Basics of science applied to energy systems

00 – Basics of science
applied to energy systems

Energy, concept of science (energy, power, units, forms of energy); Energy
vectors (fuel, electricity, heat); Combustion (CO2 emission factors); Conversion
(efficiency, variability: annual load factor); Orders of magnitude and rough
estimates (rounding, significant digits).
Objectives (be able to …)

• characterize energy in its physics, chemical and technological aspects
• calculate energy, power and CO2 emissions of different activities from daily life
(at home, at work, transport, process, …)
Brussels, 24th September 2021

Prof. Michel HUART
MECA-H417 – Sustainable energy
A. General overview
http://uv.ulb.ac.be
MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

00 – Basics of science applied to energy systems – Edition 23/09/2021
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Content (00 Basics of science applied to energy systems)

Energy has a wide range of meanings: Science; Way of life; Commodity; Society issue
Energy: Concept of science : Energy and work; Energy forms; Units; Power
Main energy vectors: Fuels, Heat, Electricity
Combustion: Chemical reaction; CO2 emission factors
Conversion: Efficiency; Variability (Annual load factors)
Orders of magnitude
Rough estimate: Rounding; Few significant digits; Appropriate units
General learning outcome
You are able:
• To characterize energy in its physics and chemical aspects;
• To solve exercises about energy in concrete situations;
• To demonstrate critical approach on results (given or personal) by having in mind rough
estimates and formulas related to energy systems;
• To look at quantitative aspects by applying a simple rule of thumb with some elementary
arithmetic and order of magnitude;
• To mention the answer with a right number of significant digits;
Specific learning outcomes
• To describe: Energy, Force, Work, Power, Units, Heat (transfer), Fuel CV (net and gross);
Electricity, Variability (Load factor), Conversion, Efficiency, examples of 1 kWh
• To characterise main commercial final energy : fuels, heat, electricity.
• To know useful order of magnitude (human power, NCV, Cp of water, Belgian consumptions
(final, primary, total), Electricity consumption in household;
• To calculate energy production and consumption applying energy forms formulas, efficiency,
variability, units, significant digits;
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Bibliography extracts
Reading and references :
EVERETT
• 2.2 Consuming energy: Pages 35-45 : Units, SI, P and E
HERMANS
• Energy: What exactly is it? Pages 15-18: Conversion and conservation of energy
MACKAY
• Chap I.2. The balance sheet: Energy and power; Picky details - Physics and equations p24-
28
Other material
• IEA: Energy statistics Manual, 2005 – Annex 3: Units and conversion equivalents
https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/statistics_manual.pdf

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Quiz
a) Energy ?
b) Name some energy units
c) Name different forms of energy and give their formula
d) First law of thermodynamics
e) Second law of thermodynamics
f) Power ?
g) Name some power units
h) Variability and annual load factor
i) Name the most frequent commercial forms of energy on the market (domestic,
company, industry)?
j) Briefly describe

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Energy: What exactly is it?

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Energy has a wide range of meanings

Energy: Concept of science
The concept of energy is one of the most abstract and multiform of science.
Although it is related to the properties of matter, it is an abstract mathematical object.
It is encountered in different forms: kinetic, mechanical, gravitational (potential), chemical, heat.
And we perceive it during its transformation from one form to another.
Definition: Energy is the ability to do a work (include heat).
Energy: Ingredient of the way of life
In everyday life, energy is not used for itself, but it is intimately linked to the way of life, e.g. the
way of satisfying needs through the activities of services.
Living: heating, cooling, ventilating, lighting, washing, cooking, refrigerating, operating, ...
Getting around: going to work, going on vacation, going to have fun, going to sport,
accompanying your child to school, transporting objects, ...),
Moving objects, goods and materials
Conducting activities by different users:
Households: leisure, relaxation, family, culture, social, ... (sport, cinema, gardening, travel, visit,...)
Territorial collectivities, public companies and autorities: to ensure the regal function (health, relief,
education, protection, army, administration, various public infrastructures
Businesses and industries (productive sector) from sectors of economic activity (NACE Code)
https://ec.europa.eu/competition/mergers/cases/index/nace_all.html
Energy: Commodity and a society issue

In everyday life, energy is :
- a commodity (fuel, barrel of oil, full of gasoline, delivery of fuel oil, a bill of electricity, ...)
- a society issue (news, concern) peak oil, transition, green, clean, nuclear risk, variability of
renewable, risk of load shedding, cause of climate change, golf war, …
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Energy: Concept of science
Energy, work, force, power

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Energy - Force, Work
Whenever a force is moving something, it must be providing energy.

