2.

26 Algebra and Number Theory

Then a,d(x)= a,'ay +a,'ax +a,'a,x+..+a,'a,-1x"+a

a,x

=bo +br+ b,x*+. +b,-1x+x"

is a monic polynomial
and a d(x) is also a g.c.d offx) and gr).

Suppose d,) and d,(r) be two monic polynomials,

which are the g.c.d's of fr) and g{)
[treading d,(x) as gea)
Then d,) divides d,r)
(Treating d,(x) as ged
and d ) divides d,)
d()= u d,(r) for some u * 0 in F.
Since both d,() and d(x) are monic polynomials by using equality of polynomials and by equating

the leading coefficients, we get

u=l

d)=d,r
Hence the g.c.d is unique, when it monic.

Definition 2.12 Ifthe g.c.dofflx) and g(r) e Fx) is 1,then fAx) and g(r) are called relatively prime.
and in Fx], then there exist polynomials a(r) and blr) in Flx
relatively prime
IfAx) gtx)
are

such that

at) fx) + blr) g(t) = 1

As in the case practical way of finding g.c.d of two polynomials is by applying Euclidean
of integers, a
algorithm successively, which is given below.
Theorem 2.8 Let F be a field and fr), gtr) ¬ Flx}, where glc) *0 and deg glx) s degfr).

Applying the division algorithm, we write

Ax)= 4,(r) gtr) + r,t), degr,) < deg glr)

glr)=4(r)r)+r,(r), deg r,r)< deg r,()

rr)=9,0T) 7z(r) +rz(r), degr,)< deg r,()

r)=4,*) r,0) +rax) degr r)< deg r,t)

)=9 (r)rs(«)+a(«). deg(x)<deg («)

degr,(x) < degr,-1(x)

-=4a1(r,(r)+
(r)+h+(*), a()=0
Then r,(x) is the last non-zero remainder.
It can be seen that r,(x) is the g.c.d of fx) and gr).
 Finite Fields and Polynomials 2.27

WORKED EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE1

Find the g..d of

x+x+2x+x+1 and 3-1 over .
Solution.
Let
Ax)= x*+x' +2x +x+1
str) =x*-1
and deg gr) < degflx)
Divide flx) by g{r) by division algorithm
successively.
x+1
x3-1+ r3+2x2+x+ 1 2x2+2x+2) x3-1
-x x3+x2 +x
+x -x-x-1
-1 -2-x-11
2x2+2x+2
fx)= (x+10x° -1)+2(x +x+1), deg(2x +2x+2) < deg(x* -1)
-1-a2x+2x+2)+0
=
(x-1 x +x+1)
The last nonzero remainder is x* +x+ 1, which is the gcd.

2.3 CHARACTERISTIC OFA RINGG

Definition 2.13 Characteristic of a ring R is the least positive
we write char
integer n such that na 0 vae Rand =

(R) n. If no such
=
positive integer exists, then R is said to have characteristic 0.
For example,
1. The ring (Z, + ) has characteristic 3.
InZ= {0, 1,2}. 1+1+1 =3()) =0(mod 3)
:. Characteristics is 3 2+2+2= 3(2) =0(mod 3)
3(a) =0 V ae Zg
i.e., char(Z,) =3
More generally, characteristic of the ring (Z2,, t, ) is n
2. (Z,+,) and (Q, +, ) are rings.
For any a e Z (or Q), there is no
positive integer n such that na =
0 V a e Z (or O).
'char(Z) = 0 and char(Q) = 0.
.
2r] is an infinite ring, but it has characteristic 3.
 2.28 Algebra and Number Theory

number.
Theorem 2.9 The characteristic ofa field (F,+, ) is either 0 or a prime

Proof Let (F, +, ) be a field.

If char(F) 0, then there is nothing
= to prove.
Ifchar(F) *0, then let char(F) = n.
To proven is a prime.
Suppose n is nota prime,then n =P4, where I <p<n, I<q<n.
i.e., p and q are proper factors of .
Since char(F) = n, we have na = 0 Vae F
Take a =
1, then n 1 = 0 (1 is identity of F)
(pg) 1 =0 ( p .1)(q 1)=0

: (pq)1 = 1+1+1++l = (1+1+.+ )(1+1+.+1)|

Pq terms p terms terms

Since F is a field, F is an integral domain and so, it has no divisor of zero.

either p 1 =0 or q. 1 =0
Since p and q are less than n, it contradicts the definition of characteristic of F.
. n is a prime number.

