Xii Chemistry 2022 Focus Full

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XII CHEMISTRY CHAPTERS 1 TO 16

(BASED ON FOCUS POINTS 2022)
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
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1. What are differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids?

Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
In crystalline solids, particles are arranged in In amorphous solids , particles do not have the
ordered manner. orderly arrangement
They have long range order They have short range order
They have sharp melting point They do not have sharp melting point
They have definite heat of fusion They do not have definite heat of fusion
They can be cleaved along definite planes They undergo irregular cleavage on cutting.
Crystalline solids are anisotropic Amorphous solids are isotropic.
Crystalline solids are true solids Amorphous solids are pseudo solids
Eg. NaCl, KCl, sugar, diamond, graphite, marble, Eg. Glass, Plastic(Polyurethane, Teflon,
naphthalene, copper, benzoic acid, KNO 3 ,quartz cellophane, poly vinyl chloride) ,Rubber, pitch
2. Anisotropic :- In Crystalline solids , the physical properties such as electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity, refractive index etc. are different in different directions
3. Isotropic:- In Amorphous solids , the physical properties such as electrical conductivity, thermal
conductivity, refractive index etc. are same in all directions
4. Why amorphous solids are considered as pseudo solids or super cooled liquids?
Some of the amorphous solids like glass have a tendency to flow very slowly. So they are considered as
pseudo solids or super cooled liquids.
Example: The glass panes of windows of old buildings are found to be slightly thicker at the bottom than
at the top. This is because the glass flows down very slowly and makes the bottom portion slightly
thicker.
5. What are crystal lattice (space lattice) and unit cells?
The three dimensional arrangement of constituent particles in space is called crystal lattice (space
lattice). Smallest repeating portion of the crystal lattice is called unit cell.
A unit cell is characterized by edge lengths (a , b , c ) and axial angles(α , β , γ)
6. Which are seven types of crystal systems and give their bond parameters
Crystal systems Edge lengths Axial angles
Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90 0
Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90 0
Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90 0
Hexagonal a=b≠c α = β = 90 0 γ = 120 0
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Rhombohedral or Trigonal a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90 0

Monoclinic a≠b≠c α = γ = 90 0 β ≠ 90 0
Triclinic a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90 0
7. Match box is orthorhombic type. Give its bond parameters
a ≠ b ≠ c , α = β = γ = 90 0
8. Explain primitive (simple) and centered cubic unit cells.
Simple (primitive) cubic, Body centred cubic (bcc), Face centred cubic (fcc).
(i) In simple (primitive) cubic unit cells, the particles are present only at the corners of the unit cells.
cells
(ii) In body centered cubic unit cells, the particles are present at the corners and at the centre of the unit
cells.
(iii) In face centered cubic unit cells, the particles are present at the corners and at the face centre of the
unit cells
9. Contribution of each atom at the corner →1/8 ,
Contribution of each atom at the face →1/2
Contribution of each atom at the edge →1/4 ,
Contribution of each atom within the bodybody→1
10. Calculate the number of particles in 3 types cubic unit cells.
Types of unit cells Position of Corner Face Body centre Total number of
particles contribution contribution contribution particles
Simple cubic 8 corners =1 0 0 1
Body centred 8 corners+ =1 0 1 2
cubic 1 body centre
Face centred cubic 8 corners + =1 =3 0 4
6 face centres
Simple cubic = =
Body centred cubic = + =
Face centred cubic = + = + =

11. What are Point defects ?
If the imperfection is near few atoms are called Point defects.
These are two types (I) Stoichiometric
toichiometric defects (II) Non stoichiometric defects.
12. What are Stoichiometric defects?
efects?
The defects do not disturb the stoichiometry of the compound are called sto
stoichio
ichio metric defects.
The stoichio metric defects shown by ionic solids are Schottky defects and Frenkel defects.
13. What are Non- stoichiometric defects?
The defects which disturb the stoichiometry of the compound are called nonnon- stoichio metric defects.
These are two types
(I) Metal excess defect (due to anion vacancies, due to the presence of extra interstitial cations) .
(II) Metal deficiency defects.
14. What are differences between Schottky defects and Frenkel defects?
Schottky defects Frenkel defects
It arises by the missing of equal number of cations It arises by the movement of cations from the lattice
and anions from the lattice site site to the interstitial site.
Density decreases Density remains same.
Found in ionic compounds with high co-ordination Found in ionic compounds with low co-ordination
number and are in similar size of cations and anions number and cations are smaller than the anions
Eg:-NaCl,KCl, CsCl Eg:-AgCl, ZnS
15. AgBr shows both schottky dfect and Frenkal defect.
16. Metal excess defect due to anion vacancies :-