A force is needed to change the motion of any object. (F = mass x acceleration)
SI Unit: N
All forces in the universe are based on four fundamental interactions
• Gravity (1) (Relative intensity)
• Weak nuclear forces (1035)
• Electromagnetic forces (1038)
• Strong nuclear forces (1040)
Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
Energy is the ability to do a work (include heat).
Energy exists in several forms such as mechanical (kinetic, pressure, elastic), heat,
electromagnetical (radiation, magnetic, electrical), chemical or nuclear.
Energy can be sensible or potential. Potential energy is storable in the long term.
SI Unit : J - Other units : kWh; cal; toe; BTU; Quad;

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Different Forms of 1 kWh
= 3,600 kJ = 860 kcal
= work of 1 kW during 1h or work of 100 W during 10h
= work to lift 1 t to 360 m height
= mechanical energy that can be delivered by an athlete in one day
= gravitational energy of collected rain in one year on a Belgian roof of 60m² (8 m height)
= kinetic energy of a 6.5 t truck at 120 km/h
= kinetic energy of 10 m/s wind going through a 100 m² surface during one minute
= car consumption for 2 km ride (consumption 5l/100km)
= quantity of heat delivered by the combustion of 100 ml of petrol
= nutritional energy of 100 ml of olive oil
= nutritional energy of 2 litres of Coca cola
= nutritional energy of 215 g of sugar or 36 lumps of sugar
= quantity of heat delivered by the combustion of 200 g of dry wood
= electrical energy stored in 400 batteries AA (2100 mAh x 1,2V)
= net heat needed to heat 20 litres of water from 12°C to 55 °C
= solar energy received in one hour by a plane surface of 1 m² facing the sun with clear sky
= energy needed to melt 11 kg of 0°C ice (80 kcal/kg) (latent energy)
= energy needed to vaporise 1.4 l of 100°C water (600 kcal/kg)
= energy delivered by the condensation of 1,5 kg of vapor in water (liquid) (20 °C)
How much does 1 kWh cost?

In Belgium for households , the price of 1 kWh of energy is between 2.5 and 31 c€
(https://energiecommune.be/statistique/prix-energie/)
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Formulas of different forms of energy

Kinetic Chemical
E = ½ mv² v = speed – [m/s] E = mΔH If combustion ΔH = NCV or
Gravitational GCV
E = mgΔh h = height – [m] Electrical
Pressure E = QV Q = Charge [C] = I t [A s]
E = mΔp/ρ ρ = density – [kg/m³] V = Electrostatic charge [Volt]
Elastic (spring) Magnetic
E = ½ kx² x = deformed length [m] E = ½ LI² L= Inductance
k = stiffness [N/m] I= current [A]
Electric capacitor
Thermal
E = 1/2 CV² C = Capacitance [Farad]
E = mCpΔT Cp = heat capacity per
unit of mass [J/kg K] Radiation
E = hν ν = frequency
Thermal (gas)
h = Planck’s constant
E = ½ iNRT Use SI
units
Other Formulas
Efficiency : OUT = η ∙ IN
Energy (T) = ∫ P(t) dt = Average power ∙ T = Nominal power ∙ FLH = Nominal power∙T∙ LF
If P is constant, E = P∙t
Heat transfer by conduction: Φ = USΔT
by convection: Φ = mCpΔT
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Energy units
Annual country Annual Annual BE Dialy human Some g of Δ1K of 1 µ energy
consumption big company household energy cons. sugar g water
Quad Mtoe TWh PJ ktoe GWh TJ toe MWh GJ kWh MJ kcal kJ BTU cal J erg ev
Quad 1 25.2 293 1054.8 1E+15
Mtoe 1/25.2 1 11.628 41.86 1 000
TWh 1/293 0.086 1 3.6 86 1 000 X
PJ 0.086/3,6 1/3.6 1 86/3.6 1 000/3.6 1 000
ktoe 0.001 1/86 3.6/86 1 11.628 41.86 1 000 11 628
GWh 0.001 3.6/1000 0,086 1 3.6 86 1 000 3 600
TJ 0.001 0.086/3.6 1/3.6 1 86/3.6 1 000/3.6 1 000
toe 0.001 1/86 3.6/86 1 11.628 41.86 1E+7
MWh 0.001 0.0036 0.086 1 3.6 1 000 3 600
GJ 0.001 0.086/3.6 1/3.6 1 1 000/3.6 1 000
kWh 0.001 0.0036 1 3.6 860 3 600 3 798
MJ 1/3 600 0.001 1/3.6 1 1 000/4.186 1 000 1 055
kcal 0.0011628 0.004186 1 4.186 1/0.252 1000
kJ 1/3 600 0.001 1/4.186 1 1/1.055 1000/4.186 1000
BTU 0.000293 0.001055 0.25203 1.055 1 252.03 1055
cal 0.001 0.004186 1/252 1 4.186 41860000 2.613E+22
J 0.001 1/1 055 1/4.186 1 1E+7 6.242E+18
erg 1E-07 1 6.242E+11
ev 3.827E-20 1,6E-19 1.602E-12 1
Y Value [X] = Value [Y] x cell figure