Note
1. The characteristic ofa ring need not be a prime. For example char(z) =6, which is not a prime.
2. The characteristic of a finite field is a prime number P.
3. The fields (Q. +, ), (R, +, ) are of characteristic zero.

Theorem 2.10 The number of elements of a finite field is p", wherep is a prime number and n is
a positive integer.
AU 2013, 2018
Proof We know forprime p, Z, is a field having p elements and char(Z,) =p, since pa 0 Vae l,
a =

Consider the polynomial f(x)

r - x in Z, e]. Now the derivative fr) p'z"'-1
=
=

Since char(Z) =p, char

(2,x) =p and so, pg{r) =0 V gtr) E 2,]
Hence pr =0p"xP- =0
f'x) = -l, a constant polynomial.

Hence fr) and f'(x) have no common root.

Hencefr) has no multiple roots.
i.e., the roots of flx) are all distinct.
If K is the smallest extension field containing all the roots of flx)
i.e., K is the splitting field offr).
Then r ) has p" distinct roots in K.
In K, let Fbe the set of all elements satisfying fr).
 Finite Fields and Polynomials 2.29

i.e F=laeK|a =a CK
Hence F has only p" elements.
We now prove F is a field.

Let a, be F. Then aP=a and bP =b

(ab =aPbP :a-b b-aVabeK]
ab a-beF

(a+bP a +p'C, aP-b+ p'C, a2.6

=

t...+p°C,a-6"+..+b
using binomial expansion]
Since char(K) P as Z, SK]
paP - b = 0, r=1,2,3,..

(a+b=a +b
=a+b a+beF

Similarly, (a-bP=a-b a-beF

. Fis a subfield of K.
Hence F is a field having p" elements.

Aliter

Proof Let F be
finite field with I as identity and 0 as zero element
a
The char(F) =p, a prime number (by Theorem 2.9).
Thenpa =0Vae F.
Consider the set of elements in FF.
S={1,2 1,3.1,..,p 1 =0}
The elements of S all distinct, since F is without divisions of zero
For, ifr 1 =s 1, 1 Sr, s <p, then (s -r) 1 =0
For any xeF,
(s-rx=(s-r)(lx)
((s-r)1)x, where s-r<p.
(s-r)x =0x= 0

Which contradicts the char(F) =p

S has p distinct elements of F.
IfF= S, then |FF p' and the resultfollows.
Otherwise, S, is strictly contained in F.
 2.30 Algebra and Number Theory

Therefore there exists an element a e

F-Sg
Let S ={ma +n-1|0< m,n S p} be subset of F

and 1SISp (Since m =

1, 2,..,p and n =
1, 2,...,P)
If |Sk p', then there will be repetitions of elements in S.

Let mma+ n 1=m2a+na :1

-ma)a =(n -n2).1
With 0<m,m2,m,n2 S p and at least one if (m -ma) and n -m is *0

If m -m 0, then (m -m2 )a
= =
0

-)1= 0 with|n-"l<p
(-x=(m-m)lx
= (2 -m)1)r = Ox = 0

Which is a contradiction to char(F) =p

Ifn, -n, 0 , then (n,-n)1) = 0 (m-m,)a = 0 with |m, - mal <p.
Since a 0, arl exists in F.
m-ma ) a-a"' = 0 a"' =0 (m -m2)-1 =0

For any x e F, as above (m -m2)x = 0.

Which is a contradiction.
Hence neither m, - m, nor n2-n is 0

( 7 ma )a = (n2 -nm)l * 0

Choose k eZ", such that 0 < k<p

k(m -m2) = l(mod p)
Then a =
k(mm -m2 )a k(n -n2):1
=

and a e
So which is again a contradiction.
Hence |SFp and if F=S, the theorem is proved.
If not, S, is strictly contained in F and so there exists b e
Proceed with b as a above. F-S.
Then S ={!b+ ma +nl |0< 1,m,n< p will have order p.
Since F is finite, this process after finite number of
steps, has to come to an end.

