Alexandria University.

Faculty Of Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering Department

Fundamentals and
Measurements of Heat
BASIC CONCEPTS & FORMS OF ENERGY

Dr. Ahmed Helmy Abdel Aziz

E-mail: ahmed.helmy007@alexu.edu.eg

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 STATE , AND PHASE

 State
It is the point that defined by
various properties. If any property
change the state will change

 Phase
It is defined as a quantity of matter that is
homogenous throughout in chemical composition
and physical structure.
Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020
 PROCESSES AND CYCLES

 The Process
When the state of a substance is
changed, then the substance is
said to have undergone a process .

The series of states through which

a system passes during a process is
called the path of the process.

To describe a process completely, one

should specify the initial and final
states of the process, as well as the
path it follows.
Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020
 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
• Reversible Process
A reversible process for a system is defined as a process that, once having taken
place, can be reversed, and in so doing leaves no change in either the system or
surroundings. In other words the system and surroundings are returned to
their original condition before the process took place.

• Irreversible Process
An irreversible process is a process that cannot return both the system and the
surroundings to their original conditions.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 PROCESSES AND CYCLES
• Thermodynamic cycle:
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the
end of series of thermodynamic processes.

That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

State and path function

• State function: It is the property of a system that depends only on the current
state of the system, not on the way in which the system acquired that state
(independent of path). Examples, volume, internal energy, enthalpy and entropy.
• Path function: It is the function that depends on the path of the process.
Examples, mechanical work and heat.

17/08/2020 Dr Ahmed Helmy

Equilibrium Types

Chemical Equilibrium
No chemical reaction takes place in the
system.

Mechanical Equilibrium
All forces acting in the system are balanced so
there is no acceleration. (All final pressures
are equal - The pressure in the system is same at
all points)

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

Equilibrium Types

Thermal Equilibrium
No heat flow take place either within the
system or between system and surrounding .
(All final temperatures are equal - The
temperature in the system is same at all
points)
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
When the system is chemical, mechanical, and
thermal equilibrium.
Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020
 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
➢When a body 'A' is in thermal equilibrium with
a body 'B' and separately with a body 'C' , then
'B' and 'C' will be in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
This is known as the Zeroth
law of thermodynamics. It
is the basis of temperature
measurement.
 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
➢Object C (thermometer) is placed
in contact with object A until they
achieve thermal equilibrium.
– The reading on C is recorded.
➢Object C is then placed in contact
with object B until they achieve
thermal equilibrium.
– The reading on C is recorded
again.

➢If the two readings are the same,

we can conclude that A and B are
in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Energy (E)
Energy is defined as the capacity of a system to perform work or produce
heat or cause change.

FORMS OF ENERGY
Energy can exist in various forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes
the Total Energy E of a system.

The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis is denoted by e, and is

expressed as:

Thermodynamics provides no information about the absolute value of the total energy.
It deals only with the change of the total energy, which is what matters in engineering
problems.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy

Work Heat Internal Flow Potential Kinetic

Energy Energy Energy Energy energy energy

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Total energy classification:
the total energy of a system can be divided in two groups:
- macroscopic energy, and
- microscopic energy.

The macroscopic forms of energy are those a system possesses as a whole

with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic (KE) and
potential (PE) energies. It is related to motion and the influence of some
external effects such as gravity, magnetism, electricity, and surface tension.

The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure
of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent
of outside reference frames. The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is
called the internal energy of a system and is denoted by U.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy of the system motion relative to some
reference frame.

where:
KE = kinetic energy (kJ)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)

or, on a unit mass basis,

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Potential Energy
Potential energy (PE) is defined as the energy of the system elevation in a
gravitational field.

where:

PE = potential energy (kJ)

m = mass (kg)

z = height above some reference level (m)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

or, on a unit mass basis,

Potential energy and kinetic energy are macroscopic forms of energy. They can
be visualized in terms of the position and the velocity of objects.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Internal Energy
Microscopic forms of energy include those due to the rotation, vibration,
translation, and interactions among the molecules of a substance and can be
viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules. None
of these forms of energy can be measured or evaluated directly.
• The specific internal energy (u) of a substance is its internal energy per unit
mass.

where:
u = specific internal energy (kJ/kg).
U = total internal energy (kJ).
m = mass (kg).

For ideal gases: u = cv T (kJ/kg)

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Flow (PV) Energy
In addition to the internal energy (U), another form of energy exists, this form
of energy is called PV energy because it arises from the pressure (P) and the
volume (V) of a fluid. It is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow.

FE =
where:
FE = specific flow energy (kJ/kg).
P = pressure (kN/m2).
V = total volume (m3).
v = specific volume (m3/kg).
m = mass (kg).