NG = natural gas Cubic feet (cf) = (0.3048 m)³ ≈ 28.317 l
1 tcf (trillion cubic feet) NG = 26,2 Mtoe cf of natural gas ≈ 1,025 Btu = 0.3 Wh
1 Quad = 1E+15 BTU = 25,2 Mtoe 1 oil barrel (boe) = 159 litres ≈ 1,550 kWh (NCV)
1 toe = 11,628 kWh = 41.86 GJ 1 toe : 7 – 9.3 barrels [7.5]
1 kWh = 3,600 kJ Oil: 0.73 - 1 t/m³ [0.84]
1 cal = 4.186 J 1 tce ≈ 0.7 toe
1 BTU = 1.055 kJ = 252.03 cal 1 km³ = 1 bcm (billion cubic meter) NG ≈ 0.9 Mtoe
1 erg = 1E-7 J 1 tUO2 ≈ 8 - 12 ktoe (UO2 = yellow cake : U235 0.7%)
1 ev = 1.602 E-19 J
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Energy units (conversion table)

Quad Mtoe TWh PJ ktoe GWh TJ toe MWh GJ kWh MJ
Quad 1 25.2 293 1054.8
Mtoe 1/25.2 1 11.628 41.86 1 000 X
TWh 1/293 0.086 1 3.6 86 1 000
PJ 0.086/3.6 1/3.6 1 86/3.6 1 000/3.6 1 000
ktoe 0.001 1/86 3.6/86 1 11.628 41.86 1 000 11 628
GWh 0.001 3.6/1000 0,086 1 3.6 86 1 000 3 600
TJ 0.001 0.086/3.6 1/3.6 1 86/3.6 1 000/3.6 1 000
toe 0.001 1/86 3.6/86 1 11.628 41.86
MWh 0.001 0.0036 0.086 1 3.6 1 000 3 600
GJ 0.001 0.086/3.6 1/3.6 1 1 000/3.6 1 000
kWh Y 0.001 0.0036 1 3.6
MJ 1/3 600 0.001 1/3.6 1
toe MWh GJ kWh MJ kcal kJ BTU cal J erg ev

toe 1 11.628 41.86 1E+7
MWh 0.086 1 3.6 1 000 3 600 X
GJ 0.086/3.6 1/3.6 1 1 000/3.6 1 000
kWh 0.001 0.0036 1 3.6 860 3 600 3 798
MJ 1/3 600 0.001 1/3.6 1 1 000/4.186 1 000 1 055
kcal 1/860 0.004186 1 4.186 1/0.252 1000
kJ 1/3 600 0.001 1/4.186 1 1/1.055 1000/4.186 1000
BTU 0.000293 0.001055 0.25203 1.055 1 252.03 1055
cal 0.001 0.004186 1/252 1 4.186 41860000 2.613E+22
J 0.001 1/1 055 1/4.186 1 1E+7 6.242E+18
erg Y 1E-07 1 6.242E+11
ev 3.827E-20 1,6E-19 1.602E-12 1

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Use the conversion table
Conversion table:
• IEA: Energy statistics Manual, 2005 – Annex 3: Units and conversion
equivalents https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/statistics_manual.pdf

