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Avoidance of Collapses of Prestressed Concrete Elevated Structures &

Bridges during Construction in collaboration with National Highways
Authority of India (NHAI)

Presentation · October 2021

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 Avoidance of Collapses of Prestressed Concrete Elevated Structures
& Bridges during Construction
in collaboration with National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)
3 days residential programme for the Officers of MoRTH, NHAI, NHIDCL, BRO, IEs,
AEs and Contractors from 23 to 25 Sept, 2021 at Sohna, Gurugram, Haryana
V.N.Heggade has over three and half decades of experience in Construction sector in the
areas of Design Management, Technical Management, Site Management, Project
Management & Contract Management of Highways, Bridges, Energy structures,
Environmental, Marine and Hydraulic structures in addition to consulting in all types of
consultancies of all civil engineering sectors as a CEO.
He is a recipient of around 10 National recognitions in addition to an International prize from
various institutions, like IRC, ICI, NDRF, IBC and IABSE. He has more than 150 publications to
his credit and is a member of various IRC (Indian Roads Congress) and BIS (Bureau Of Indian
Standards) committees. He is also a member of TG 10.1 of Federation Internationale Du
V N Heggade Beton, which is a special Task Group working on FIB Model code 2020. Apart from being on
STUP Consultants Pvt Ltd Technical Board of ICI (Indian Concrete Institute) and Academic Board of SPCE (Sardar Patel
College Of engineering) is also a Fellow of Indian National Academy of Engineering (FNAE).
Contents of presentation
❑Introduction
❑Understanding Designs & Drawings in the context of failures
during construction
❑Casting of segments including handling, stacking &
transportation
❑Erection of segments for span by span method of precast
segmental construction
❑Joints & Temporary pre stressing in precast segmental
construction
❑Special Post tensioning & Grouting aspects for span by span
precast segmental bridges
Mumbai: Under-construction bridge collapses in BKC, 14
injured (17 September 2021 at 4.30 am)
 Failure during construction ( 6.12% of total from 1977-2017)

Total = 123 cases

Source :Analysis of bridge failures in India from 1977 to 2017, Rajeev Kumar Garg , Satish Chandra and Aman Kumar
,CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi, India; RTC Institute of Technology, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
Precast segmental superstructure failures during construction
(2017 onwards……….)
➢In some cases PSC
back span failed
after erection and
post-rolling of
launcher to next
span for erection.
➢In other cases, after
erection and full
transfer of
prestress, the
spans hogged up or
collapsed due to
crushing of concrete.
Precast segmental superstructure failures during construction
➢On 28.03.2021 at 0728
hrs, the precast
segmentally
constructed collapsed
following the same
trend.
➢Dwarka expressway
flyover was
dramatically
captured on CCTV
camera.
➢This capture indicated
that trigger for collapse
originated from already
installed back span.
Capacity building program devised through a committee
Capacity building program devised through a committee
Understanding Designs & Drawings
in the context of failures during
construction
Ten commandments for the prestressed concrete engineer
---Dr Ing Fritz Leonhardt in 1958
➢In the Design Office
✓ Pre-stressing means compressing the concrete. Compression can take place only where
shortening is possible. Make sure that your structure can shorten in the direction of pre-
stressing.
✓ Any change in tendon direction produces “radial” forces when the tendon is tensioned. Changes
in the direction of the centroidal axis of the concrete member are associated with “unbalanced
forces”, likewise acting transversely to the general direction of the member. Remember to take
these forces into account in the calculations and structural design.
✓ The high permissible compressive stresses must not be fully utilized regardless of
circumstances. Choose the cross-sectional dimensions of the concrete, especially at the
tendons, in such a way that the member can be properly concreted – otherwise the men on the
job will not be able to place and vibrate the stiff concrete correctly that is so essential to pre -
stressed concrete construction.
✓ Avoid tensile stresses under dead load and do not trust the tensile strength of concrete.
✓ Provide non-tensioned reinforcement preferably in a direction transverse to the pre-stressing
direction and, more particularly, in those regions of the member where the pre-stressing forces
are transmitted to the concrete.
Ten commandments for the prestressed concrete engineer
---Dr Ing Fritz Leonhardt in 1958
➢On the Construction Site
✓ Pre-stressing steel is a superior material to ordinary reinforcing steel and is sensitive to rusting, notches,
kinks and heat. Treat it with proper care. Position the tendons very accurately, securely and immovably
held in the lateral direction, otherwise friction will take its toll.
✓ Plan your concreting program in such a way that the concrete can everywhere be properly vibrated and
deflections of the scaffolding will not cause cracking of the young concrete. Carry out the concreting with
the greatest possible care, as defects in concreting are liable to cause trouble during the tensioning of the
tendons.
✓ Before tensioning, check that the structure can move so as to shorten freely in the direction of tensioning.
For distributing the pressure, insert timber or rubber packings between tensioning devices and the
hardened concrete against which they may be thrusting. Make it a rule always to cover up high pressure
pipelines.
✓ Tension the tendons in long members at an early stage, but at first only apply part of the pre -stress, so as
to produce moderate compressive stresses which prevent cracking of the concrete due to shrinkage and
temperature. Do not apply the full pre-stressing force until the concrete has developed sufficient strength.
The highest stresses in the concrete usually occur during the tensioning of the tendons . When tensioning,
always check the tendon extension and jacking force. Keep careful records of the tensioning operations.
✓ Do not start grouting the tendons until you have checked that the ducts are free from obstructions. Perform
the grouting strictly in accordance with the relevant directives or specifications.
Common features of precast segmental bridge failures during
construction
➢Cast at casting yard, transported to
location and placed.
➢Pre-cast segmental construction using
span-by-span method of erection.
➢One stage of prestressing at full
transfer of prestress.
➢Majority of them were spine & wing
construction.
➢All had internal prestressing with
epoxy glued joints
➢A compression failure due to
crushing of concrete
➢Design is done by beam analogy.
Advantages of precast Segmental Span-By-Span Bridges
➢There are many advantages to precast segmental span-by-span
construction, including:
✓ Lower Construction Cost
✓ Fast Construction
✓ Easy Maintenance of Traffic
✓ High Durability
➢Most of the work is done in the pre casting operation at casting yard
➢Typically has no impact on highway or railway traffic at the site of
the new bridge.
➢Once the segments are cast, span-by-span bridges can be erected
quickly, minimizing the time that construction impacts the site.
Turning point in the history of precast segmental bridges in India

