College, Delhi, committed self-immolation in protest of the government's actions. His act
made him the face of the Anti-Mandal agitation then. This further sparked a series of self-
immolations by other upper-caste college students like him, whose own hopes of getting a
government job were now at threat, and led to a formidable student movement against job
reservations for Backward Castes in India. ”
21

“ In 1992, Indra Sawhney, who is a journalist, saw young children, students of school
and college protesting at Delhi Jhandewalan Extension , and it prompted her. Within
the next two days, Indra Sawhney filed a case challenging the implementation by
the government.”

INDRA SAWHNEY V. UNION OF INDIA AND ORS. 22

On 16 November 1992, the Indra Sawhney Case judgement was  given by the nine-
judge bench of the Supreme Court with a 6:3 majority. The supreme court ruled:

“The Backward class of citizens in Article 16(4) can be identified with the caste
system and not just on an economic basis. Article 16(4) allows the classification of
backward classes into backward and most backward classes. There should be no
reservation in promotion. Article 16(4) is not an exception of Article 16(1). The
Article is an instance of classification. Reservation can be made under Article
16(4). Backward classes in Article 16(4) were not similar to socially and
educationally backward in Article 15(4). Reservation shall not exceed 50%. Creamy
layer must be excluded from the backward classes.”

3. ANNA HAZARE MOVEMENT (2011)

“ When anti-corruption activist Anna Hazare began a hunger strike at Jantar Mantar in New
Delhi on April 5, 2011, the movement led to the resignation of Agriculture Minister Sharad

21
‘Mandal Commission report, 25 years later’ (Indian express, 2015)
<https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-others/sunday-story-mandal-commission-report-25-
years-later/> Accessed on 22 June 2021.
22
Indra Sawhney v. Union of India and Ors., AIR 1993 SC 477.
 17

Pawar from the group of ministers that had been charged with reviewing the draft Jan Lokpal
bill. The initiative brought together a huge number of people, making it a one-of-a-kind event
in decades. Movement was intended to establish strong legislation and enforcement against
perceived endemic political corruption. The movement was primarily one of non-violent civil
resistance and was composed of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, hunger
strikes, and rallies, and the use of social media to organise, communicate, and raise
awareness. It was a citizen led movement and the protests were spread across the major cities
in India. yoga guru, Ramdev launched Bharat Swabhiman Andolan anti-corruption movement
supporting Hazare's fight for the lokpal bill. ”
23

Aftermath: On December 22, 2011, the Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha. The vote was
postponed due to a lack of time after a lengthy discussion that lasted until midnight the next
day. After some revisions to the preceding Bill, it was approved in the Rajya Sabha on
December 17, 2013, and in the Lok Sabha the day after. The Lokpal and Lokyuktas Act,
2013, gained President Pranab Mukherjee's assent on January 1, 2014, and went into effect on
January 16, 2014.24

4. JALLIKATTU MOVEMENT (2017)

The Supreme Court put a ban on the traditional bull-taming sport jallikattu after years of
complaints about animal cruelty by PETA, but the ban was not accepted by the people of
Tamil Nadu. The protesters said the sport is central to their cultural identity. The protest
turned violent when police tried to evict the protesters. port is the core of their cultural
identity, the protesters said. Around 2,00,000 people came out on the street near Chennai's
Marina beach to show solidarity. 

On January 23, the Tamil Nadu government legalised jallikattu and passed a bill to amend the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960.

5. CAA Protests (2019):

The Citizenship Amendment Act, 2019 (CAA) protests, also referred to as the CAA Protest
or the CAB Protest, took place after the Government of India passed the Citizenship

23
 ‘The Top 10 Everything of 2011: Number 10 – Anna Hazare's Hunger Fasts Rock India’ (Times
Now, 7 December 2011) Accessed on 21 June 2021.
24
Lokpal and Lokyuktas Act, 2013.
 18

Amendment Act (CAA) on December 12, 2019. The act, as well as its connected idea and
speculations for the National Register of Citizens (NRC), aroused enormous national and
international outcry. Protests began in Assam and quickly expanded across the country,
including to Delhi. 25

“ The CAA amends the Indian citizenship act to accept illegal migrants who
are Hindu, Sikh, Jain, Parsi, Buddhist, and Christian from Afghanistan, Bangladesh and
Pakistan, and who entered India before 2014, following the religious persecutions. The bill
does not mention Muslims and other communities who fled from the same or other
neighbouring countries. Refugees from Sri Lankan Tamils
inIndia, Rohingyas from Myanmar, and Tibetan refugees are also not mentioned in the bill.
26
 The proposed National Register of Citizens (NRC) will be an official record of all legal
citizens of India. Individuals would need to provide a prescribed set of documents before a
specified cut-off date to be included in it.”

