Linear, Angular and Projectile Motion

&
Forces and Fluid Mechanics
 Part 1

Forces and Fluid Mechanics

 Newton’s Laws Governing
Linear Motion
• Law 1 – Law of Inertia
– If no external forces act on a body then the velocity of that body
remains constant
– A body at rest tends to remain at rest
– A body in motion tends to remain in motion
• Law 2 – Law of Acceleration
– The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction which the force acts.
– F = m·a
• Law 3 – Law of Action-Reaction
– To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
– Bodies exert equal and opposite forces on each other
– Action and reaction are immediate. There is no delay between the
action and reaction.
 Newton’s Laws Governing
Angular Motion
• Law 1 – Law of Moment of Inertia
– A rotating body will continue in a state of uniform angular motion
unless acted upon by an external torque (moment of force)
– A body in motion (rotation)…
• Law 2 – Law of Angular Acceleration
– An external torque will produce an angular acceleration of a body
that is proportional to and in the direction of the torque and
inversely proportional to the moment of inertia of the body.
– M = I·α
• Law 3 – Law of Action-Reaction
– To every torque (moment of force) there is an equal and opposite
reaction torque (moment of force)
– Bodies exert equal and opposite torques on each other
– Action and reaction are immediate. There is no delay between the
action and reaction.
 Contact Forces
• Forces resulting from the interaction of two objects

• Types of Contact Forces

– Ground Reaction Force (GRF)
– Joint Reaction Force
– Friction
– Fluid Resistance
– Inertial Force
– Muscle Force
– Elastic Force
 Joint Reaction Force (JRF)
• Resultant force acting across the joint
– Forces from above
– Forces below
– Force of distal bony surface on proximal
bony surface (adjacent segments)
– Usually (truly) unknown

• Need appropriate kinematic, kinetic

and anthropometric (body
dimensions) data to calculate
“Bone-on-Bone” Force (“FB”)

• The sum of the muscle

force (Fm) and other
external forces.

• Composite of all active

forces acting across the
joint

FB = Fm + JRF + mg
Friction Force (“Ff”)
Direction of Frictional Force

Ff  N
Ff

N
 Fluid Resistance
• Fluids
– Gas (e.g., air)
– Liquid (e.g., water)
• Fluids resist the movement of objects through them
• Determining the magnitude and direction of fluid
resistance is very complex
• Fluid properties which influence resistance
– Density
• Mass per unit volume
• Increase density, increase resistance
• Air density is affected by humidity, temperature, and pressure
– Viscosity
• Fluids resistance to flow
• Air viscosity increases with air temperature
 Fluid Resistance
1. Object disturbs fluid
2. Disturbance is dependent upon density and
viscosity of fluid
3. Increased disturbance correlates with increased
energy passing from the object to the fluid
4. Transfer of energy is termed fluid resistance

2 components of fluid resistance are drag and lift

 Drag Force Component
1
Fdrag  Cd Av 2

2
Fdrag = drag force (fluid resistance)
Cd = coefficient of drag (an index of how smooth and
streamlined the object is)
A = projected frontal area of object (area facing flow)
ρ = fluid viscosity
v = relative velocity (velocity of object relative to fluid)
 Drag
Surface Drag
- Boundary layer (contact with fluid)
- Surface area

Viscous Drag
- Fluid viscosity
 Fluid Flow
• Laminar Flow
– Small smooth object
– Small velocity

• Separated Flow
– Turbulent Flow
– Fluid is unable to contour to
object shape
– Fluid separates as it passes
object
– Turbulence forms behind
object
 Lift Force Component
Aerofoil Lift
Lift
Component

Fluid motion
Drag
Component

So…a body will tend to travel (lift) in the direction of least pressure
 Bernoulli’s Principle

1
Pressure 
v

Air has to travel further over the top of the airfoil, hence
greater velocity and less pressure.
Go to the light…the light is good…
 Magnus Effect or Force

Follow the path of least resistance…

 Inertial Force

• Force resulting from an objects motion (or lack

thereof).
– F = m·a
• Segments often exert a force on a more distal
segment due to inertial force rather than muscular
force.

• A body in motion…

• A body at rest…
The toughest part of the day is overcoming inertia.
Muscle Force
Remember: Muscles can only pull…
and they usually pull at an
angle from the bone

Fy = Fm · sinθ

Fx = Fm · cosθ

When will muscle strength be maximal?