F=S.- for some r eZ"

and
Fl=1S- l=p
Hence the number of elements of a finite
field is p"', r ¬ Z*.
 2.31
Finite Fields and Polynomials

24 CONGRUENCE RELATION IN F{x]

pefinitlon 2.14
Definition Let s(x) e Fx] and s(r) * 0 and flr). g(r) e Flx]. We say that fr) is
congruent to g{r) modulo s(r) and write flr) =
g(r) (mod s(x)) if s(x) divides x)- gr)
i.e. Sr)-gr) = qx) s{r) for some qlr) ¬ F\x]
We prove that this relation of congruence of polynomial is
can
The equivalence class of fr) is denoted by [Ar)]
an equivalence relation on F[x].

Sx= {t(x) ¬ F[x]|f)= (x)(mod s(x)}

We define addition and multiplication of congruence classes as in Z
s]+[etx)]=[s(«)+ «t]
and lg)]= [fst)
Since deg[s(x)+ g()]s max {degf(x), degg(x)}
We can find the equivalence class for [flx) +g)].
Where as deg f(x)g(x) 2 deg s(*) and so fx) g()] = [r)], where r(x) is the remainder when
fx) gr) is divided by s(x).
For example,
Let s(x) = ** +x+leZ2[x]

Then [0]={(*)* +x+1D|(t)eZ,x]}

[1]={(Mx +x+1)+1|tr) E Z2lx1}

x= +x*1)+x|()e Z,r}
x+1]= {(EXx* +x+1)+x+1|(x)EZ2[x]}
Suppose flr) e Z,{«), then by division algorithm
x ) = q ) s(x) + r{x)

where rlx)=0 or deg r{x)< deg s(r)

S)-r{x)=q(x)s{x)
Sx) = r(x)(mod s(x))

.
S=rlr)]
So, to determine all the equivalence classes, it is enough we consider the possibilities of rx).
Here M)=0 or deg r{x) <2 deg r(x) =0 or 1
r(x) = ax+b; a, be Z2 = {0,1}

So, only two choices each for a and b.

 2.32 Algebra and Number Theory

Hence there are four possibilities for r(r).

They are
1. Take a = 0,
b 0, then r(x) =0
2. Take a = 0, b= 1, then r(r) = |
3. Take a = 1, b=0, then r{r) =x
4. Take a= 1, b = 1, then r(x) =x+1
the only equivalence classes are [O], [1]). [x]. + 1] in Z, t]
Hence the set of equivalence classes is {[0]. [1], E], [x +
1]}
Definition 2.15 Ideal of a ring
Let (R, +, ) be a ring. A non-empty subset I of a ring is called an ideal of R,
if i) for all a, be I, we have a-bel
and (ii) for all r E R and a e I, we have ar, ra E .

Note An ideal is always subring, but

a a subring is not an ideal. Ideal is something more than a
subring.
1. In any ring R, {0} and R are ideals
2. For any positive
of R. The ideal {0} is called the trivial ideal.
integer n, the subset n Z= {0, tn, t2n, ...,} in the ring (Z, +, -) is an ideal of Z
For example:
(Z, +, ) is a subring of (0, +, ), but it is not an ideal,
because if we take 2 e
Zande, then

Definition 2.16 Factor ring

Let Ibe an ideal
of the ring R. Then the set
r+I|reRis a ring under addition and multiplication
defined as

(a+I)+(b+)=a+b+I
and
(a+1)-(b+I)= ab+ Va,be R.
This ring is called factor
ring or quotient ring and is denoted by R/I.
Definition 2.17 Principal ideal
An ideal generated by
single element a is called a
principal ideal and is denoted by <a>.
Thus <a> =
{ra |re R}
Then quotient ring is R/<a>.
Now we state a theorem without
proof for polynomials.
Theorem 2.11 Let
F=2,p is a prime and fr) be an irreducible
polynomial of degree n
then i s a field having p" element, <fx) > is the ideal
over 2,
<f(x)> generated by Str).
 Finite Fields and Polynomials 2.33

WORKED EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE1

Construct a field consisting of four

elements.
(Hint: Using the irreducible binary polynomial x2+x +11 AU 20131
Solution.
Consider
Z,= {0, 1}
and Sx)=x+x+le Z,«]
AO) = 1*0
A1)=1+ 1+l =3* 1(mod
2) 0
fx) is irreducible over Z.

Z,x] Z,[x] is a field having 22 = 4 elements.