((When sodium chloride crystal is heated in the presence of sodium vapour, the colour of the crystal
turns yellow. Why?)
When sodium chloride is heated in the presence of
sodium vapour, some of the sodium atoms deposit on
the surface of the crystal. The chloride ion diffuse to
the surface and combine with sodium atoms, which
become ionized by losing electrons. These electrons
diffuse back to the crystal and occupy the anionic
vacant sites created by chloride ions. The anion sites
occupied by electrons are called F –centres (colour
centres). These F –centres are responsible for the
colour of the compound. The colour results by the
excitation of these electrons when they absorb energy
from the visible light falling on the crystals.
(Similarly potassium in potassium chloride makes it violet and lithium in lithium chloride makes it pink)
17. Metal excess defect due to the presence of extra interstitial cations :-
(Zinc oxide is colourless. But it turns yellow on heating. Why?)
When zinc oxide is heated, it loses oxygen and turns yellow.

ZnO→ Zn2+ + ½ O2 + 2 e-
The Zn2+ moves to the interstitial sites and the electrons to the
neighbouring sites. The yellow colour of ZnO on heating is due to
these trapped electrons in
n the interstitial sites.
18. Metal deficiency defect due to cation vacancies ::-
A positive ion is missing from its lattice

position and the extra negative charge
thus created is balanced by adjacent
metal ion which attains one additional
positive charge.
E.g. FeO, FeS
19. What are F-centres?

In metal excess defects due to anion vacancies , the anionic sites are occupied by electrons are called
F –centres
centres (colour centres). These F –centres are responsible for the colour of thee compound
20. How will you classify solids based on conductivity ?
(I) Conductors: Substances which conduct electricity are called conductors.
Examples : Metals Its conductivity range is 104 to 107 ohm-1 m-1
(II) Insulators: Substances which do not conduct electricity are called insulators.
Examples : Plastics ,rubber , wood etc.. Its conductivity range is 10-20 to 10-10 ohm-1 m-1
(III) Semi conductors : Substances which have conductivity between conductors and insulators are
called semi conductors.
Examples : Silicon, Germanium . Its conductivity range is 10 -6 to 104 ohm-1- m-1
21. Explain the conductivities of conductors ,semiconductors and insulators by using band theory.
Band theory is explained by molecular orbital theory.

Highest electron occupied energy band is called valence band.
Lowest electron unoccupied energy band is called conduction band.
In conductors (e.g. Metals) valence band and conduction band are fused and so electron can flow easily
and conductivity is maximum.
In semiconductors (e.g. Silicon, Germanium), small energy gap is present between valence band and
conduction band and so electron can’t flow easily, but on increase in temperature, electron can jump
from valence band to conduction band and show conductivity.
In insulators (e.g Plastics) , large energy gap between valence band and conduction band and so
electron can’t flow and conductivity is minimum
22. What is the difference between extrinsic semiconductors and intrinsic semiconductors?
Substances such as silicon and germanium which show semi conductivity in the pure state are called
intrinsic semiconductors.
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be increased by adding suitable impurities. This process
is called doping. Such semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors
23. What are n-type and p- type semiconductors?
n-type semiconductors: -When group 14 elements (silicon or germanium) is doped with a group 15
elements (P or As ) one electron becomes free to move and its conductivity increases.
p-type semiconductors:- When group 14 elements (silicon or germanium) is doped with a group 13
elements (B, Al or Ga ) there is electron deficiency which moves like a positive charge (hole) and its
conductivity increases.
24. Classification of Solids based on magnetic properties
(a)Diamagnetic substance : -
(i) Due to the presence of paired electrons. (ii) Repelled by magnetic field Eg:-NaCl
(b) Paramagnetic substances: -
(i) Due to the presence of unpaired electrons. (ii) Attracted by magnetic field. Eg:- Cu 2+ , Fe3+, O2 , Al
(c) Ferromagnetic substances : -
(i) Due to the presence of very large number of unpaired electrons. (ii) They are strongly attracted by
magnetic field and retain magnetism even the magnetic field is removed. So it is used for making
permanent magnets. ↑↑↑↑↑↑ Eg:-Fe, Co, Ni, alloys of Fe, Co, Ni (alnico)
(d) Ferrimagnetic substances :-
Magnetic dipoles arranged in opposite directions unequally, there is a small net magnetic moment.
↑↑↓↑↓ ↑ Eg:-Fe3O4 , MgFe2O4
(e) Anti ferromagnetic substances :-
Magnetic dipoles arranged in opposite directions equally, net magnetic moment is zero.
↑↓↑↓↑↓ Eg:-MnO, MnO 2
25. Ferromagnetic substances are used for making permanent magnets.
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CHAPTER 2 SOLUTIONS