FEMINIST/ LGBTQ RIGHTS MOVEMENTS

1. NIRBHAYA MOVEMENT
On the evening of December 16th, 2012, Jyoti, a twenty-three-year-old student, was brutally
gang raped by six men on a bus and died of complications two weeks later. Indian journalists
dubbed Jyoti as “Nirbhaya,” meaning “fearless” in Hindi. Her case sparked a monumental
movement, known as the “Nirbhaya Movement,” There was a lot of social outrage due to the
gruesome incident. There were a lot of candle light marches, solidarity movements and
“

protests. India has always been notorious for being unsafe for women, and this was the spark
which ignited the fire of public outrage. Feminist and women’s movements gained
momentum and incentive. The culprits were made an example of and condemned. Not just
social, there were legal repercussions of the incident too. The UPA government was being
pressurised to make stricter laws regarding rape and dealing with juveniles committing
heinous crimes.”

The After-effect:
25
"Citizenship Amendment Bill 2019: Anti-citizenship law protests: Latest developments and
reactions" (The Times of India, 2019) Accessed on 23 June 2021.
26
Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019.
 19

The Nirbhaya Act, 2013.

“ Protests and public pressure, both domestic and international, forced the Indian government
to take action. Justice Verma Committee was assigned the task of the reformation of the anti-
rape laws of the country. The Criminal Amendment Act, 2013 is also popularly referred to as
the Anti-rape Act.”

“ Under this change, new offences such as stalking, acid attacks, and voyeurism were added
into the definition of rape and provisions mentioned in the Indian Penal Code, 1860. Even the
threat of rape is now a crime and the person will be punished for the same. The minimum
sentence was changed from seven years to ten years considering the increase in the number of
rape cases. In cases that led to the death of the victim or the victim being in a vegetative state,
the minimum sentence was increased to 20 years. The ‘character of the victim’ was totally
irrelevant to rape cases and it doesn’t make any difference in granting punishment for the
crime. Since one of the accused in this case was a juvenile, another flaw in the system was
identified after this case. So, the age for being tried as an adult for violent crimes like rape
was changed from 18 to 16 years, that to the Juvenile Justice Act, 2015. ”
27

2. STOP ACID SALE

“ Laxmi Agarwal was just 15 when a group of men threw acid at her, disfiguring her face and
body. The reason: she refused to marry one of them. Until then, the news of acid attacks was
just another part of the news section, but Laxmi wanted to bring an end to the attacks once
and for all. She gathered 27,000 signatures for a petition to curb the sales of acid and took the
issue to the Supreme court, with her campaign, Stop Acid Sale. The campaigned gained
momentum nationwide, with many victims of acid attacks and public, voicing their stance
against acid sale. 28
”

Laxmi vs. Union of India & Ors. 29

“ PIL brought about by Laxmi, an acid attack survivor which issued guidelines for betterment
of Acid Attack Survivor. The Supreme court verdict-imposed restrictions on the sale of Acid
and provide compensation to the victim. Court ruled in favour of her plea and introduced
27
Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013.
28
‘14 Mass Movements Led By Women In India That Made A Difference To Women’s Lives’, (2018)
<https://www.womensweb.in/2018/11/mass-movements-led-by-women-in-india-womens-movements-
nov18wk1sr/> Accessed on 23 June 2021.
29
Laxmi vs. Union of India & Ors, 2014 SCC 4 427.
 20

restrictions on the sale of acid, showing a significant decline in acid attacks in the year from
the previous. ”

“ The PIL filed by Laxmi changed the course of acid attacks and its punishment in India while
also giving other victims and survivors a change to showcase their sufferings and gain
compensation and seek proper justice for what happened to them.”

