法拉第定律 (Faraday’s Law)

1812年，法拉第開始旁聽戴維的演講。
1813年，戴維推薦法拉第為皇家研究院中一位化學助理。
1824年，法拉第被選為倫敦皇家學會會員。
1831年，法拉第從實驗中證實：當一封閉線圈內的磁場發生
變化時，在導線上會感應出電流，這就是著名的法拉第定律。
法拉第的發現使人們了解到電和磁是一體的兩面。
法拉第 (Faraday) 1832年，法拉第和帕松同獲科普利獎。
1791-1867 (英)
1838年，法拉第和高斯同獲科普利獎。
1845年，法拉第創立了力線的概念：這些流線由帶電體或者
是磁鐵 的其中一極中放射出，射向另一電性的帶電體或是磁
性異極的物體。
1845年， 他發現一種磁光效應現稱為法拉第效應。法拉第
效應會造成偏振平面的旋轉，這旋轉與磁場朝著光波傳播方
向的分量呈線性正比關係。這個實驗結果意味了光和磁有所
關聯。
1852年，法拉第創立了電磁場的概念。這個概念能夠將抽象
的電磁場具體化。
為了紀念法拉第在電磁學上的貢獻，1881年在巴黎召開第一
屆國際電學會議決定，將電容的單位命名為「法拉」(F) 。
 楞次定律 (Lenz’s Law)
法拉第電磁感應定律只是一條觀察性的實驗定律，而確認
感應電動勢和感應電流方向的是俄國物理學家楞次，他於
1834年總結出了著名的楞次定律。隨後德國物理學家亥姆
霍茲(Helmholtz)證明楞次定律實際上是電磁現象的能量守
恆定律。

「電感」是1886年由黑維塞(Heaviside)命名。而物理量
「自感」以字母「L」標記，就是為了紀念楞次的貢獻。

楞次 (Lenz)
1804-1865 (俄)
 電磁鐵
1825年，英國人思特金(Sturgeon)將通有電流的金屬線纏繞
在絕緣棒上，發明了電磁鐵。亨利在得知這個消息後，在軟
鐵芯上纏繞密集的絕緣線圈，不需很大的電流，便能吸起一
噸重的鐵塊。亨利成為史上首位將絕緣的電線緊密纏繞在鐵
質核芯外的人。
1830年，亨利獨立研究中發現電磁感應定律，雖比法拉第早
一年，但未公開此發現。
亨利 (Henny) 1831年，亨利發明了電磁驅動機器：電子鈴。這是現代直流
1797-1878 (美) 電動機早期的雛型。
1842年，亨利觀察到過萊頓瓶放電時也能使附近的不閉合線
圈產生微弱的火花現象，並發現火花放電的振盪特性。
1853年，凱爾文(Kelvin)利用亨利的電磁自感概念，推導出
電磁振盪的頻率公式。

亨利因電磁感應領域的貢獻，
電感值的國際單位 「亨利」
(H)，即以其姓氏命名。

電子鈴
 變壓器 (Transformer)
變壓器的變壓原理首先由法拉第提出，並在1831年發明
了一個「電感環」，這是第一個變壓器。但法拉第只是用
它來示範電磁感應原理，並沒有考慮過它有否實際的用途。
直到十九世紀80年代在發電應該以直流電或交流電輸出的
競爭中，變壓器有能夠產生交流電流的優勢，且可以將電
能轉換成高電壓低電流形式，然後再轉換回去，因此大大
減少電能在輸送過程中的損失，使得電能的輸送距離達到
更遠。如此一來，發電廠就可以建在遠離用電戶的地方。

1885年，西屋公司的工程師製造了第一台實用的變壓器。
後來變壓器的鐵心由E型的鐵片疊合而成，並於1886年
開始商業運用。

VS N S
=
VP N P

1000 A High Current Transformer https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ID7gG6krecI

 渦電流 (Eddy current)
渦電流又稱為傅科電流現象，在1851年被法國物理學家傅科所
發現。這是由於一個移動的磁場與金屬導體，或是由移動的金
屬導體與磁場垂直交會所產生。簡而言之，就是電磁感應效應
所造成。這個動作產生了一個在導體內循環的漩渦狀電流。