Long Key Bridge in USA

(1981)

KRISHNA BRIDGE AT DEODURG(1971-72)

Increase in traffic lanes & deck-widths
➢Traffic demand
increased from 2 lanes
to 8 lanes on highways.
➢Single pier options
preferred due to :
✓ Less numbers of
operations
✓ Space below the
deck
➢Deck widths steadily
increased from single
cell to multiple celled &
strutted boxes.
 Further increase demanded Spine & Wing construction
(very popular in India not in many other countries)
➢As the deck width
increased, BDE
capacity was to be
increased.
➢Deck widths increase
posed challenges for
transportability and
negotiation of
curves.
➢Gave rise to spine
and wings
construction and
popular in India
Growth trend in deck widths of Spine & Wing construction

➢The flyover from JJ

hospital to JJ School
in Mumbai was first
Spine & Wings
construction in India.
➢In 1932 m viaduct had
56 spans of 34.5m of 8
span continuity module.
➢M75 grade of
concrete for bridge was
used first time in the
country.
‘Scale Effects’ to be addressed due to increased sizes
➢Scale effect : enlarging or slenderizing tried and tested designs when the
‘protective cover ’ of experience is overstepped, hitherto insignificant influences
become predominant.
✓ Indiscriminate increase in cantilevering wings.
✓ One stage prestressing for full transfer of prestress.
✓ At the transfer of full prestress, the stresses stretched to limits with
mobilization of loads only up to 35%.
✓ The slender segment due to increase in width making C/S vulnerable to
transverse deformability for vertical prestressing component in different webs.
✓ The slender segment due to increase in width being vulnerable to ‘bow effect’
during casting.
✓ Increase in the C/S area & depth of the segment leading to
inadequate/improper application of epoxy glue in case of epoxy glued joints.
Increasing trend for cantilevering wings

➢As the ratio of the

cantilever width to
spine width increases,
the load mobilized at
full transfer of prestress
reduces.
✓ During construction at
the time of full transfer
of prestress, only
spine contributes to
the properties of C/S
for resisting the loads.
Scale effect due to one stage of prestressing at full transfer
➢Ratio of L/15 to L/18 depth for simply
supported and deck continuity is normally
adopted
➢Ratio of L/20 to L/25 for continuous super
structure is normally used.
➢The above limits are > L/12 as such makes the
member long/slender compression member.
➢For precast segmental spine and wing
construction where one stage of transfer of
prestress is involved, the author suspects that
during construction stage when wings are not
installed, the prestressed spine beam is
vulnerable to buckling for any unintended or
hidden axial force.
Comparison of single transverse segment with spine & wings
separate segment
➢In a single contract,
job was divided
among 2
contractors.
➢The cross section
design was to be
uniform.
➢One contractor
opted for spine &
Wings cast
separate segments
where as other
opted for single
transverse
segment.
Residual stress/strain for buckling for unintended external axial
force after prestressing
➢In case of prestressed
members, if the
tendons are touching
the members, members
are not prone to
buckling.
➢However, if the
members are stressed to
the limits and the
external axial
compression(C) is
✓ At the point 01, for the single transverse segment modulus
induced, the residual
of elasticity for buckling is smaller than at  = 0 .
stress/strain curve
✓ At the point 02, for the spine beam modulus of elasticity for
available is too little and buckling is much smaller than at 01.
prone for buckling.
Potential unintended (hidden)forces on spine beam during
construction
➢Variation in prestressing
➢Temperature variation &
gradients in back girder
& launching girder.
➢Wind loadings on spans
& launching girder.
➢Coupled actions of
launching girder with
back span & span being
erected.
Additional forces due to variation in prestressing & Temp
gradient
Additional forces due to coupled action of launching girder &
spine beam
➢At the time of prestressing, to self support
the span & transfer load to bearings, the
suspenders from the launcher experience
reduction in force due to hogging of
span.
➢If the upward displacement due to
hogging < the downward displacement
of launcher under span weight, there
will be additional compressive force at
bottom fibre and tension at the top.
➢Again, if the tension at top opens the
joint, the redistribution of forces further
increases the compression at the bottom
fibre.
Potential unintended forces on spine beam during
construction
➢At around 1/3rd or 1/4th the
span, the prestressing cables
are deviated vertically.
➢In design, the section is
assumed rigid transversely for
vertical prestressing
component.
➢In reality, the vertical
component at central web
may be more and cause
vertical deformation leading to
cracks in bottom flange.
➢Also at this section, pre
stressing moment > DL
moment at mid span.
Scale effects on Segment casting & handling
➢Larger & Deeper sections warrant special concrete mix designs
✓ to achieve good quality concrete at bottom slab and at the locations of
prestressing cables.
✓ To reduce heat of hydration
✓ To reduce drying shrinkage.
➢The second issue with respect to the larger cross section is the pouring
sequence of these large cross sections. These are dictated by the designs
of the moulds and initial setting time of the concrete.
➢The next aspect is related to the vibration of the concrete. Generally, the
use of form or shutter vibrator is common. However, there is need for a
strong system approach for the design of these moulds and form vibrators.
➢Improper handling & stacking of the segments leading to cracks.
‘Scale effects’ during Construction- Bow effect