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Units : SI system
Derived Units:
Force: N = kg m s-2 ; Energy: J = kg m² s-2 ; Power : W = kg m² s-3
Recommendation: Use SI units for calculation ( kg, m, s, A , K, mol, cd) or

derived units (J, W, N, V, …)

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Exercises
a. work to lift 1 t to 360 m height

b. kinetic energy of 10 m/s wind going through a 100 m² surface during one minute
c. gravitational energy of collected rain in one year on a Belgian roof of 60m² (8 m
height) – (annual rainfall: 750 l/m²)
d. kinetic energy of a 6.5 t truck at 120 km/h
e. net heat needed to heat 20 litres of water from 12°C to 55 °C
f. quantity of heat delivered by the combustion of 100 ml of petrol

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Power
Power is the rate at witch energy is converted from one form into another.
SI Unit : W - Other units : kcal/h; HP = 746 W; CV = 736 W.
kWh/d : kilowatthour per day (≈ 40 W in average) is human-sized unit (MacKay)
Energy disappears? No! Just changing form. Power measures the rate of change.
Energy, like matter or distance is time independent.
Analogy : Quantity Energy (J) Distance (m) Volume (l) Matter (kg)
Reached Power (J/s) Speed (m/s) Flow (l/s) Flow (kg/s)
quantity/time
Order of magnitude hourglass

Capability or Output power of : man, horse, equipment, renewable energy flows
Consumption power of : household equipment, annual statistics
Who Energy form 1 W 10 W 100 W 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW 1 GW 10 GW 100 GW

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Order of magnitude of power in “daily life” (1/2)
Who Energy form 1W 10 W 100 W 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW 1 GW 10 GW 100 GW
Human Mechanical
Human Heat
Horse Mechanical
Car Mechanical
Airplane Mechanical
To raise 100 kg at 1 m/s Mechanical
Thermic Power plant Electricity Light Electricity
Wind turbine Electricity Elec appliances Electricity
Solar PV module Electricity Stand-by decoder box TV Electricity
Hot water shower Hot water 50°C Heating systems Fuels
Gas ring (domestic) Heat
Hot water accelerator Electricity
Fuel flow
Fill up gasoline tank (chemical)
Sun in Belgium (annual average) Radiation Human Feeding
Sun in Belgium (maximum) Radiation Belgian household annual Electricity
Air mass flow Belgium load electricity Electricity
Wind (5-20 m/s) (kinetic) Belgian citizen annual Final energy
Belgium annual Final energy
Belgian citizen annual Primary energy
Belgium annual Primary energy
Belgian citizen annual Total energy
Belgium annual Total energy

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Order of magnitude of Power in daily life (2/2)

Output power (Capability) Factor 10 Order of magnitude
1 10 100 1.000 10.000 100.000 1,E+06 1,E+07 1,E+08 1,E+09
Who Energy form 1W 10 W 100 W 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW 1 GW
Human Mechanical 40-200 W - some seconds 1 kW
Horse Mechanical 1 kW
Car Mechanical
Airplane Mechanical
To raise 100 kg at 1 m/s Mechanical 1 kW
Thermic Power plant Electricity 10-1,000 MW
Wind turbine Electricity 1-6 MW
Solar PV module Electricity 50 -300 W
Hot water shower Hot water 50°C 15-20 kW
Gas ring (domestic) Heat 0,5-5 kW
Fill up gasoline tank Fuel flow (chemical) 10-50 MW
Sun in Belgium (annual average)
Radiation
- /m² 115 W/m²
Sun in Belgium (maximum) Radiation
/m² 1 kW/m²
Wind (5-20 m/s - 1m²) Air mass flow (kinetic) 60-4,000 W/m²
Input power (Consumption)

Order of magnitude 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 10 100 1.000 10.000 100.000 1,E+06 1,E+07 1,E+08 1,E+09 1,E+10 1,E+11
Who Energy form 1 W 10 W 100 W 1 kW 10 kW 100 kW 1 MW 10 MW 100 MW 1 GW 10 GW 100 GW
Light Electricity
Household
equipment
Elec appliances Electricity 50W -3 kW

