TRANSFORMERS

1.1 Introduction to Transformers:

Transformer is an electromagnetic device which follows the basic principle of
electromagnetism discovered by Michael Faraday.
Definition: A transformer is a static electrical device that is used to convert AC voltage (or
current) from one value to the other without changing the frequency using the principles of
electromagnetic induction.
It comprises of coils coupled through a magnetic medium connecting two ports at different
voltage levels in an electric system allowing the interchange of electrical energy between the
ports in either direction via the magnetic field.
Brief Working Principle: A simple form of a transformer consists essentially of two insulated
windings interlinked by a common or mutual magnetic field established in a core of magnetic
material. When one of the windings, termed the primary, is connected to an alternating-voltage
source (say V1) as shown in Figure 1.1, an alternating flux is produced in the core with an
amplitude depending on the primary voltage, frequency and number of turns of the primary
(N1). This mutual flux links the other winding, called the secondary. A voltage V2 is induced
in this secondary of the same frequency as the primary voltage but its magnitude depends on
the number of secondary turns (N2).

Fig. 1.1 Symbol of a Transformer

For a transformer,
𝑉1 𝑁1 (1.1)
=
𝑉2 𝑁2

𝐼1 𝑁2 (1.2)
=
𝐼2 𝑁1
When the number of primary and secondary turns are properly proportioned, almost any
desired voltage ratio, or ratio of transformation can be achieved. Fig.1.1b shows the diagram
of a typical transformer.

Fig. 1.1b Typical transformer

Applications of Transformers: (i) changing voltage and current levels in electric power
systems. For example, transformers are used extensively in ac power systems in distribution of
voltages (230/400 V) for domestic purposes from a transmission voltage as high as 400-1MV.

(ii) matching source and load impedances for maximum power transfer in electronic and
control circuitry. In communication and electronic systems where frequency ranges from audio
to radio and video, transformers are used as at input/output to connect the microphone to the
first amplifying stage/to connect the last amplifying stage to the loudspeaker.

(iii) electrical isolation (isolating one circuit from another or isolating dc while maintaining ac
continuity between two circuits).

Therefore, it is one of the most important components of a variety of electrical circuits ranging
from low-power, low-current electronic and control circuits to ultra-high voltage power
systems. Transformers are built in an astonishing range of sizes from the tiny units used in
communication systems to monsters used in high-voltage transmission systems, weighing
hundreds of tons. This means that different types of transformers are required for different
applications. The following section describes the type of transformers:

1.2 Types of Transformers:

1.2.1 Based on Voltage Level: Transformers can be constructed in a way that it can convert
the voltage level of the primary side to another voltage on the secondary side. If the secondary
voltage (V2) is greater than the primary voltage value (V1), the transformer is called a step-up
transformer; if it is less, it is known as a step-down transformer; if primary and secondary
voltages are equal (i.e V1 = V2), the transformer is said to have a one-to-one ratio. One-to-one
transformers are used to electrically isolate two parts of a circuit and it is called as an isolation
transformer. Depending on the voltage level, the transformer has three categories.

(i) Step-Down Transformer: A step-down transformer is designed such that the number of
windings on the primary side (N1) is greater than the windings on the secondary side (N2) as
shown in Figure 1.2. In this type of transformer, the overall winding ratio (N1/N2) of primary
and secondary always remains more than 1.

Fig.1.2 Symbol of a step-down transformer

In electronics, many applications run on 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V, 24V or in some cases 48V. Step
down transformers are required to convert the single-phase power outlet voltage 230V AC to
the desired low voltage level as shown in Fig.1.3. So, a step-down transformer is the primary
requirement for the power section.
In electrical, step down transformers are used in electrical distribution system which works on
very high voltage to ensure low loss and cost-effective solution for long distance power
delivery requirements. Step down transformer is used to convert the high voltage to a low
voltage supply line.
 Fig.1.3 Electric power distribution showing step-up and step-down transformers

(ii) Step-Up Transformer: Step-up transformer increases the low primary voltage (V1) to a
high secondary voltage (V2). It is achieved by choosing the ratio of primary and secondary
winding ratio as less than 1. This means the number turns in secondary winding is higher than
the primary winding as shown in Fig.1.4.