• Another scale effect during match-

casting due to increasing deck
width is ‘bow effect’.
• The face of the already cast
segment is used as a shuttering
face to cast the new segment.
• Because of the heat of hydration
in the new segment a thermal
gradient is formed in the match
cast segment leading to a
curved side between the two
adjacent segments.
Bow effects in wide precast segments
‘Scale effects’ during Construction- Epoxy glue application

➢it has to be ensured that the epoxy application in the

joints are uniform with 100%contact area between the
segments.
✓ As per the requirement,1mm thick epoxy shall be
applied on both the joint surfaces, 0.3 Mpa
temporary prestressing uniformly across the surface
to be maintained for 24 hours.
✓ The mixing resin and hardener, application and
temporary prestressing shall be completed so that
epoxy does not harden before temp pre stressing.
✓ With the ever-increasing deck width ( In the initial
days one side of the segment area of 6 m 2 has now
gone beyond 15 m 2) and corresponding joint area,
the practicality of application of epoxy with in pot life
becomes challenging.
‘Scale effects’ during Construction- Epoxy glue application

➢Assuming, that there are 13 joints in a span of 40m, including

temporary prestressing the total time required for epoxy application is
13 hours.
➢After the last joint is prestressed, the pressure needs to be maintained
for 24 hours. This means the total activity of the epoxy application
requires 37 hours for a 40-m span.
➢Based on this, the additional time required for 10 km elevated corridor,
the time required for epoxy-related applications will work out 385 days.
➢For one joint having 15 m2 surface area, assuming 3mm thick epoxy
glue, total quantity of epoxy glue will be 150 m 3 (around 6.5 kg/m2) for
10km viaduct. The cost of the epoxy application including labour will be
Rs 5.0 Cr.
 Casting of segments including
handling, stacking & transportation
Construction methods
➢There are two principal
ways to construct precast
segmental bridges.
✓ The span-by-span
construction method.
(SSMC)
✓ Cantilever method of
construction (CMC).
➢A lot of design decisions
depend on the method of
construction, like :
✓ Shape of segments,
✓ Weight of precast
elements
✓ Arrangement of the
pre stressing cables.
Etc.
Source : FIB Bulletin 82
Precast Segmental Construction process
➢ Pre cast methods of construction have
the following process of value
addition :
➢ Match casting of segments :
✓ Short line method of match
casting (SLMC)
✓ Long line method of match
casting (LLMC)
✓ Organization of casting yard.
➢ Transportation & Handling of pre
cast segments :
✓ By cranes
✓ By Gantries
✓ By trailers on land
✓ By water
➢ Erection of pre cast Segments :
✓ Under slung launching system
✓ Over head launching system.
✓ Combination of the above
Pre casting process
➢“Match casting” is now the most commonly used & essential system for the casting
of PSB segments.
✓ Each segment is individually cast using the adjacent segments as face
forms.
✓ Thus the system guarantees a perfect fitting between adjacent segments in
their final position.
➢Primarily, there are 2 methods of match casting. They are Long Line and Short Line.
➢In the long line method:
✓ the segments stay on the casting bed after concreting.
✓ The formworks are moved forward to cast the next segment.
➢In the short line method:
✓ The formworks are at a fixed position
✓ The concreted segment is moved from the casting bed in order to make room for
the next one.
Long Line Method of match casting (LLMC)
➢This method of match casting utilizes a
large formwork system that can take the
shape of the entire span, including camber,
which compensates for deflections of the
installed segments.
➢For a long line system in balanced Schematic of long line casting system. Side forms move along
a permanent soffit to cast individual segments.

cantilever, the pier segment is often cast in-

situ to enable control of the erection
geometry.
➢Primary advantage is its simplicity &
independence from the constant need for
geometrical control adjustments
➢ Long line casting
bed consist of
✓ Adjustable but
stationary
soffit
formwork,
✓ movable
external and
internal
formwork,
✓ Bulk head etc.