 Elastic Force
k = constant of proportionality

F  ks (stiffness coefficient)

Δs = change in length

• In springboard diving
– Body weight deflects the
springboard
– The springboard stores an
elastic force (elastic energy, F)
which is returned to fling the
diver upward
Representation of Forces on System
 Part 1 Summary
• Types of forces
– Non-contact (gravity)
– Contact (grf, jrf, friction, fluid resistance,
inertia, muscle force, elastic force)
– Coefficients of Friction, Elasticity, Drag, and
Viscosity
– Fluid Mechanics
– Lift and Drag (relation with air/fluid pressure)
• Representation of forces acting on body
– Free Body Diagram
 Part 2

Relation Between Linear and

Angular Motion
 Linear and Angular Motion
• Human (and other) movement is never truly linear or
angular, but a combination of linear translation and
angular motion
• Our joint structure rarely allows strictly linear motion,
however the same allows us to linearly translate or project
ourselves as well as other objects.
• Curvilinear and Rectilinear Motion
– Path of center of mass as we walk
– Center of mass and arm translating during throwing action

• Angular Motion
– Aerials and flight (rotation about center of mass)
– Joint motion (e.g. knee flexion and extension during walking)
– About an external axis (e.g. ground, bars – high, parallel and pubs)
 Angular and Linear Motion
• Given a swing of the hammer…
• All points on the hammer travel
through the same angle or
angular displacement (θ).

• Each point shown travels through

a different rectilinear
displacement (d1 and d2).
• Each point travels through a
different curvilinear displacement
(l2 or s2, arc length) as well.
 Angular & Linear Displacement
• Radian
– Ratio of the distance around the arc of the circle to the
radius of the circle

θ= l/r l = r·θ
– Where
θ is the angle displaced
l is the angular displacement along the arc (arc length)
– Your book uses “s”
r is the radius of the circle

Note: These equations are only valid if θ is in radians

 Linear & Angular Velocity

• Tangential Velocity l  r
– Linear velocity in a direction
tangent to the curved path l  r  
– vT
l 
r
• The equations with r (radius)
and l (arc displacement) are
t t
only valid if ω is expressed in v  r
radians/second (rad/s).
– Why? vT  r
 Linear & Angular Acceleration
• Tangential Acceleration
– Acceleration directed tangent
to the curved path vT  r
– aT is termed the tangential
acceleration vT 
r
• These equations are only t t
valid if a is expressed in
radians/second2 (rad/s2) aT  r
– Why?
 Maximize Linear Velocity?
i.e., Maximize initial ball velocity at strike
vT = r·ω
• Implement head speed or hand
speed is key for striking activities
•Golfing, hitting, racket sports,
volleyball
• To maximize tangential velocity
•Larger angular velocities (ω)
•Larger radii (r)
• So…Long limbed strong people
can usually smoke a projectile
•Venus Williams
•Randy Johnson
 Centripetal (Radial) Acceleration
• Centripetal Acceleration (Force) v
– Directed perpendicular to a
tangential acceleration t
– Directed towards the center of (r )
rotation. a
• Equation series shows derivation
t
of the resultant acceleration.  r    
a     r 
 t   t 
a  v  r (but v  r )
a  r  2  r
a  r (   )
2
Centripetal & Tangential Accelerations

• 2 Components of Resultant Acceleration (a)

a2 = (ω2·r)2 + (α·r)2 rewritten a = aC + aT
Vector Addition
• Centripetal Acceleration (aC)
aC = ω2·r

• Tangential Acceleration (aT)

a T = α· r
Angular Kinematics - Golf
 Golf Club Kinematics

• Double pendulum model

• Arm’s motion and peak

acceleration precedes club

• But…Club peak acceleration is

greater than that of the arm
– Why?
 Applications to Other Sports
• Racket Sports
– Tennis
– Racquetball
– Squash
• Track and Field
– Throwing events
• Lacrosse
• Volleyball
• Other Sports and Daily Tasks…
 Summary
• Linear-Angular Motion Relation
• Tangential Velocity
• Tangential and Centripetal Acceleration
• Angular versus linear displacement, velocity
and acceleration
• Applications to golf, tennis and other sports