Stand-by decoder box TVElectricity 5-30 W
Heating systems Fuels 5-80 kW
Hot water accelerator Electricity 25-80
Human Feeding ≈ 125 W

statistics
Belgian household annualElectricity 300 - 500 W

Annual
Belgium load electricity Electricity 6-14 GW

Belgian citizen annual Final energy ≈ 5 kW
Belgium annual Final energy ≈ 55 GW
Belgian citizen annual Primary energy ≈ 7 kW
Belgium annual Primary energy ≈ 80 GW
MECA-H417
Belgian citizen annual “Sustainable
Total energy energy” General overview - Michel ≈10 kW
HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be
00 –Total
Basics of science applied to energy systems – Edition 23/09/2021
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Belgium annual energy ≈ 105 GW
Main energy vectors
• Fuels
• Heat
• Electricity

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Fuels
Fossil Fuels prevail in our energy system.
Fuels are transformed in heat (boiler) and could the transformed in work (engine) or electricity
(driven mechanically generator)
Caloric value (CV) : Releasable heat by combustion – (Synonym: Heating value-HV)
Net CV (NCV) = CV without heat recovery of steam condensation coming from the combustion of
hydrogen – (Synonym: Light CV - LCV) or Light Heating value - LHV)
Gross CV (GCV) = CV with heat recovery of steam condensation coming from the combustion of
hydrogen – (Synonym: High CV - HCV) or High Heating value - HHV)
NCV of 1 Nm³ Natural Gas = 37 MJ (≈ 10 kWh)

GCV of 1 Nm³ Natural Gas = 41 MJ (≈ 11 kWh)]
NCV of 1 Nm³ Propane = 92 MJ (≈ 27 kWh)
NCV of 1 l Fuel-Oil = 36,5 MJ (≈ 10 kWh)
NCV of 1 kg wax paraffin ≈ 42 MJ/kg
NCV of 1kg Coal (dry mineral-matter-free basis ) = 35 MJ (≈ 10 kWh)
NCV of 1 kg Coal (moisture content : 3-6 %, MM : 4-15%) = 27-31 MJ (≈ 8 kWh)
NCV of 1 kg Wood (Dry) = 18 MJ (≈ 5 kWh)
NCV of 1 kg Wood (20% moisture) = 12,6 MJ (≈ 3,5 kWh)
NCV of a volume of wood depends on tree type, stack density, moisture
Nm³ = Volume in standard conditions of t° (273 K) and pressure (1 atm)

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Heat and heat transfer
Heat is an energy form connected with temperature (t° is the macroscopic display of
internal matter element works: vibrations, rotations, spin).
Heat flow is created by temperature difference Φ = k ΔT
Heat transfer mechanisms
1. Conduction (Transfer of energy between objects
that are in physical contact)
Φ = U S ΔT [U = heat transfer coefficient ; S = Area]
2. Convection free or forced (transfer of heat due
to fluid motion)
Mass transfer (transfer of energy by physically moving an object containing that energy)
Φ = m Cp ΔT [Cp = Heat capacity (kJ/kgK) ; m = mass flow]
Phase-change transfer : (heat transfer through a phase transition combines mass
transfer and latent heat of phase change: Example : heat pipe.)
3. Radiation (energy transfer by means of the emission or absorption of electromagnetic
radiation)
Φ = k(σ,εi, Si) (T14-T24)
Remark : Space warming speed depends on thermal inertia (heat capacity) and on the
heating power (kW)

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Excess heat
https://www.ademe.fr/excess-heat

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Heating a house
https://energieplus-
lesite.be/ameliorer/isolation/rentabilite-de-l-
isolation-d-une-paroi/

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Electricity
Electric current is a flow of electric charge through a medium.
Electricity is a very popular energy form in our society.
Electric circuit consists of source and load connected to each other so that an electric current
may flow.
There are direct-current (DC) and alternating-current (AC) systems

DC: unidirectional flow of electric charge
AC : periodically reverses direction. Single phase and three phase.
Electricity is defined by current (A), voltage (V) and AC characteristics : power factor,
frequency, harmonics.
DC: P = U·I
AC single-phase: P = U·I·cosφ (In EU: 230 V and 50 hz)
AC three-phase : P = √3∙U∙I∙cosφ
Power systems engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution of
electric power as well as with electrical devices connected to such systems including
generators, motors (synchronous and asynchronous machine) and transformers.

