Volume Changes on Mixing

➢When two liquids are mixed, the volumes are not always
additive. This is true with most solutions and miscible liquids.
➢Sodium chloride solution, sugar solutions, and ethanol solution
all exhibit volume changes on mixing.
➢Because of volume changes, material balances must be done
on mass rather than volume of components.
➢Concentrations on a volume basis must be converted to a
mass basis before the material balance equations are
formulated.
 Unsteady State
➢Unsteady-state material balance equations
involve an accumulation term in the equation.
➢Accumulation →expressed as a differential
term of the rate of change of a variable with
respect to time.
 Thermodynamics
➢The science of thermodynamics gives us the
foundation to study commonly occurring
phenomena during processing of foods.
➢Typical approach in studying any food process:
observe a phenomenon → make experimental
measurements to confirm validity of the
observation → develop mathematical basis →
apply the knowledge gained to an engineering
process at hand
➢Classical thermodynamics → branch of
thermodynamics that deals with macroscopic
approach
➢Statistical thermodynamics → molecular level
➢In food engineering, many of the processes of
concern to a food engineer are applications of
thermodynamics i.e. calculating heat and work effects
associated with a given process
➢Maximum work obtainable from a process/ how to carry
out a process with minimum work
➢Determine relationships that exist between various
variables of a system when it is at equilibrium
➢When we conduct experiments, and then want to
know the behavior of a given system
➢Helps in determining the potential that defines and
determines the equilibrium
 Laws of Thermodynamics

➢First Law of Thermodynamics → Law of Conservation of

Energy
➢States that energy of an isolated system remains constant
➢Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but can be transformed
from one form to another

➢Energy can be either stored within an object or transferred to another

one, such as in the form of thermal or mechanical energy
➢Energy can also be transformed from one form to another
 Laws of Thermodynamics

➢During the energy conversion or transmission processes,

there is also generation of heat, often misstated as “loss” of
energy, when it is actually conversion of energy to other
forms that may not be directly useful for the intended
purpose.
➢Ex. When electrical energy is converted into mechanical
energy in an electric motor, the energy “loss” may be 10 to
15%. The “loss” in this case is the conversion of part of the
electrical energy into heat due to friction
 Laws of Thermodynamics

➢Second Law of Thermodynamics

➢useful in examining the direction of energy transfer or conversion
➢Kelvin-Planck Statement: No process whose sole result is the
abstraction of heat from a single reservoir and the performance of an
equivalent amount of work.
➢Clausius Statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the
removal of heat from a reservoir (system) at one temperature and the
absorption of an equal quantity of heat by a reservoir at a higher
temperature
➢Second Law of Thermodynamics
➢Explains why heat always flows from a hot object to a cold object
➢Why two gases placed in a chamber will mix throughout the chamber,
but will not spontaneously separate once mixed
➢It is impossible to construct a machine that will operate continuously
while receiving heat from a single reservoir and producing an
equivalent amount of work

➢Assigns both quantity and quality to energy

➢The path of the process is always toward that of decreasing quality
 Energy
➢a scalar quantity
➢we cannot observe energy directly, but we can measure it
using indirect methods and analyze its value
➢May be in different forms i.e. potential, kinetic, chemical,
magnetic, electrical
 Energy

➢Potential energy
➢Kinetic energy
➢Internal energy
Energy Balance
 Heat
➢Most prevalent form of energy that can be observed in many food
engineering systems
➢Cooking, preservation, and creating new food products with unique
properties
➢Thermal energy
General Energy Equation
dE + dQ = dW
dU + dFE + dPE + dKE + dQ = dW
Open system
dU + dFE + dPE + dKE + dQ = dW
dH
Closed system

dU + dQ = dW
Stored Energy, E
→physical significance is that it represents all the energy of the system
in the given state. This energy might be present in a variety of forms,
such as potential or kinetic energy of the system and in any other
forms.
E = Internal Energy + Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy or
E = U + KE + PE
dE = dU + d(KE) + d(PE)
The first law of thermodynamics for a change of state of a system
may therefore be written as
a. Potential energy
→consider a system of a body which has its elevation changed
while no other property of the body changes. The change in
stored energy associated with the change in elevation is then
equal to the work done on the body.
 B. Kinetic energy
→consider a system comprised of
a body which experience a change
in velocity while its elevation,
temperature, volume, and all other
properties remain constant.
Application of the first law then
shows that change in stored
energy associated with the change
in velocity is equal to the work
done on the body in order to
accelerate it.
C. Internal energy, u
→internal energy of the substance depends on its state.
For subcooled liquid, superheated vapor and saturated liquid or
vapor, internal energy can be taken directly from the steam
table.
D. Flow work or Flow energy (pv)
→this is work done on the system by the fluid outside the system,
because the effect within the system could be reduced into a lifting of a
weight

→the worked performed by the system to push an element of fluid out

is
Flow work = p2V2
E. Enthalpy, h

→internal energy, u is a form of energy but pv is not and

therefore their sum (enthalpy) is not a form of stored energy.
Enthalpy is just a useful property.
Application of first law to closed system
 Application of first law to open system

→from the first law of conservation of energy, we can

conclude that for any system, open or closed, there is an
“energy balance” as

[ Net amount of energy added to the system] = [ Net increase

in stored energy of system]
 Open system: mass entering the system

[Net amount of energy added to system as heat and all forms

of work] + [stored energy of mass entering system] - [stored
energy of mass leaving system] = [net increase in stored
energy of system]
 Application of first law to steady flow open systems
[Net amount of energy added to system as heat and work] + [stored
energy of mass entering system] - [ stored energy of mass leaving
system] = 0
The system might be an air compressor, a gas turbine, a centrifugal
water pump, a fan, a nozzle, or a section of pipe.
Sample Problem
 Solution
➢Select a basis: 1 hr
➢Write the energy balance equation

➢Check the video for the solving

QUESTIONS?
COMMENTS?