➢ End diaphragm
segment are cast
on separate bed
and place the same
on the long line bed
to act as a match
cast segment for
casting
intermediate
segments.
➢ STAGE – 1 : ALIGNMENT OF
SEGMENT S1
✓ Align the soffit formwork
for one span for required
radius of curvature.
✓ Place S1R & S1F at
required location with
proper alignment by means
of gantry.
➢ STAGE 2 :- CASTING OF
SEGMENT S2.
✓ Close external forms at S2R
and S2F locations.
✓ Place corresponding stop
end form at joints 2 and 8.
✓ Place the reinforcement
cage at S2R and S2F
location.
✓ Bring internal form on
carriage and fix in position
at S2R & S2F location.
✓ Provide inserts for holes for
lifting & temporary pre-
stressing.
STAGE 3 :- CASTING OF
SEGMENT S3
1. Remove external forms from
S2R & S2F locations and move
forward to S3R & S3F locations.
2. Remove stop end form from
joints 2 & 8 and place at joints 3
& 7.
3. Move Internal form on carriage
from S2R & S2F towards S4R &
S4F locations and do the
necessary modifications.
4. Place the reinforcement cage at
S3R and S3F locations.
5. Bring internal form on carriage
from S4R & S4F location to
S3R & S4F locations and fix in
position.
6. Provide Inserts for holes for
lifting and temporary pre-
stressing.
7. Concrete the segments S3R &
S3F.
➢Where the width of the segment
is too large to handle and also
where sharp curves to be
negotiated, the spine and wings
option is popular.
➢The large deck is further
segmented in to spine and side
wings which are pre cast.
➢ The side wings could be truss
or ribs.
➢Once the spine units are placed
and post tensioned for self
sustenance, the side wings are
brought and integrated with the
spine span through cross
prestressing or properly
detailed reinforcements.
✓ In strutted box precast
segmental construction,
the struts could be with
in the box section or
outside supporting
cantilevering flanges.
✓ The process of pre
casting is carried out
twice.
✓ The struts are cast
separately as a
prestressed/ RCC
members.
✓ These precast struts are
again used in match
casting machine for
casting of precast
segments.
STAGE 4:- SHIFTING OF SEGMENTS TO
STACKING YARD
➢ Segments will be shifted to the stacking
yard where they will be stacked in proper
planning such that double handling could
be avoided during transportation to
erection site.
➢ The travelling gantry crane is the most
commonly used equipment for handling
segment on a prefabrication yard as it is
robust and easy to maintain.
➢ Its capacity to span above production
area makes it easier to arrange.
➢ The allowable longitudinal slope along
crane tracks is about 1% .
➢ Movements are slow (longitudinal speed
about 20 m/min). Gantry crane tracks
above 300 m long are not recommended
➢ Typically, the span segments
are usually stacked on two
levels.
➢ Stacking on 3 levels, or
more, could be considered
for segment with vertical
webs.
➢ It has to be ensured that
three point stacking is
adopted at stacking yard.
➢ Even while transporting
the segment on the trailer,
the 3 point support under
the webs is a must for
avoiding uneven support
leading to cracks.
➢ Lifting holes are to be
left in segment for lifting
and temporary pre-
stressing.
➢ Sheathing ducts and the
arrangement specific to
manufacturers of joining
the ducts between the
➢ The spreader beams
have to be used so that
unscheduled forces
don’t get induced to
segments.
➢ Trailer has to be
indigenously designed
with low bed to cater for
headroom during
transportation
➢ The design of the lay out should
consider :
✓ Casting machine supporting
foundations
✓ Gantry span and capacities to
handle formwork, reinforcement cage
and pre-cast segments.
✓ Batching plant capacity for providing
concrete during casting the
segments.
✓ The logistics of reinforcement bay for
cutting steel, storage space for pre-
cast segments, fabrication yard and
site office.
➢ The core of the prefabrication yard is the
production area. The other areas are
located as close as possible of it in order
to limit handling and transportation on
the yard.
Short Line method of Match Casting (SLMC)
➢Only one segment is cast at a time.
➢ The segment being cast has one face formed by
the previous segments, thereby insuring that the
joint interface is precise.
➢The geometric control during casting :
✓ The casting machine allows for movement of the
previous segment in order to establish a relative
position.
✓ This unique positioning of each segment,
throughout casting, is critical in guaranteeing
that the final geometrical shape of the installed
segments over the pier is correct.
✓ To do this, geometrical modelling calculations of
the segments´ for final positions are performed;
then the segments are to be positioned
accordingly in the mechanism Source : FIB Bulletin 82
Modern principle of SLMC
➢1 unit of 3 dimensional geometric
control carriage :
✓ it is a movable frame supporting the
previously cast segment on its bottom
form.
✓ This frame is provided with
horizontal and vertical jacks
allowing the accurate positioning of
the segment.
✓ It is used also to transfer the
completed segment on its bottom
form to the match cast position
avoiding lifting at early age.
➢1 unit of internal core form, which
allows shuttering the inner faces of
the webs, the bottom face of the
upper slab and the vertical faces of
the blisters.
➢1 unit of translation gantry
supporting the internal core form.
Casting sequence