Fig.1.4 Symbol of a step-up transformer

In electronics, step up transformers often used in stabilizers, inverters etc where low voltage
is converted to a much higher voltage.
In electrical, high voltage is required for electrical power distribution related application. Step
up transformer is used in the grid to step up the voltage level before the distribution as shown
in Fig.1.3.

Exercise 1: An X-ray system has a step-up transformer which is used to transform the 120 V
input to 100 kV required for neon X-ray tube. The primary winding has 50 turns and draws a
current of 10 A. Determine: (a) number of loops in the secondary coil, (b) output current in the
secondary and (c) input & output power. (Answer: (a) 4.17 × 104, (b) 12 mA, and (c) 1.2 kW)
Solution: V1 = 120 V, V2 = 100 KV and N1 = 50.
𝑽𝟏 𝑵𝟏
(a) Using equation (1,1), =
𝑽𝟐 𝑵𝟐

N2 = N1 (V2/ V1) = 50 ×100×103 /100 = 4166.66 turns

N2 = 4.17 × 104 turns

𝑰𝟏 𝑵𝟐
(b) I1 = 10 A, Using equation (1.2), =
𝑰𝟐 𝑵𝟏
4
I2 = I1 (N1/ N2) = 10 ×50 / (4.17×10 ) = 11.99 mA (approximately 12 mA)

(c) Power input = V1 I1 = 120 × 10 =1200 W (or 1.2 kW)

Power output = V2 I2 = (100×103) × (12×10-3) = 1.2 kW
It can be observed that the input power and the output power of the transformer are same. This
means that the transformer has 100% efficiency and does bot have any losses. Such a
transformer is called as an ideal transformer.

Properties of an ideal transformer:

(i) The primary and secondary windings have zero resistance
(ii) All the flux produced by the primary links the secondary winding i,e., there is no leakage
flux.
(iii) Core loss comprising of eddy current and hysteresis losses are neglected. (These losses are
discussed in detail in Section 5).
(iv) Permeability μr of the core is infinitely large. In other words, very small (or zero) current
is required to establish flux in the core

Exercise 2: A cassette recorder uses a plug-in transformer to convert 120 V to 12 V, with a

maximum current output of 200 mA. (a) What is the current input? (b) What is the power input?
(Answer: (a) 20 mA, and (b) 2.4 W)

Exercise 3: A transformer for a laptop computer puts out 7.5V and can supply a maximum
current of 2A. What is the maximum input current if the input voltage is 240V? (b) If the actual
efficiency is less than 100%, would the input current need to be larger or smaller? Explain.
(Answer: (a) 63 mA, and (b) larger input current is needed)
1.2.2 Based on Core Material: The transformer transfers the energy by conducting
electromagnetic flux through a core material. Different core materials produce different flux
density. So, depending on the core materials, several types of transformers are used in the
power and electronics domain.
(i) Iron core transformer: In order to ensure the largest and most effective magnetic linkage
of the two windings, the core, which supports them mechanically and conducts their mutual
flux, is normally made of highly permeable iron or steel alloy (cold-rolled, grain-oriented sheet
steel). Such a transformer is generally called an iron-core transformer. This type of
transformer uses multiple soft iron plates as the core material as shown in Fig.1.5. Due to the
excellent magnetic properties of iron, the flux linkage of the iron core transformer is very high.
Thus, the efficiency of the iron core transformer is also high. Transformers operated from 25–
400 Hz are invariably of iron-core construction.

Fig.1.5 Iron core transformer

(ii) Air core transformer: When the magnetic circuit linking the windings is made of
nonmagnetic material, the transformer is referred to as an air-core transformer. The air-core
transformer is of interest mainly in radio devices and in certain types of measuring and testing
instruments.
(iii) Ferrite core transformer: A ferrite core transformer uses a ferrite core due to high
magnetic permeability as shown in Fig.1.6. Ferrite core transformers are used in high-
frequency application such as in switch mode power supply (SMPS), RF related applications,
etc because this transformer offers very low losses in the high-frequency application.
 Fig.1.6 Ferrite core transformer
(iv) Toroidal core transformer: Toroidal core transformer uses toroid shaped core material,
such as iron core or ferrite core. Toroids are ring or donut shaped core material as shown in
Fig.1.7 which are widely used for superior electrical performance. Due to the ring shape, the
leakage inductance is very low and offers very high inductance and Q factors.