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Combustion
Chemical reaction

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Chemical reaction
Combustion = Exothermic chemical reaction by combining oxygen and a fuel.
Multiple fuels : gas, oil, wood, coal, ...
Hydrocarbons: multiple combinations of carbons and hydrogens. CnHm (n and m = integer).

Examples of hydrocarbons: Methane or CH4; Octane or C8H18.
Fuels can also contain oxygen molecules -> Generic formula: C Hy Ox
Combustion of a hydrocarbon
CnHm + (n+m/4) O2  n CO2 + m/2 H2O(v)
+ heat emission
The products of combustion are CO2 and water (vapour).

(Note: The condensation of vapour deliver heat (latent heat of condensation)
Other combustion products

- Since air is generally used, nitrogen subjected to high temperature oxidises and NOx is
produced.
- If the fuel contains sulphur (S), it will be oxidised and combustion produces SOx.
Combustion is a polluting reaction (low or high) depending on the type of fuel and combustion
conditions. CO2, CO, NOx, SOx, burnt, fine particles, soot, ...

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CO2 emission from fuels combustion
DERV - Diesel Engine Road Vehicle
EVERETT p.248

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Emission factors CO2eq – AWAC (2020) - Tab
An emission factor is a
coefficient that quantifies the
equivalent CO2 emissions
based on unit quantities
consumed of an energy
source.
AWAC provides emission
factors for the use of
different fuels. These allow
the calculation of emissions
from combustion, but also
an estimate of the emissions
from the supply chain (well
to tank).
Tab. Emission factors for energy products (N2 Combustion - N1 from well to tank) for the main
energy products. Data source : AWAC http://www.awac.be/index.php/autres-ressources

00 – Basics of science applied to energy systems – Edition 23/09/2021 - 30
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Emission factors CO2eq – AWAC (2020) – Fig.
Fig. Emission factors for energy products (N2 Combustion - N1 from well to tank) for the main
energy products. Figure made with data source : AWAC http://www.awac.be/index.php/autres-ressources
00 – Basics of science applied to energy systems – Edition 23/09/2021 - 31
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Emission factors of electricity CO2éq (1/2)

1. From LCA, IPCC, 2011
Source: IPCC - Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation; 2011; p.982 -
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/renewable-energy-sources-and-climate-change-mitigation/
2. From Regional authorities in Belgium

Coeff. émission nat. gas Yield TGV Coeff. émission élec
(kgCO2/MWh) (kgCO2/MWh)
Wallonie - CWaPE 251 55% 456
https://energie.wallonie.be/fr/installations-de-
production-d-electricite-verte.html?IDC=9783
RBC - BRUGEL 217 55% 395

https://www.brugel.brussels/themes/energies-
renouvelables-11/mecanisme-des-certificats-verts-35

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Facteurs d’émission de CO2éq de l’électricité (2/2)
3. Based on the calculation of the annual mix of European countries
a. European Environment Agency

(EEA) reports the greenhouse gas
emission intensity of electricity
generation
290 g CO2éq/kWh (2018)
Europe – EEA 2021

https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/co2-emission-intensity-
6#tab-
googlechartid_googlechartid_googlechartid_googlechartid_chart_11111
b. Real-time model for Europe

https://www.electricitymap.org/zone/BE.

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Facteurs d’émission de CO2éq de l’électricité (2/2)

3. Sur base du calcul du mix annuel de la Belgique
L’Agence européenne de l’environnement (EEA) publie l’intensité carbone annuelle de la
production électrique des pays européens. Europe – EEA 2021
https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/daviz/co2-emission-intensity-6#tab-googlechartid_googlechartid_googlechartid_googlechartid_chart_11111
Fig. Evolution de l’intensité carbone de la production électrique en Belgique. Source EEA 2021

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CO2 emission from heat generation
Heat
CO2 emission associated to the delivery of 1 kWh of heat.
CO2 Emission
Gross energy (kgCO2/kWh CO2 Emission
Equipment Fuel Efficiency (kWh) gross) (kgCO2/kWh net)
Boiler Gas 60% 1,67 0,251 0,418
Boiler Gas 90% 1,11 0,251 0,279
Boiler Gas oil 60% 1,67 0,306 0,510
Boiler Gas oil 75% 1,33 0,306 0,408
Boiler Electricity 80% 1,25 0,456 0,570
Boiler Electricity 95% 1,05 0,456 0,480
The delivering of 1 kWh of heat generate an emission of ≈400 gCO2 [280 – 570] depending on
the fuel and the efficiency of the equipment.
Example :
1 kWh th with gas boiler : 280 - 420 gCO2 (average 350)
1 kWh th with oil boiler : 410 - 510 gCO2 (average 460)
1 kWh th with electric boiler 480 - 570 gCO2 (average 525)
Remarks:
- Real efficiency is lower than nominal efficiency
- In the table, CO2 emission coefficient takes into account N1 (well-to-tank phase)
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Energy conversion
• Efficiency
• Variability