1) Casting of First Segment 2) First segment moved to Match Cast

position

4) De bonding of First segment cast –

3) Casting of second segment ( Match cast moved to stacking yard
Joint)
Quality Control
➢The design and construction of precast segmental bridges requires a
tight integration between several interfaces and warrants special
attention of the quality control measures in :
✓ Geometry,
✓ Materials ( Concrete mix design)
✓ Erection (handling, stacking, launching, pre stressing & jointing)
✓ Specialised workmanship in different areas.
➢Detailed documents including method statements, fabrication and
erection procedures and testing requirements need to be detailed
in the contract documents to assist the relevant teams involved in
the project to reduce the risks during construction.
Specific attention in segment casting
➢Formwork inspection prior to next segment fabrication
starts (cleanness of faces, internal seals, adjustment to the
bulkhead and cast segment previously concreted).
➢Dimensional and compliance of prefabrication
reinforcement prior to erection in the segment. Cover
tolerances and spacer placing in the segment are also very
important. Dimensional integrity of the cage must be kept
during transportation.
➢Installation and leak tightness of ducts and pre stressing
anchors.
 Special sequence, vibration and mix design requirements
➢Concrete pouring sequence and concrete mix testing
parameters should be specifically indicated as part of the
construction requirements, particularly if self-compacting
concrete is not used.
➢Concrete mix design with abundant mineral admixtures,
should be such that heat of hydration and drying shrinkage
is minimum to avoid bow effects and also shrinkage
cracks in the segment
➢the concreting of each segment requires an specific pouring
and sequence and vibrating within each segment to allow
the cast of the full section without the formation of cold
joints
➢Since the form work is robust to cater for number of
segment casting, if shutter vibrators are used, it has to be
ensured that the same is effective. .
➢This process is very sensitive to the workmanship skills and
the concrete mix consistency. Concrete consistency should
be tested prior to the pour of every segment.
Prefixing of reinforcement cage in a jig
➢Prefixing of reinforcement in cages is required for two
main reasons:
✓ Productivity. Usually, typical segments are cast in
a one day cycle. This could be achieved only if
rebar placing is as short as possible.
✓ Quality. Steel fixing in the pre casting cells shall be
avoided in order to preserve the form skins from
scratches and damage.
➢Measures to limit deformations are as follows
✓ The prefixed cages are handled by use of spreader
beams with multiple hangers; and
✓ The cages are not transported on site by use of
trailer but handled directly by cranes from near by
location
Pre casting defects at casting yard
Due to certain peculiarities,
precast segments sensitive
to certain types of defects.
Some of the most
common defects during
the fabrication of
segments are:
✓ Formwork leaks Honey comb Grout leakage due to formwork
✓ Defects due to concrete
compaction and
concrete mix
✓ Defects due to lack of
cover
✓ Defects during
stacking, handling &
erection
lack of concrete compaction A cold joint
 Repairing of the segments for local defects
➢The longitudinal cracking in the segments
after pre stressing can happen
✓ Thermal effects causing bow effects
leading to an uneven distribution of
stresses at the segment interface.
✓ Local defects (honey combs, cracks,
cold joints)in the segment producing
additional local stresses between
segments.
✓ The segments should be repaired prior to
their erection as long as the defects do
not affect the contact faces between
the match cast segments.
 Erection of segments for span by
span method of precast segmental
construction
 Erection methods for span by span method of
construction
➢ In SSM method of construction , an entire
span (pier to pier) is erected with special
equipment:
✓ False work or trestles from ground
✓ overhead girder
✓ Under slung girder
➢ Then becomes self supporting by applying
posttension
➢ During non self supporting stage of the
span, segments are individually supported
either by:
✓ point supports below segment soffit for
under slung girder and false work
✓ point support below the segment wings
(part of deck cantilevering out from the
web) for under slung girder,
✓ hangers connected between deck top
slab and overhead truss for overhead
girder,
 Classical SSM underslung erection using
scaffolding/Trestles
➢The modern Erection machine consists of trestle
resting on screw jack assembly, knuckle
bearings, main girder and sliding trolleys.
➢Footings are placed on the ground and trestles
are erected on the footings supported with screw
jack assembly at bottom. Screw jacks enable the
lowering and rising of main girder for final
alignment vertically.
➢ Main girder is placed on knuckle bearings
provided over trestles. Knuckle bearings enable
main girder to rotate horizontally to facilitate as
per horizontal curvature.
➢ Trolleys are placed over the main girder to
support the segments. Two trolleys are used to
support each segment.
➢Arrangements for raising, lowering the segments
as well as positioning the segment in longitudinal
and transverse direction are required to be
provided
 Classical SSM underslung erection using
scaffolding/Trestles
➢ The segments are transported on
special trailers having required
capacity ( 60 to 100 ton) from casting
yard to site.
➢ The required capacity crane or bed
gantry is used to place the segments,
dry matching needs to be carried out to
ensure that segments are aligned as
per required geometry of the structure.
➢ After dry matching, the segments are to
be glued with epoxy from one end to
another. PT bars are normally used for
temporary pre-stressing.
➢ Normally pressure of 3 kg/cm2 is
specified to be applied between faces
of two segments.
➢ Then permanent pre-stressing cables
are threaded through the ducts and
stressed.
➢ PT bars or any other temporary
external pre stressing are distressed
and removed.
Top Down erection using underslung truss and segment lifter for
SSME
➢ In this method of SSME the
precast segments are erected
by means of a 3 span long
underslung type erection girder.
➢ The erection girder consists of
two structural steel box girders,
which are supported over
RCC/steel bracket one on either
side of bridge decking projecting
from pier.
➢ These erection girders may be
supported on foundations also if
sufficient place is available.
➢ Specially designed erection
gantry ( Camel Gantry) is used
to feed the segments to
Launching girder.
➢ Sufficient capacity trailers are
used which travel over already
erected deck to bring precast
segments below Camel Gantry.
➢ Segment carriages with
hydraulic jacks (for final
alignment purpose) are placed
on the Launching girder over
which Camel Gantry places the
Precast segment.
 SSME using underslung girder & over head segment
launcher
➢After placement of all the
segments and aligning them to
proper geometry epoxy gluing
followed by temporary
prestress is carried out.
➢ If there are any in situ joints
between pier segment and
penultimate segments, the
same are then to be
concreted.
➢After assembly of all the
segments, permanent
prestressing is carried out to
make the span self supporting.
➢The Launching girder is then
auto launched to the next span
by means of winches and
Camel gantry is brought to the
next feeding location.
Top Down erection using underslung truss and segment lifter for SSME
Typical components are
✓ 2 Main girders,
✓ Carriage trolley set
on each main beam
able to shift the
segment along
loaded length of the
main beam,
✓ Launching system
(chain + wire system
),
✓ 3 x twin Pier brackets
or tower at the pier
location,
✓ Stressing platform,
and
✓ Segment loader or
external crainage
 SSME using overhead gantries