1850年，傅科和斐索分別確認光速在
水中較慢的實驗證據。
傅科 (Foucault)
1851年，發現渦電流。
1819-1868 (法)
科普利獎 (1855)
1851年，傅科擺實驗證明地球自轉。

傅科是七十二位名字被刻在巴黎
艾菲爾鐵塔上的法國科學家之一

Eddy Current Demo https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yu1uRvErM80

Eddy Currents, Magnetic Braking https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otu-KV3iH_I
 渦電流現象及應用
渦電流能使導體發熱，在磁場發生變化的裝置中，往往把導體分成一組相互
絕緣的薄片或一束細條，以降低渦電流強度，從而減少熱能的損耗；但在需
要產生高溫時，又可以利用渦電流取得熱能，如高頻電熔爐原理。

改為片狀鐵片以降低渦電流產生之高溫
高週波熔融爐

電磁爐 RF induction melter in NCKU

 金屬探測器
金屬探測器利用電磁感應的原理，利用有交流電通過的線圈，產生迅速變化的
磁場。這個磁場能在金屬物體內部能感生渦電流。渦電流又會產生磁場，反過
來影響原來的磁場，引發探測器發出鳴聲。
 Faraday’s Law

Time-varying magnetic flux


  B     
E = −   E  dl = −  B  ds
t c
t
d B
Electromotive force  =−
dt
磁通量隨時間改變產生感應電動勢
 電流隨時間改變

d B  0b a dI (t )
 =− =− ln(1 + )
dt 2 c dt

磁通量隨時間改變產生感應電動勢

e.g., I(t) = I 0 cos(t )

d B  0b a
 =− = ln(1 + ) I 0 sin(t )  
dt 2 c
Example 7-1 磁場隨時間改變
 r
B ( r , t ) = B0 cos( ) sin(t ) zˆ
2b r
b
b r
  B (t ) =  B0 cos( ) sin(t ) 2rdr
0 2b
8b 2 
= ( − 1) B0 sin(t )
 2
d B 8 Nb2 
 = −N =− ( − 1) B0 cos(t )
dt  2

b cos(ax ) x sin( ax ) b
0
x cos(ax )dx = [
a 2
+
a
] |0


a=
2b
 Motor


Constant field B = B0 yˆ
Time - varying angle  = t
 
 B (t ) =  B  ds = B0 hw cos(t )
d B
 =− = B0 S sin(t ), S = hw
dt

Example 7-4 (a)


Time - varying field B (t ) = B0 sin(t ) yˆ
 
 B (t ) =  B  ds = B0hw cos( ) sin(t )
d B
 =− = − B0 S cos( ) cos(t )
dt
Motional induced emf

qE = qvB  E = vB In equilibrium
 
  =  E  dl = E L = vBL  v  B

v = 1000 km/hr  280 m/s

B  0.5 gauss = 5  10 −5 T
L = 70 m
   1 Volt

 vBL
Induced i = =
R R
vBL (vBL) 2
Produced power  Fa v = iLBv = ( LBv) =
R R
vBL 2 (vBL) 2
Dissipated power  i R = (
2
) R=
R R

Conservation of energy
Example 7-3 Faraday’s disk generator

+
+

        
dV = E  dr = ( v  B )  dr = [(  r )  B ]  dr
b b2
 V0 =  B0rdr = B0
0 2
B0b 2
V1 − V2 = −
2
measured by a voltmeter
Problem 7-10
      
(a) M =  m H B = 0 H + M = 0 (1 +  m ) H = 0 r H
 5000  5000
r = 1 +  m = 5000 B= 0 M B0 = 0 M 0
4999 4999
        