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Conversion and efficiency

First law of thermodynamics : The law of conservation of energy : “Energy can be
transformed (changed from one form into another), but cannot be created or destroyed.
But part of the conversion could be in a unwanted form = Energy losses
IN = OUT + Losses
Efficiency is the ratio of the energy OUTput by the energy INput.
Efficiency = OUT/IN = OUT / (OUT + Losses)
η : Energy efficiency : Efficiency of energy conversion.
Energy conversion yield : % conversion
Net energy = Efficiency ∙ Gross energy or OUT = η ∙ IN
Second law of thermodynamics : “Entropy of the universe tends towards a maximum”. This
law explains the phenomenon of irreversibility.
Low entropy energy : electricity, mechanical energy, chemical energy = High grade energy
High entropy energy : hot water, turbulence air mass movement = low grade energy
The higher the temperature is the lower is the entropy
Ie. Limit of efficiency of any heat engine (Carnot : η = 1-Tc/Th)
Exercise : Calculate energy production and consumption taking into account efficiency
Remark: Comparing different energy can be tricky

Ie. High grade energy ; Low grade energy: Exergy; …

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Efficiency in thermal power plant

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Exercice
Let 10 litres of hot water 40°C flow per minute from a tap.
Cold temperature is 10°C.
a. Calculate the thermal power of the water flowing from the tap?
b. The boiler consumes natural gas and has an efficiency of 75%.
Calculate the flow of natural gas for this hot water thermal power
Answer:
a. 300 kcal/min = 20.9 kWth
b. 27.9 kWNG = 2.8 m³/h = 0.8 l/s (NCV)
CO2
Natural
Gas
boiler

- 40 -
Energy = ∫ P(t) dt
Variability
If P is constant, Energy = P x t
A 1 MW rated power plant running constantly would generate yearly 8,760 MWh.
For many reasons the power plant doesn’t produce constantly:
• Resource availability
• Equipment availability (failure, maintenance)
• Electricity demand (Market -> price variability; balancing)
The “energy equivalent” is the amount of energy considering a constant power
Energy (T) = ∫ P(t) dt = Average power x T = Rated power x FLH = Rated power x T x LF
(T = 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 1 year))
Rated_
_Average P
I FLH
- 41 -
Variability : Annual load factor (capacity factor)

Load factor gives a general indication of the variability of the running of a system during a given
period.
The annual load factor (LF) represents the ratio of the annual output and the maximum possible
output. The result is expressed as a percentage.
LF (%) = Real annual output/ Maximum output (Maximum output = Rated power x 8,760)
(Synonymous of Load factor = Capacity factor)
(Synonymous of Rated power = Nominal capacity)
Full load hour (FLH) = LF x 8,760 h. (There are 8,760 hours in a year).
The result is expressed in hour.
Power unit Indicative
FLH [h] = Actual output / Rated power
annual LF
Application : Thermal (fossil) – base 70 – 90 %
Energy (T) = ∫ P(t) dt Thermal - peak 20 – 80 %
= Rated power x T x LF Thermal - Nuclear 70 – 95 %
Solar PV 9 – 13 %
Hydropower 30 – 90 %
Wind farms 20 – 40 %
Tab. Electricity production: indicative annual
load factor (LF) for Belgium
- 42 -
Orders of magnitude
Rough estimates
Significant digits

- 43 -
Order of magnitude (OoM) – Meaning and use

Different meanings
1. Simplified and synthetic value
Approximate value = more or less
(Advantage = easy to remember)
e.g. the size of an human being is 1,80 m (it could be 1,5 m or 2,0m)
e.g. 11 million inhabitants is an OoM of the Belgian population in 2017 (easier to remember
than 11,358,357).
Or the Belgian population is roughly 11 million.
2. Comparable value
We are not interested in the exact value; We just want to know if two magnitudes are
comparable or not.
The use of the order of magnitude