➢ Overhead gantry is a
steel girder specially
designed to hang the
assembly of segments of
the entire span and
spanning over minimum 2
consecutive piers.
➢ This temporary girder has
self-launching capability
with mechanized
launching system to be
able to move
longitudinally over the
successive piers.
➢ Overhead head gantry for
SSME was perhaps first
time introduced to Delhi
metro viaduct
constructions in India and
there after the technology
was picked up
extensively even for road
elevated structures and
bridges later
 SSME using overhead gantries
Major Components are :
• Main girder could be single or
two.
• Carriage trolley able to pick up
and handle segment.
Sometimes used also for
launching the main girder.
• Launching system like
hydraulic jacks , chain pully
blocks, etc.
• Main supports like Front and
Rear legs.
• Auxiliary supports like Rear leg
,Front leg and intermediate
legs if required.
• The bracket to support the
front leg if there is no space
over the pier cap.
• The assembly of beam and
Hangers to handle the precast
segment with the carriage
trolley
• Suspenders to support the
segments.
Source : FIB Bulletin 82
Typical erection sequence for Overhead Launching in SSME
➢ Temporary trestles placed on
footings for erecting boxes of
launching girder.
➢ Then front support has to be
erected on Front pier (Pn+2)
➢ Middle support has to be
erected on built up stool
provided on Centre pier
(Pn+1).
➢ One by one box of launching
girder are erected on
temporary trestles and joined
to each other by splice joint.
➢ After joining all the boxes
slider Beam are to be erected,
➢ Temporary trestles are to be
removed.
 Typical erection sequence for Overhead Launching in
SSME
STAGE-1
➢ First segment is
brought on trailer and
lifted with help of
crab hoist provided in
launching girder.
➢ Segment is hanged
to the slider beam
and shifted to its
position with help of
slider beam.
STAGE-2
➢ Similarly all the
segment are
positioned by
procedure given in
stage-1
 Typical erection sequence for Overhead Launching in SSME
STAGE-3
➢ Dry matching is carried out
between segments.
➢ S1 segment is positioned
accurately as per required level and
alignment.
➢ Remaining segments are shifted
back by 200mm for applying epoxy.
➢ Then epoxy is applied to the
surface S1 and S2 segment.
➢ Segment S1 and S2 are joined by
applying force with help of
attachment frame and tension bar.
➢ Similarly all the segments are
joined with epoxy by applying force
with help of attachment frame and
stressing bar.
➢ Stress the Permanent pre stressing
cables
➢ Load is transferred from slider
beam to pier cap with help of (280
ton) span releasing jack
➢ Segments are released from the
suspenders of slider beam.
 Typical erection sequence for Overhead Launching in SSME-Auto
launching
STAGE-4
➢ All the sliders beam are moved back at the rear
end of the launching girder.
➢ Rear support is shifted and activated on S1
segment.
➢ Middle support is deactivated so that load is
transferred on rear support and middle support
is free to move.
➢ Middle support is shifted and positioned near
front support. Middle support is activated at that
position.
➢ Telescopic leg of front support is closed so that
front support is deactivated and load is
transferred on middle support.
STAGE-5
➢ Launching girder is pushed forward with help of
longitudinal jack ( having stroke of 1000mm)
provided on middle support, until it reached
near next pier location.
➢ Front support is activated by opening the it’s
telescopic leg.
➢ Sliders are brought to the front for erecting the
segments of next span.
 Load transfer between launching girder and prestressed beam in
overhead launching system
➢At the time of prestressing, the span is positioned
over temporary bearings (preferably Jacks).
➢Due to prestressing, the span is gradually able
to support itself, transferring shear to the
temporary supports, increasing the reactions at
ends.
➢At the same time, suspenders from the launcher
experience reduction in force due to hogging of
span.
➢It is worth noting that if complete prestressing is
➢It is therefore a better practice to
applied without disengaging the launcher, it will
release the launcher after stressing
exert an upward force through suspenders.
N cables which are adequate to
➢This upward force is secretly adding to the effects sustain the self-weight with complete
of prestress, causing additional compressive compression within the section, with
stress at bottom fibre and a possibility of little margin to take care of
tensile stress in the top! construction loads on deck.
Load transfer between launching girder and prestressed beam in
underslung launching system
➢Prestressed girder deflection < the launching
girder deflection.
➢As load is transferred on permanent supports,
the deflected girder wants to come back to
its initial shape, which imposes reaction
loads on the individual supports below
segment wings.
➢Preventive and mitigation actions are based
on the local control of those jacks or by a
lowering system set between the main beams
of the underslung girder and its support.
➢Check on precast segment wings, if used for
support as this is a load direction opposite to
that of the permanent works design so may
require consideration in the permanent works
design.
Bearing installation aspects
➢Mortar Pads : bearings require use of mortar pads above and below the
bearing. The pads are typically comprised of specialty mixes with high early
strength and low shrinkage properties;
➢Horizontal Orientation and Performance Assurance : Bearings are nearly
always installed horizontally to assure stability and functionality; Bearing
Manufacturers must provide calculations and performance test data to
validate movement capabilities in accordance with those established for a
given structure.
➢Temperature Adjustment : Metallic bearings should be adjusted and given
off set based on the ambient temperature at the time of installation.
➢Direction of Movement : Guided bearings, which allow movement in one
direction only, need to be installed so that the bearing’s direction of
movement is the same as that of the bridge.
Typical Bearing installation process
➢Bearings assembly are placed on pedestals
over pier cap.
➢ Pier segment is brought to position at a higher
level.
➢ Bearing assembly are bolted to the sleeves
embedded in soffit of pier segment.
➢ The segment with bearings levelled and
aligned.
➢ Gap between pedestals bottom plate of bearing
is grouted with shrinkage free mortar.
➢ The gaps between pier segments and typical
segments are concreted after fixing shuttering
Joints & Temporary pre stressing in
precast segmental construction
Epoxy application for glue joints
➢A fundamental difference
between segmental bridges
and other types are the
joints and in India epoxy
glued joints are encouraged.
➢The epoxy formulation has to
be done in accordance with
IRC: SP-65. guidelines.
➢ With ever increasing surface
area and depth of the
girders, the arrangement of
reachability and the labour
required for applying
epoxy shall be adequately
planned so that the
operation can be completed
in stipulated time which is
normally within 45 minutes.
 Temporary prestressing during erection
➢Apply a minimum pressure (0.3Mpa) on the joint in
order to spread the glue on the joint evenly and not
to alter the general geometry of the span.
➢Stress bars are re-used from one pair of segments
to the other.
➢ Checking of the integrity of the bars shall be
done regularly and bars shall be replaced from
time to time when required.
➢Due to the uneven pressure of the temporarily fixing
bars as well as of the dead weight of the segment,
there is a risk of the compressive stress is not
uniform along the height of the joint
➢This shall be corrected by subsequent segment
erection by using shims of GFRP as GFRP has
closer modulus of elasticity to hardened epoxy glue.
Standard operating procedure (SOP)- Epoxy jointing