<f)> <x*+x+1>
To find the four elements
Thisfieldconsists ofthe different equivalence classes of mod+x+ 1) in Z,[r]
Consider fr) E Z,{«] and x +x+ l e Z,«].
By division algorithm,
S)=q(r)M** +x+1)+r{x)
where either r ) = 0 or deg r{r) < deg ( + x +2) =2

deg r(r) = 0 or 1

Hence rtx) =
ax +b, where a, b e Z
Since Sa)-rr) = q)(r* +x+ 1)
Ax)=rtx) mod (r+x +1)

=[rt)
So, to find the equivalence classes mod(r+x+ 1), it is enough to find the possible valuesof
r{x)=ax +b.
If a=0, b=0, r(r)=0
If a = 0, b= 1, x) = 1

If a = 1, b= 0, r(x) = x

If a =0, b=1, rr) =x+

the equivalence classes are [0], [1], [»], x+ 1]

the 4 elements ofthe field Z2x] are [0]. [1). x]. r+1]
<x+x+1>

<+x+1>
 2.34 Algebra and Number Theory

EXAMPLE 2
In the above example 1, find el
Solutlon.
In the above example 1, we have proved
Zalx] is a field having the four elements
<x+x+1>
[O]. [1]. r), [x + 1], where [0] is the zero element.
The non-zero elements [1], [x]. [x +1] form a group under multiplication, because Z,{x]_
is a field. <x+x+1>
We write [a] as a.

]= 1, x] =x and [x +1]=x+1 - 1 = 1(mod2)]

xX=x*= (r+ 1) mod (r* +x+ 1)

x(x+1)=r+x= 1 mod (r* +x +1)

+1)-r+1) =x*+2x+1
x+x+1+x=xmod(x +x+ 1)
x+1

x x+1

x+1 x+1
Since 1 is the identity
We find x(x+ 1) = 1
inverse ofx is x +1 = [x+ 1]
EXAMPLE 3

InZ,r], str) =x* +x +2. Show that s(x) is irreducible over Z and construct the field
What is the order of this field? <s(r)>

Solution.
Given s(x) =x+x +2 in Z,[x] and Z= {0, 1,2}
Now s(0) =2*0
s(1)= 1+
1+2=4 =1(mod 3) *0
s(2) =22 +2+2 8 2(mod 3) *0
s(x) has no root in
Zg3
Hence s(x) is irreducible in
Z,l«].
Z,[a] is a field
< s(x)>
Since deg s(x) 2, this field has 3 =9 elements.
=

This field consists of9 different

equivalence classes (mod s(x).
 Finite Fields and Polynomials 2.35

Letfx) e ZZr]
Then
fx)= qlr)r +x + )+ r(x)
where r(r) =0 or
deg r(x) < deg (+x+ )=2 deg r(r) is 0 or 1.
x ) = ax +b,
a, be Z
and
=[rtr
the different equivalence classes mod(r +x+
)
Each of a and b can take 3 values from and so,correspond
to the different values
of r{x).
They are
Z, there are 3 3 9 values for r(x).
=

1. If a = 0,
b0, then r(x) =0
2. If a = 0,
b= 1, then r(x) =1
3 If a = 0, b 2 then r(x) = 2
4. If a =1, b= 0, then r{x) =X
5. If a = 1, b= 1, then r(r) =x+1
6. If a = 1,
b 2, then r(x) =x+2
7. If a = 2, b= 0, then r(x) = 2x
8. If a = 2, b= 1, then r{x) = 2x +1
9. If a = 2, b 2, then r{x) = 2x +2
the nine equivalence classes are [0]. [1], [2], [x], [x +1],[x + 2], [2x]. [2x + 1]. [2x+2]
. = {[O], [1), [2]. Lx],[x+1},[x+2], [2x], [2x+1]. [2x +2]}
<+x+2>
the order of the field is 9.
1.., the number elements is 9.