An order of magnitude is used when the exact value has little interest (either an approximate
value is sufficient, or the possible range is relatively large).
e.g. 11 million inhabitants is an OdG of the Belgian population (no need to be more precise).
e.g. A human being can provide an energy of 1 kWh per day
(a sportsman up to 2 kWh/d and a weak person 0.5 kWh/d)
Knowing the orders of magnitude of energy products or common activities allows one to verify
or anticipate calculations.
e.g. the energy contained in 1 litre of petrol is roughly 10 kWh
e.g. the mechanical power of a car engine is roughly 50 kW
- 44 -
Order of magnitude in energy context
It’s useful to have in mind some orders of magnitude. They are used with some elementary
arithmetic to make a first simple assessment or an approximate comparison.
e.g. to verify the result of your calculation – Is it plausible? Is it realistic?
Useful reference data : Energy in daily life

a. How much energy does a human deliver in one day for achieving a work?
b. NCV of main final energy: 1 l oil, 1 m³ natural gas, 2 kg dry wood, 3 kg wood (20% wet), 1
kg coal (moisture, purity)
c. Cp of water (Cp = Heat capacity at constant pressure)
d. Unit price of electricity (household) in 2020
e. Current Belgian citizen average power consumptions (Final, Primary/GIC, Total)
f. Share of electricity in final energy consumption of FC Belgium
g. Household annual electricity consumption in Belgium
h. Embodied energy of stuff (per kg)
i. Nominal power of common devices : Output (motor of a car, heating system) or input
(lighting, electrical devices, …)
j. …
Useful reference data : Energy systems

• Observed load factor of energy systems
• Energy efficiency of frequent convertors (thermal motor, power plant, …)
• …

- 45 -
Rough estimate and significant digits/figures
Express the estimate in an appropriate way (rounding, few significant digits, appropriate unit)
The result of a rough estimate has to be written with a rounded number.

Because the value results from a calculation with a wide level of approximation.
The symbol “≈” means “is approximately equal to“
Significant digits
The number of significant digits in the final result of a calculation should not be greater than the
smallest number of significant digits of any input data.
EVERETT p.41
Appropriate unit
Choose the unit (prefix) in order to express
the value with few digits.
1,234,567,890.12 W -> 1.2 GW

- 46 -

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00 – Basics of science

applied to energy systems

Objectives (be able to …)

Brussels, 24th September 2021

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Content (00 Basics of science applied to energy systems)

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Energy has a wide range of meanings

Energy: Commodity and a society issue

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Energy - Force, Work

Whenever a force is moving something, it must be providing energy.

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

How much does 1 kWh cost?

Formulas of different forms of energy

Y Value [X] = Value [Y] x cell figure

Energy units (conversion table)

toe MWh GJ kWh MJ kcal kJ BTU cal J erg ev

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Recommendation: Use SI units for calculation ( kg, m, s, A , K, mol, cd) or

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

a. work to lift 1 t to 360 m height

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Energy, like matter or distance is time independent.

Order of magnitude hourglass

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Order of magnitude of Power in daily life (2/2)

Input power (Consumption)

Elec appliances Electricity 50W -3 kW

Human Feeding ≈ 125 W

Belgian household annualElectricity 300 - 500 W

Belgium load electricity Electricity 6-14 GW

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

NCV of 1 Nm³ Natural Gas = 37 MJ (≈ 10 kWh)

Nm³ = Volume in standard conditions of t° (273 K) and pressure (1 atm)

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

There are direct-current (DC) and alternating-current (AC) systems

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Multiple fuels : gas, oil, wood, coal, ...

Hydrocarbons: multiple combinations of carbons and hydrogens. CnHm (n and m = integer).

The products of combustion are CO2 and water (vapour).

Other combustion products

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

DERV - Diesel Engine Road Vehicle

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Emission factors CO2eq – AWAC (2020) - Tab

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

Emission factors of electricity CO2éq (1/2)

2. From Regional authorities in Belgium

RBC - BRUGEL 217 55% 395

MECA-H417 “Sustainable energy” General overview - Michel HUART – michel.huart-at-ulb.be

a. European Environment Agency

Europe – EEA 2021