➢ Prior to the use of epoxy on the project, conduct a site meeting with the Engineer and epoxy manufacturer
to determine the proper formulations, storage and handling, mixing and application of the epoxy.
➢ Have the necessary materials immediately available at the location of the segment joining, in the event that
the segments must be separated and cleaned or epoxy reapplied.
➢ Construction methodology should ensure that the time elapsing between mixing components of the first
batch of epoxy bonding agent applied to the joining surfaces of precast concrete segments and the
application of a compressive contact pressure across the joint do not exceed 70% of the open time for the
particular formulation of epoxy bonding agent used.
➢ Contact pressure may be attained through combinations of weight and temporary and/or permanent post
tensioning.
➢ Details of how the minimum, closing, contact pressure of approximately 0.3 Mpa will be applied uniformly to
epoxy joint during the epoxy curing period shall be clearly defined.
➢ Ensure that the application surfaces are free from oil, form release agent, laitance or any other deleterious
material that would prevent the epoxy bonding agent from bonding to the concrete surface. Remove laitance
by light sandblasting, wire brushing. Do not destroy the surface shape and profile of the mating surfaces
➢ Ensure that the surfaces have no free moisture on them at the time the epoxy bonding agent is applied.
Free moisture will be considered present if a dry rag, after being wiped over the surface, becomes damp
➢ Ensure that the surfaces have no free moisture on them at the time the epoxy bonding agent is
applied. Free moisture will be considered present if a dry rag, after being wiped over the surface,
becomes damp
➢ Apply the epoxy bonding agent only when the substrate temperature of both surfaces to be joined is
between 5°C and 45°C, or as specified by the manufacturer.
➢ The formulation of the epoxy bonding agent must have an application temperature range that
conforms to the substrate temperature of the surfaces being joined. If the mating surfaces have
different substrate temperatures, then use the formulation for the higher temperature in hot weather
periods. In cold weather periods, use the formulation for the lower temperature.
➢ Mix the two components of the epoxy bonding agent in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions, using only full and undamaged containers.
➢ Only open the containers immediately before being combined and do not use any which have an expired
shelf life. Thoroughly stir each container of component before combining the components. Combine the two
components and thoroughly mix until a uniform color is achieved.
➢ Mix with a properly sized mechanical mixer operating at no more than 600 rpm or in accordance with the
recommendations of the epoxy manufacturer.
➢ Do not mix until the segments to be joined are within approximately 500mm of their final position. Schedule
mixing of the epoxy bonding agent so that the material in a batch is applied to the face of a joint within a
maximum of 20 minutes after combining the component
➢ Mix the two components of the epoxy bonding agent in strict accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions, using only full and undamaged containers.
➢ The Engineer, at his discretion, may require a dry run to check the fit of two surfaces before applying
the epoxy.
➢ The labour required for applying epoxy shall be adequately planned so that the operation can be
completed in stipulate time. If required a extra resource may be kept ready for first few runs till exact
requirement of labour is known.
➢ Immediately after each mating surface is covered with epoxy bonding agent, bring the segments
together and apply the specified compressive contact pressure in accordance with the approved
erection procedures.
➢ The contact pressure may be increased at any time after the epoxy has taken an initial set. Do not
reduce the contact pressure until the epoxy in the joint has properly hardened and cured. If the contact
pressure is reduced, do not subject the joint to tensile stress.
➢ Catch and retain excess epoxy which is squeezed out of the joint in areas over waterways, roadways,
buildings, etc.
➢ Clean all extruded epoxy bonding agent from external visible surfaces in a way not to damage or stain
the concrete surface. Do not smear surplus extruded epoxy bonding agent over large areas (areas
more than 1 inch from each side of the joint), visible surfaces or surfaces to which a cover coat, Class
5 applied finish coat or similar or texturing is to be applied later.
➢ Immediately after the segments are joined, swab all embedded (internal) post-tensioning ducts or
conduits passing through the joints to smooth out any extruded epoxy bonding agent.
➢ If the time between combining the components of the epoxy bonding agent and applying the compressive contact pressure
exceeds 70% of the minimum open time, immediately separate the segments and clean the faces using spatulas and
approved solvent.
➢ Do not re-apply epoxy until the faces have been properly cleaned and solvents dispersed, for a period of 24 hours.
➢ IF the temperature do not fall in the range specified by the manufacturer special provisions for preheating (surrounding the
joint by artificial enclosure through which warm air is circulated, or heating is provided by radiant heaters) or cooling (by
shading or wetting with clean water) shall be made.
➢ Ensure that precast concrete segments remain fully supported by the erection truss or system until at least 20 hours after
mixing of the last batch of epoxy bonding agent applied to any joint in the span