(b) dV = E  dr = ( v  B )  dr = [(  r )  B ]  dr
a B0
 V0 =  B0rdr = − (b 2 − a 2 )
b 2

1 drb ln( b )
(c) R =  = a
 a 2rh 2h
V0 (b 2 − a 2 )
i= = hB0
R ln( b )
a
 Problem 7-6 Eddy Current

(a) B (t ) = B0 sin(t )
dB (t )
 r = iRr = r 2 = r 2B0 cos(t )
dt
1 2r h
Rr = i = B0 cos(t ) rdr
 hdr 2
h
 dP = i r = (B0 ) 2 cos2 (t ) r 3dr
2
h a
 P (t ) = (B0 ) cos (t )  r 3dr
2 2
0 . 95 a 2
2 (b) Each surface area S = = b 2
0

h 2 B02a 4 N
= cos (t )
2
0.95
8 b = a
h B0 a2 2 4 N
Pavg = P (t ) = h  2 2
B0 4
16 Pavg = N
'
b
16
(0.95) 2 h 2 B02 4 0.9
= a  Pavg
N 16 N
From earlier considerations it is evident that a variation in the flux linking a
circuit generates an emf in the circuit. This is true also for the ferromagnetic
circuit since the flux in the iron must naturally link various parts of the iron.
Hence emfs are induced in the iron portions, which in turn produce currents,
known as eddy currents, that circulate in the iron. In order to keep the eddy
currents within practical values, the iron in the magnetic circuits is laminated,
although for some high-frequency applications molded ferrite materials are
used in solid form. The laminations are coated with an insulating oxide or, in
the case of large transformers, with a coating of insulating enamel.
Laminating the core, with the plane of the laminations parallel to the
direction of the flux, confines the eddy currents to paths of relatively small
cross section and consequently high resistance. Shapes of typical laminations
for small and medium size magnetic circuits are shown below.
 Eddy Current


Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes
perpendicular to the magnetic flux. They normally travel parallel to the coil's
winding and flow is limited to the area of the inducing magnetic field. Eddy
currents concentrate near the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their
strength decreases with distance from the coil as shown in the image. Eddy
current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is
known as the skin depth effect. The figures below show two eddy current
simulations and show how the density of eddy currents decrease with depth.
They show the in-phase components perpendicular to the material cross
section with the image on the left having no directionality and the image on
the right indicating directionality.
The skin effect arises when the eddy currents flowing in the test object at any
depth produce magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing the
net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as the depth increases.
Alternatively, eddy currents near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil's
magnetic field, thereby weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and
reducing induced currents.
The depth that eddy currents and EM waves penetrate into a material is affected by
the frequency of the excitation current and the electrical conductivity and magnetic
permeability of the specimen. The depth of penetration decreases with increasing
frequency and increasing conductivity and magnetic permeability. The depth at
which eddy current density has decreased to 1/e, or about 37% of the surface
density, is called the standard depth of penetration (d). The word 'standard'
denotes plane wave electromagnetic field excitation within the test sample
(conditions which are rarely achieved in practice). Although eddy currents
penetrate deeper than one standard depth of penetration, they decrease rapidly
with depth. At two standard depths of penetration (2d), eddy current density has
decreased to 1/e squared or 13.5% of the surface density. At three depths (3d), the
eddy current density is down to only 5% of the surface density.
Since the sensitivity of an eddy current inspection depends on the eddy current
density at the defect location, it is important to know the strength of the eddy
currents at this location. When attempting to locate flaws, a frequency is often
selected which places the expected flaw depth within one standard depth of
penetration. This helps to assure that the strength of the eddy currents will be
sufficient to produce a flaw indication. Alternately, when using eddy currents to
measure the electrical conductivity of a material, the frequency is often set so that it
produces three standard depths of penetration within the material. This helps to
assure that the eddy currents will be so weak at the back side of the material that
changes in the material thickness will not affect the eddy current measurements.