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1. What are the factors affecting the solubility of a gas in liquid?

(I) Nature of gas and solvent:- Easily liquefiable gas is more soluble than permanent gas.
Eg. CO 2 is more soluble in water than H2
(II) Effect of temperature:- Since the solubility of most of the gases in water is exothermic and
solubility decreases with increase of temperature.
E.g. Fish and other aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
(III) Effect of pressure :- As pressure increases , solubility increases.
2. Fish and other aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water. Why?
In cold water dissolved oxygen is high. When temperature increases, solubility of oxygen in water
decreases.
3. State Henry’s law and give its applications.

Henry’s law states that at constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the pressure of the gas.
∝ OR
Henry’s law states that partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction
of the gas in the solution.
∝ OR = where KH= Henry’s constant
Applications:
(I) To increase the solubility of carbon dioxide in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed
under high pressure.
(II) To avoid the toxic effects (bends) of high concentration of nitrogen in blood, the tanks used by
scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium.
(III) At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is low and partial pressure of oxygen is less. This leads to
low concentration of oxygen in blood and in tissues. Low blood oxygen results in physical
weakness (anoxia) and is unable to think clearly.
4. What is vapour pressure? What happens to vapour pressure when a non volatile solute is added ?
The pressure exerted by the vapours over the surface of the liquid at equilibrium is called vapour pressure.
In a binary solution, if both components are volatile, total vapour pressure is the sum of the partial
pressures of each component.
When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent, vapour pressure is lowered due to decrease in the
number of solvent molecules at surface. It is due to the presence of non volatile solute at the surface.
5. State Raoult’s law for solution having volatile liquids. Give its equations. Draw its graph.
Raoult’s law states that for volatile solutions, the partial vapour pressure of each
component at a given temperature is directly proportional to its mole fraction in
solution.
∝ , OR =
∝ , OR =
PA = Partial pressure of solvent in solution , P B = Partial pressure of solute in solution
= Partial pressure of solvent in pure state , = Partial pressure of solute in pure state
XA = Mole fraction of solvent , XB = Mole fraction of solute
According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure, Ptotal = PA + PB = +
For a solution having non volatile solute, total vapour pressure is the vapour pressure of the solvent
only.
∴ = =
6. What are ideal solutions?

Solutions which obey Raoult’s law. ∆V mixing = 0 ∆H mixing = 0
A-B interaction = A-A interaction or B-B interaction
Examples : n-hexane and n-heptane , Chloroethane and bromoethane, Benzene and toluene
7. What are non ideal solutions?

Solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law at all temperatures and concentrations.
∆V mixing ≠ 0 ∆H mixing≠ 0
A-B interaction ≠ A-A interaction or B-B interaction
Non ideal solutions are two types.
(i) Non ideal solutions having positive deviation (ii) Non ideal solutions having negative deviation
Non ideal solutions having positive deviation Non ideal solutions having negative deviation
In this case, the partial vapour pressure of any In this case, the partial vapour pressure of any
component of a solution and total vapour pressure will component of a solution and total vapour pressure will
be greater than that expected on the basis of Raoult’s be less than that expected on the basis of Raoult’s law
law
> , > < , <
∆V mixing> 0 ∆V mixing <0
∆H mixing> 0 ∆H mixing< 0
A-B interaction < A-A interaction or B B-B interaction A-B interaction > A-A A interaction or B-B
B interaction
Examples: Examples:
Alcohol and acetone , Acetone and carbon di sulphide Chloroform and acetone , Water and nitric acid
8. What are azeotropes