Fig.1.7 Toroidal core transformer

1.2.3 Based on Applications:

(i) Power transformer : This transformer acts as a bridge between the power generator and
the primary distribution grid. The main principle of the power transformer is to convert the low
voltage high current to a high voltage low current. This is required to minimize the power loss
in the power distribution system. Depending on the power rating and specification, power
transformers can further be classified into three categories: Small power transformer, Medium
power transformers, and the large power transformers. The rating of these transformers can
vary from 30 KVA to 100 MVA. A power transformer is shown in Fig. 1.8
 Fig.1.8 Power transformer

(ii) Distribution transformer: This is used in the last phase of the power distribution system.
Distribution transformers are step down transformers, which converts high grid voltage to the
end customer required voltage, i.e, 110V or 230V. The transformer is generally mounted on a
utility pole as shown in Fig.1.9. or it can also be placed inside of an underground chamber,
mounted on a concrete pad (pad mounted distribution transformer) or inside an enclosed steel
box. Generally, distribution transformers have a rating of less than 200kVA.

Fig.1.9 Distribution transformer

(iii) Audio Transformer: This kind of transformer is used in the electronics for audio
applications where impedance matching is required. Audio transformer balances the amplifier
circuit and loads (for example a loudspeaker). An audio transformer is shown in Fig.1.10

Fig.1.10 Audio transformer

2. EMF Equation of a Transformer:
Let us consider a two-winding transformer on no-load, i.e. the secondary terminals are open
while the primary is connected to a source of constant sinusoidal voltage of frequency f Hz as
shown in the schematic diagram of Fig.2.1. Assume that the resistances of the windings are
negligible. The primary winding draws an alternating current of instantaneous value i0, called
the exciting current, from the voltage source with positive direction as indicated on the
diagram. The exciting current establishes flux ϕ in the core (positive direction marked on
diagram) all of which is assumed confined to the core i.e., there is no leakage of flux.

Fig.2.1 Schematic diagram of a transformer under no load

Consequently, the primary winding has flux linkages,

𝜆1 = 𝑁1 𝜙 (2.2)
which induces emf in it is given by

ⅆ𝜆 ⅆ𝜙 (2.2)
𝑒1 = = 𝑁1
ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡
As per Lenz’s law, the positive direction of this emf opposes the positive current direction and
is shown by + and – polarity marks on Fig.2.1. According to Kirchhoff’s law, V1 = e1 (because
it is assumed that winding has zero resistance) and thus, e1 and therefore ϕ must be sinusoidal
of frequency f Hz, the same as that of the voltage source. Let,

∅ = 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝝎𝑡 (2.3)

where 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum value of the core flux and 𝝎 is the angular frequency of the
voltage source = 2πf.

The emf induced in the primary winding is

 ⅆ𝜙 (2.4)
𝑒1 = 𝑁1 = 𝝎𝑁1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝝎𝑡
ⅆ𝑡
From equations (2.3) and (2.4) it is found that the induced emf leads the flux by 90°. The rms
value of the induced emf is

𝐸1 = √2𝜋𝑓𝑁1 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4 ⋅ 44𝑓𝑁1 𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 (2.5)

Or in other way, equation (2.5) can be written as,

𝐸1 (2.6a)
𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4.44𝑓𝑁1

Important: It can be seen from (2.6a) that maximum flux in a transformer is determined by
V1/f (voltage/frequency) ratio at which it is excited. According to Eq. (2.6) the flux is fully
determined by the applied voltage; its frequency and the number of winding turns. This
equation is called as the EMF equation of a transformer under the assumption of negligible
winding resistance.