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Enthalpy (h)
Specific enthalpy (h) is defined as (h = u + P v), where u is the specific internal
energy of the system being studied, P is the pressure, and v is the specific
volume of the system.
In general, the enthalpy is the heat content of the molecules which can specify if
the system is useful or not.
Enthalpy is a state property of a substance, like pressure, temperature, and
volume, but it cannot be measured directly. Normally, the enthalpy of a
substance is given with respect to some reference value.

H = U + PV
∆H = ∆U + P dV + V dP

For ideal gases: h = cp T (kJ/kg)

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
- Energy can cross the boundary of a system in two forms: heat and work
and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system during a process.
- An energy interaction is heat transfer if its driving force is a
temperature difference. Otherwise it is work.

• Work (W)
Kinetic energy, potential energy, internal energy, and P-V energy are forms of energy that are
properties of a system.

Work is a form of energy, but it is energy in transit. Work is not a property of a system. Work is a
process done by or on a system, but a system contains no work.

A positive value for work indicates that work is done by the system on its surroundings, A
negative value indicates that work is done on the system by its surroundings.

Types of work;
- Moving boundary work - Mechanical (shaft) work
- Spring work - Electrical work
Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
work is the energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.

where:
W = work ( kJ)

F = force ( kN)

s = distance (m)

If the force F is not constant,

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Moving boundary work
For piston-cylinder boundary work (for closed system);

2 2

න 𝛿𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑑𝑠
1 1

𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
𝑑𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑠
𝑠2 𝑉2

𝑊12 = න 𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
𝑠1 𝑉1
where: 𝑊12
W = work (kJ) P = pressure (kPa)

s = distance (m) A = cross section area (m2) V = volume (m3)

Using P-V diagram: 2 2

Dr Ahmed Helmy
Area = A =  dA =  P  dv = W
1 1
12
17/08/2020
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Moving boundary work
For piston-cylinder boundary work (for closed system);
For a cycle:
𝑉2
𝑊12

𝑊12 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑣𝑒
𝑉1

𝑉1
𝑊21
𝑊21 = න 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = +𝑣𝑒
𝑉2

Net work (𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) = 𝑾𝟏𝟐 + 𝑾𝟐𝟏

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡
where:
W = work (kJ) P = pressure (kPa)

s = distance (m) A = cross section area (m2) V = volume (m3)

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Rotating Shaft Work
the work done during n revolutions is determined as: a force F acting through a
radius r generates a torque T of,

This force acts through a distance s,

which is related to the radius r by;

Then the shaft work is determined from,

The power transmitted through the shaft is;

where 𝑛ሶ is the number of revolutions per unit time.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Spring Work
when a force is applied on a spring, the length of the spring changes.

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x is

Proportional to the force applied.

where k is the spring constant and has the unit kN/m.

where x1 and x2 are the initial and the final displacements of the spring, respectively,
measured from the rest position.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Electrical Work
It can be expressed in the rate form as;

Where,
𝑊ሶ𝑒 = the electrical power (W)
V = the voltage difference (V)
I = the current (A)
R = the electric resistance (ohm)

t = time (sec.)

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
• Heat (Q)
Heat, like work, is energy in transit. Heat is not a property of a system. The
transfer of heat occurs at the molecular level as a result of a temperature
difference.
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems
(or a system and its surroundings) due to temperature difference.

A positive value for heat indicates that heat is added to the system by its
surroundings and negative when it is transferred from the system to its
surrounding.

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020

 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Heat Transfer can occur in three ways:
➢ Conduction.
Conduction is the transfer of heat by direct contact .Conduction occurs most easily
in solids and stagnant liquid.

➢ Convection.
Heat transfer by convection occurs when a fluid is in motion with a surface hotter
or colder than itself. Convective heat transfer can be natural or forced.
Forced convection occurs when a fluid flow is induced by an external force.
Natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces due to density differences
caused by temperature variations in the fluid the fluid.

➢ Radiation.
Radiation is heat transfer through space by electromagnetic waves , such as
visible light and infrared waves.
Unlike Conduction and Convection, Radiation can occur in empty space, as well
as in liquids, and gases
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
The heat added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in its
temperature is called sensible heat.

For ideal gases: 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑐 For liquids or solids:

𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 𝑎𝑡 𝑉 = 𝑐 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚 𝐶 ∆𝑇

where:
Qs = sensible heat (kJ) m = mass (kg)
C = specific heat (kJ/kg. °C) ∆T = temperature change (°C)

Another type of heat is called latent heat. Latent heat is the amount of heat
added to or removed from a substance to produce a change in phase (between
solid and liquid/ between liquid and vapor). When latent heat is added, no
temperature change occurs.

𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚 𝐿. 𝐻
where:
Ql = latent heat (kJ) L.H = Specific latent heat (kJ/kg)
Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020
 ENERGY, WORK AND HEAT
Heat and work are directional quantities.
Heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive; heat transfer
from a system and work done on a system are negative.

Heat and work are path functions (i.e., their magnitudes depend on the path
followed during a process as well as the end states).

Dr Ahmed Helmy 17/08/2020