3. ME TOO

“ The #MeToo campaign in India expanded in 2018. Driven by a global movement against
sexual harassment, women across the world opened up reports of male misconduct in power
positions. The following were a number of posts from other women sharing their experiences
with the world. Female professionals called for disgraceful behaviour in the workplace, from
performers, film producers to advertisement leading guns, authors, writers and politicians.
There have been many kinds of allegations ranging from unwelcome attention in the
workplace to sexual innuendos on the movie set. While some of these are still in the industry
in the midst of the allegations, others managed to get the authorities clean jackets. Rumours
that Patekar had a clean chit recently emerged. The actress, however, quashed the rumours.
Nevertheless, Director Vikas Bahl, who was one of the leading charges, was released from all
charges. Today, Reliance Entertainment’s internal complaints committee set free the ‘Queen’
owner, accused by a Phantom film worker under the #MeToo campaign. ”

“ It wasn’t until October 2017 since the phrase #MeToo became a viral movement in the form
of the hashtag #MeToo, mainly in the US and became viral in India in October 2018, when
celebrities starting calling out their abusers on social media, creating a huge uproar and more
women coming with their stories on sexual abuse. ”

“ The movement has gained momentum with support from politicians, lawyers, judges and
members from various public institutions. It has given a platform for the victims to have their
voice heard, and mainly, has borne the faces of assaulters of various backgrounds for the
world to shame. We can expect that this movement will bring positive changes in country to a
30
light on the horrors that many of the women who had kept it in the dark till now. ”

4. MOVEMENT TO SCRAP SECTION 377

30
Ibid
 21

“ The LGBTQ community led a movement against criminalization of homosexuality. The

movement against Sec 377 started in 1991 when the AIDS Bhedbhav Virodhi Andolan
published a landmark report titled, Less than Gay: A Citizen’s Report. The report laid out the
problems with this Section and advocated for its repeal. Homosexual intercourse was
declared unnatural which made it a criminal offence under Chapter 16, Section 377 of the
Indian Penal Code, 1860. Law is a product of British era times. Due to this law, trans gender
communities faced harassment from officials. The repealing of section was a watershed
movement in the history of India’s queer movement.”

Navtej Singh Johar v Union of India 31

“ In 2018, the Supreme Court of India finally decriminalised homosexuality by ruling that
Section 377’s application to acts of homosexuality between consenting adults was
unconstitutional. his verdict declared Section 377 to be in violation of Articles 21, 14 and 15
of the Constitution of India.”

CONCLUSION

The history of India is filled with social movements launched in response to social and
political barriers that prevented people from moving in the direction they desired. Caste, race,
religion, languages, regions, and other factors have all contributed to the socially hierarchical
nature of Indian society. There are deep-seated socio-economic inequalities in the Indian
society. Despite 70 years of independence and democracy, traditions around caste and
creed remain stiff. Social movements are crucial in accelerating not only organizational
change, but also in providing direction for social transformation and democratisation of
society.

31
Navtej Singh Johar v Union of India, AIR 2018 SC 4321.
 22

Across India, the post-independence movements of women, students, backward classes and
farmers had a particular significance as they were deprived in the British Period of some
fundamental rights and remained largely non-beneficiary of development gains. We had some
hope for the upliftment of the Indian Constitution and subsequent legislative initiatives like
removal draconian British era provision of section 377 in Indian Penal code, addition of more
safeguards for women under Anti-rape laws etc. In the same manner, civil liberties
movements, environmental movements, anti-corruption movement and student movements
have brought about either a policy shift or societal change in the country.

Thus, Social movements contribute to the emergence of a radically new social, economic and
political structure and contribute in nation’s social, economic and political transformation in
the interest of justice and democratic values.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Encyclopedia Britannica
2. Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act, 1958.
3. Forest (Conservation) Act,1980.
4. Official languages (Amendment) Act, 1967.
5. Lokpal and Lokyuktas Act, 2013.
6. Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019.
7. Snow D. A. & Soule S. A., ‘A primer on social movements’ (2010).
 23

8. Singh, K.S., ‘Tribal Movements in India’ (vols. I& II, 1983).

9. The Indian Economic & Social History Review, Volume II (1992).
10. Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) [www.ciil-ebooks.net]
11. Brahmo Samaj Official website (www.brahmosamaj.in)
12. Indian Express
13. Times Now
14. Times of India
15. SCC
16. Westlaw India
17. Indian Kanoon