EXAMPLE4
In the find field Z3lx] with 9 elements (Refer worked example 3 above), find
<x+x+2>
) x+2]{2x+2]+ x+1]
(i) (2x+ 11*+2
(ii) 12x+117

Solution.
Given Z3[x]_ is a finite field with 9 elements.
<+x+2>
i) To find r+2][2x+2]+Ix +11
Now x+2][2+2]=|2x+6x +4
-2 +0x+4 : 6 O(mod3)]
=[2x+4]
 2.36 Algebra and Number Theory

For, 2

x2tx+2 2x2+4
2x2+2r+4
-2x =x 2= 1(mod 3
x +2][2x +2]+ [x+ 1] =[x]+ r+ 1]
=[2x+1]
(ii) To find [2r+ 11? x+2]= [4x2+4x+ 1x+ 2
[x 1]x +2] [: 4=
=
+x+
1(mod 3)]
For,
2+x+2) x2+x + 1
x2+x+2
-I =2 (mod 3)

+x+1]= [2]
We get
2x+1+2] =

[2]x +2]
= [2x+4]

= [2x+1]
(ii) Now consider [2x+1][2x] = [4x2 + 4 ]

=-2]= [1]
Since 4 =
1(mod 3), r +x=-2(mod x+x +2), and-2= 1(mod 3)
[2x+1]2x]=[l]={2x+1] =[2x]
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Determine whether the
following polynomials are irreducible over the given fields
(a) r2+x +1 over Zg, Zs, Z
b)+x+1 over Z
(c)+3r -x+1 over Zs AU 20131
2. Find the remainder when
fx) 3x3 8x4+-x*+ 4x 7 is divided by g(x) =x +9 in Z,)
= -
-

3. Let ffx) =* +r+r+x+le

Z,{«]. Is it reducible in Z,[x]?
(Hint:0, 1 are not roots offlx). So first degree factors suppose it has 2nd degree factors
ax +br+ cx + d). Which leads to contradiction. then (r*
4.
Sofl) is irreducible in Z,r].
Let flx) =*+6¬ Z a), writefx) as a product of irreducible polynomial Z,
Show that x +X +4 is irreducible over
5.
Z1
6. Use Euclidean algorithm
for polynomial to find gcd of Ax) =**+2r+2x+2, g(x) =
213+ 2x+
x+1 in Z,[r].
7. How many monic
polynomial in Z,[x] have degree 5?
8. Show that s(x) =
x+1 is reducible in Z,[x]. write the factors.
 Finite Fields and Polynomials 2.37

ANSWERS TO EXERCISE 2.2

1. (a) ** +x+1
is reducible
over Z
is irreducible over
is reducible over
Zs
+xs+1 is
Z.
b) irreducible overZ.
(c)+3x2 - x+ 1 is irreducible over Zg.
2. Remainder is f-9) =f2) = 6 (mod 11).
3. Irreducible over Z.
4. fx) (x + 3) (x + 5) (r +6) over Z.
=

5. Use direct calculation to show it has no roots in

6. gcd is x + 2x + 1.
Z1
7. Any monic polynomial
of degree 5 is a0 +a,x +ax+a,r +a+*,
where a e Zg {0, 1,2,3,4, 5, 6, 7}
=
each a, can be chosen in 8 ways.
No of polynomials = 8.
8. x+I =(r+ 1) (x+ ) (mod 2).

PART A QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Let Fbe field. Can F[x]
a be a field? Why? AU 20131
Ans. No

We know F[x] is an integral domain.

Let flr) =xe F], then flr) * 0 and it has no multiplicative inverse.
Suppose gx) = a +ajt + a , " is the inverse then

xgl)=1 x{4,t a , + 4 ) = 1 +0x +0x + . +Ox+

.1 =0, which is a contradiction.

So flx)= x has no inverse.

Flx) is not a field.
2. If fx) 7x+ 4x+ 3x2 +x+4 and g) 3«s+ 5x
=

x)+ s ) and deg (fr) +gl«).

=
+6r +1 belong to Z,lr], then find

Ans. Given Ax)= 7* + 4x3+ 32 +x+4 and gtr)= 3x3+5x2 +6x+1

Since 7= O(mod 7),
x)= Oxd+ 4x3 +3x2 +x+4
= 4x3+3x+x +4
x)+glr) =7x+8x2+7x +5 ( 8 1(mod7)]
= Ox3+lx+0x +5
= x+5
deg flr) +gtr) = 2
 2.38 Algebra and Number Theory

3. How many polynomials are there of degree 2 in Z1,r?

Ans. We know Z1 = {0, 1,2, 3, 4,... 10}

Any polynomial of degree 2 in Zk] is

of the form a, + a,x + a
where a , 0 , ag. a. 42 ¬ Z11

The number the number of choices of

of polynomials correspond to a, aq, a, in Z
each and a, in 10 ways.
a and a can be chosen in 11 ways
2 is 112 (10) 1210.
of degree =

t h e number polynomial
of
4. Find the number of polynomials of degreen in Z,2lr|.