Site record of epoxy joining shall contain following information,

1. General:
• a. Date and time of jointing,
• b. Segment numbers or spans jointed,
• c. Weather conditions
2. For each joint (identified by location or segment numbers):
a. manufacturer’s lot number of epoxy bonding agent components.
b. Temperature of the concrete on the joint surface at the middle of each segment when application of the
epoxy bonding agent began.
c. Time of mixing first batch of epoxy bonding agent applied to the joint and completion of application.
d. Time of applying the required compressive contact pressure.
3. Details of any repairs performed including reason for repair, joint location, volume of epoxy used, method of
application, etc.
Recommended checklist for the Inspection of Epoxy Joints

➢Ensure that the epoxy resin is approved for use on the project
➢Ensure that the contractor is implementing the safety
recommendations from the supplier.
➢Ensure that a supplier's representative is present at the time of first
use on the project.
➢If there are several types of epoxy on the project, ensure that labeling
is such that they cannot be interchanged.
➢Ensure that the two components of the epoxy are properly mixed.
Epoxy consists of a resin and a hardener, often referred to as
components A and B.
➢Ensure that pot life and open time requirements are adhered to.
Recommended checklist for the Inspection of Epoxy Joints
--Continued

➢Ensure that joint faces are properly prepared

➢Clean means that the joint has been lightly sandblasted to remove cement
paste and bond breaker and that subsequent soiling is removed by wire brush.
➢Ensure that conditions for use of epoxy are met.
➢Ensure that the epoxy is properly applied to the joint faces.
➢Ensure that excess epoxy is removed from exterior joint faces.
➢Ensure that excess epoxy is cleaned from tendon ducts.
➢Ensure that the curing process is being monitored
➢Ensure that tests prescribed by the Special Provisions to be performed during
erection are made.
➢Ensure that there is an approved procedure for removal of epoxy from joint
faces.
Special Post tensioning & Grouting
aspects for span by span precast
segmental bridges
 PT layout system for Span by Span method of construction

• The permanent post-tensioning of precast segmental bridges may be applied either by external
tendons or internal (bonded) prestressing, or by utilising a combination of these systems.
• PT lay out system has to be designed taking in to consideration practical method for placing and
removing stressing jacks, which may require temporary openings in the box girder
External prestressing vis-à-vis Internal prestressing for SSMS
➢Typically external post-tensioning shall be preferred as external tendons can be
installed very quickly and a near ideal vertical PT arrangement can be produced without
affecting the required web thickness.
➢They also offer benefits with regard to durability, as the corrosion protection is pre-
applied under a controlled environment and can be inspected during the operational
period of the structure.
➢On the other hand additional time required for say 10 km elevated corridor for
epoxy-related applications will work out 385 days, 150 m3 of epoxy formulation
with the cost of Rs 5.0 Cr, for a joint area of 15 m2 in addition to the risk of
improper epoxy application
➢By avoiding the internal prestressing, the apprehension of water ingress leading to
possible corrosion of the tendons is obviated apart from external tendons being
accessible for inspection and maintenance.
➢However in India, epoxy glued joints with internal prestressing is recommended.
 Variation in prestressing force during construction due to wobble
& friction coefficients

➢ As per the actual test conducted on HDPE ducts, the values of Friction and Wobble were as follows
✓ Friction –0.0818
✓ Wobble –0.0019
➢ It is essential to conduct these test on very large length cable.
➢ Instead of specific value of µ & k, range should be indicated in Indian codes particularly for SWC HDPE
DUCT
 Integrity of longitudinal post tensioning ducts during casting
➢In precast segmental bridges, the internal ducts for
post tensioning tendons are split up into as many
parts as there are segments. It may be difficult to
make all of these parts having a smooth and
accurate geometry
✓ Using inflated hoses inserted into the ducts
in order to maintain their shape during concrete
pouring.
✓ Using HDPE pipes, acting as forms, inserted
in the ducts, and metal rings around them,
placed at the joint before casting the
following segment. The inner plastic couplers
are used to ensure a proper geometry of the
ducts at the joint during the pouring of the
concrete,
 Water tightness of the ducts at joints
➢It is imperative to make sure that ducts are leakproof
even to epoxy glue so that the ducts are clear without
the ingress off epoxy and also for water from long
time durability angle.
✓ This is achieved by use of rubber rings around
the ducts at the joints between segments.
✓ Before casting of the segment, steel rings are
placed around the ducts, leaving an imprint of half
the thickness of the rubber rings.
✓ The rubber rings are placed in this recess, and
are compressed when the temporary prestressing
is applied.
✓ There are also proprietary prestressing
systems which have couplers at the segment
joint. Refer to FIB Bulletin 75.
 Good references for post tensioning & grouting.
➢Rest of the post tensioning and grouting
quality control measures to be adopted are
similar to other post tensioned bridges.
✓ Some of the good references available are :
✓ FHWA “Post-Tensioning Tendon Installation
and Grouting Manual.”
✓ FIB bulletin 33 : Durability of post tensioning
tendons
✓ FIB bulletin 20 : Grouting of tendons in
prestressed concrete.
✓ FIB bulletin 75 : Polymer duct systems for
internal bonded post tensioning.
 Thank you …posterity deserves Long Tall
& sustainable bridges!
Contact : vheggade@assystem.com, vnheggade@gmail.com

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