If we consider A as the cross-sectional area of the core and if Bmax is the maximum flux level,
then according to the relation ϕ = B.A equation (2.6) can be written as,

𝑉1 (2.6b)
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4.44𝑓𝐴𝑁1

Important: If the core is made of a material such that µr → ∞, then it is an ideal core material.
From the relation B = µH , it can be said that the slope of the B-H curve is infinite. This means
that for such an ideal core material current needed is practically zero to establish any Bmax in
the core.

2.1 Voltage Transformation Ratio:

From Fig.2.1, all the core flux ϕ also links the secondary coil causing in it an induced emf of

ⅆ𝜙 (2.7)
𝑒2 = 𝑁2
ⅆ𝑡

From Kirchhoff’s law, we have v1 = e1 and due to the open circuit, the voltage at the secondary
is v2 = e2. So, from (2.2) and (2.7), the total induced emf of the transformer windings is

𝑒1 𝐸1 𝑁1 (2.8)
= = = 𝒂
𝑒2 𝐸2 𝑁2
This is the voltage transformation ratio of the transformer and it is similar to equation (1.1).
The alphabet a is used to represent the voltage transformation ratio.

3. Phasor Diagrams of a Transformer:

(i) The exciting current given by i0 (as shown in Fig.2.1) is responsible for establishing a
required mmf so as to create the flux demanded by the applied voltage as in (2.6a)

(ii) The magnetizing current Im is the term used to denote the total current that flows into the
primary of a transformer when the transformer is energized at a specific voltage and frequency,
with the secondary open circuited. Therefore, the exciting current is magnetizing in nature and
is proportional to the sinusoidal flux and in phase with it. This magnetization current lags the
induced emf by 90º as shown in Fig.2.2

Fig. 3.1 Phasor relationship between induced emf and currents

The core loss component (from Fig. 3.1) is given by,

𝑃1 = 𝐸1 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (3.1)

Important : For the phasor diagram of no-load transformer, the equivalent circuit is shown in
Fig.3.2. It is represented using a parallel circuit model, where the conductance (Gi) accounts
for core-loss current Ii and the inductive susceptance Bm for magnetizing current Im. Both these
currents are drawn at induced emf E1 = V1 for resistance-less, no-leakage primary coil.
 Fig. 3.2 Equivalent circuit of a no-load transformer

Exercise 1: A transformer on no-load has a core-loss of 50 W, draws a current of 2 A (rms)

and has an induced emf of 230 V (rms). Determine the no-load power factor, core-loss current
and magnetizing current. Also calculate the no-load circuit parameters of the transformer.
Neglect winding resistance and leakage flux.

Solution: The power factor is given by,

50
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = = 0.108 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈
2 × 230

The magnetizing current is given by,

𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (cos −1 0.108) = 1.988 𝐴

The core loss current is given by,

𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 2 × 0.108 = 0.216 𝐴

From the equivalent circuit model, the core loss (at no load) is given by ,

𝐺𝑖 𝑉𝑖2 = 𝑃𝑖

50
𝐺𝑖 = = 0.945 × 10−3 𝛺−1
(230)2

Also,

Im = 𝑉𝑚 𝐵𝑖

So,

𝑉𝑚 1.988
𝐵𝑖 = = = 8.64 × 10−3 𝛺−1
𝐼𝑖 230
3.1 Impedance Equations: For an ideal transformer, currents transform in inverse ratio of
winding turns as shown in (3.2).

𝐼1 𝑁2 1 (3.2)
= =
𝐼2 𝑁1 𝑎
So, from equation (1.1) and (2.9), it can be written as

𝑉1 𝐼1 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 (3.3)
Dividing equation (1.1) by (1.2) we get,

𝑉1 /𝑉2 𝑁1 /𝑁2
=
𝐼1 /𝐼2 𝑁2 /𝑁1

The equivalent circuits of the above equations can be represented using a circuit referring
impedance from secondary to primary as shown in Fig. 3.3

Fig.3.3 Equivalent circuit of ideal transformer referring impedance from secondary to primary

Similarly, impedance referring from primary to secondary can be computed using,

Important: Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other is known as
referring the impedance to the other side. In conclusion it may be said that in an ideal
transformer voltage are transformed in the direct ratio of turns, currents in the inverse ratio and
impedances in the direct ratio squared; while power and VA remain unaltered.