Ans. Z,2t] is of the form

Any polynomial of degree n in
a t at +ax +... +a--+a," Z,,[r]
E

where a * 0 , Gg, 1 . a 2 . a-1, , E Z12

and Z12 {0, 1, 2,3,..., 11}.

Each of a0, a. az., an_ can be chosen in 11 ways and a, in 11 ways.
t h e number of polynomials = 12". 11.

5. Find the polynomials Ar)»gtr)e Z1ze] such that degfx) = 5, degst) = 2 and degfr) gtr)=3

Ans. Let Ax)=4x+2x and gtr)= 3x in Z12r]

Then degfr)=5 and deg gx) =2
Now Ax) gr) = (4x4 +21) 32
= 12 x+ 6x3

=Ox+6r
6rs 1 2 =0(mod 12)]
degfx)glt) =3
6. Iffr) =x+3x + 1 and glr) =*+2x'+x+4 belong to Z<l«], then find the quotient and
remainder when glr) is divided by flx).
Ans. Given Ax)=x* +3x+1 and glx) =x+ 2x+x+4
Since Z {0, 1, 2,3, 4} is a finite field,
=
we divider g(x) by fx) by long division method keeping
in mind addition and multiplication are
performed under modulo 5.
x2+4x +2 :-l= 4(mod5)
-3 = 2(mod 5)
2+3x + 1 +2r3+x +4
x4+3x3 +x2 12 2(mod 5)
-8 2(mod 5)
4x3+4x2 +x 4 = 1(mod5)
4x3+12x2+4x
2r2+2x +4
2x2+ 6x +2
x+2
the quotient is qlr) =x*+ 4x + 2 and the remainder is
r(x) =x+2
 Finite Fields and Polynomials 2.39

7.
1ff) =x+åre Z,,k), then find two different linear polynomials gtr) and hr) in
such that fx) =
g{r) h(x). 2y2b
Ans.
Given fr)=r+4xe Zx]
Let glx) =x -

2 and h(x) 6
= x e
Z12lx]
-

Then
g(x) hx) = (x-2%x-6)
= r- 8x +12
But 8= 4 (mod 12) and 12 =(mod 12)
gtx) hx) =r+ 4r
Ar) = g ) hx)
8. Find the
remainder when fx) =315-8x +-x+ 4x-7 is divided by glx) =x+9 in Z,,el.
Ans. Given
fx)=3 8r +r-r+4x-7e Z] -

And gtr)=r+9=x-2 (9=-2 (mod 11)]

When fx) is divided by x - 2, the remainder is

S(2)=3-23-8-2 +23 -22 +4-2-7

96-128+8-4+8-7= -27 E 6(mod11)
. the remainder is 6 e
Z1
9. Test whether 2x+1e Z^lx] is a unit.
Ans. Consider (2r+12x+1) =47+4x+1
Ox+0x +1 = 1
( 4 =0 mod 4]
2r+1 is unit inZx] and its inverse is 2x+1.
10. How many monic polynomials in
Z,r] have degree 52
Ans. We have Z, {0, 1,2,3, 4, 5,6}
=

Any monic polynomial of degree 5 over Z, is a, +

ax+a+ars+a^*+x,
where ag
1, a2, 43, ,¬ Z
Each coefficient can be chosen in 7
ways. So, all the five coeficients can be chosen in 7
ways.
The number of monic
polynomial is 7
11. What is the
g.c.d of flx) =x* +x+1 and glr) =x* +x+1 in Z,kr)
Ans. We know Z, {0, 1}
Given x) =x* +r+1 and gx) =x +x+ l

Now SO)= 0+ 0 + l = 1 *0

A2)=24 +23+1 =
16+8+1 =
25 =1 (mod 2) *0
2.40 Algebra and Number Theory

fx) had no root in Z,

fx) is irreducible over Z2.
g0) = 0+ 0+ 1 #0

&(1)=1+ 1+1 =3 =1(mod 2)

g r ) had no root in Z,.

gx) is irreducible over Z.

Hence fx) and glx) of irreducible over Z

t h e g.c.d is (flr), g(x)) = 1.