eotropes or azeotropic mixture? Explain each.
Liquid mixtures which boil at constant temperature and can be distilled without change in composition
are called azeotropes. It cannot be separated by fractional distillation.
These are two types . (1) Maximum boiling azeotropes and ( 2) Minimum boiling azeotropes
Maximum boiling azeotropes Minimum boiling azeotropes
These are mixture of two liquids whose boiling These are mixture of two liquids whose boiling
points are more than either of two pure points are less than either of two pure
components. components.
These are formed by non ideal solutions showing These are formed by non ideal
idea solutions showing
negative deviation. positive deviation.
e.g. HNO3 (68 %) and water (32%) mixture boils at e.g. Ethanol(95.6 %) and water (4.4%) mixture
393.5 K boils at 351.15 K
9. What are colligative properties?
Properties that depend only on the number of particles of ssolute
olute present in solution and not on the
nature of particles are colligative properties.
Colligative properties are used to find out the molecular mass of solute.
10. Which are four colligative properties?
(a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(b) Elevation of boiling point
(c) Depression of freezing point
(d) Osmotic pressure
11. Relative lowering of vapour pressure:- When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent,
vapour pressure is lowered. This is called lowering of vapour pressure.
Total vapour pressure of the solution is due to solvent only.
Total vapour pressure = =
The lowering of vapour pressure of solvent, ∆ = − = − = ( − )
But total mole fraction is always one + =
∴ − =
Substituting ∆ =
∆
=
−
=
is the relative lowering of vapour pressure .

XB = mole fraction of solute
This shows that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is
equal to the mole fraction of the solute in the solution.
12. From the relative lowering of vapour pressure , derive the equation to find out the molecular mass of
solute.
= ,
= = In dilute solution nB <<<<nA and so we can neglect nB in comparison

with nA
/
= , =
/
( )
13. With the help of graph explain elevation in boiling point.
When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent,

vapour pressure is decreased and so boiling point of the
solution is increased. The increase in boiling point is called
elevation of boiling point.
∆Tb = Tb – Tb0
∆Tb = elevation in boiling point,
Tb = boiling point of solution ,
Tb 0 = boiling point of pure solvent.
14. Egg boils faster in salt solution. This is due to the elevation of boiling point.
15. By using elevation in boiling point, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute.
∆ ∝ ,
×
∆ = =
× ( )
×
=
∆ ( )
16. With the help of graph explain depression in freezing point.
When a non volatile solute is added to solvent,

freezing point is decreased. The decrease in freezing
point is called depression of freezing point.
∆Tf = Tf0 - Tf
∆Tf = depression in freezing point
Tf 0 = freezing point of pure solvent.
Tf = freezing point of solution
17. During winter season salt is spreading on the road to lower the freezing point.
18. By using depression in freezing point, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute.
∆ ∝ ,
×
∆ = =
× ( )
×
=
∆ ( )
19. Define osmosis and give its applications
The spontaneous flow of solvent from pure solvent to the solution or from a solution of lower
concentration to higher concentration, when they are separated by a semi permeable membrane is
called osmosis.
Applications:
(I) Raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in salt water.
(II) Wilted flowers and vegetables revive when placed in fresh water.
(III) Blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water.
(IV) Movement of water from soil in to plant roots and upper portion.
20. What is osmotic pressure and give its equations.
Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure to be applied on the solution side to prevent osmosis.
Osmotic pressure, = = C = concentration , n= number of moles

21. For determining molecular mass of solute, osmotic pressure method is preferred. Why?
(I) The measurement is carried out at room temperature.
(II) Magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solution.
22. By using osmotic pressure (π), derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute(M B)
= =
=
23. What are Isotonic solutions, Hypotonic solutions and Hypertonic solutions?
Isotonic solutions: Solutions which have same osmotic pressure.
Eg. 0.9 % NaCl solution is isotonic with human blood. So it is used for intravenous injections.
Hypotonic solution: Solution which have less osmotic pressure than the other.
Hypertonic solution: Solution which have more osmotic pressure than the other.
24. What is reverse osmosis and give its application.
The direction of osmosis is reversed if a pressure higher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution side. Then the pure solvent from the solution flows out through the semi permeable
membrane. This phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.
It is used in the desalination of sea water to produce drinking water.
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CHAPTER 3 ELECTROCHEMISTRY

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1. Write the Nernst equation for the single electrode potential.
Nernst equation gives a relationship between the electrode potential and ionic concentration of the
electrolyte solution.
For the electrode Mn+/ M , the reaction is Mn+ + ne− → M
[ ]
Nernst equation is , = −
[ ]
Converting to common logarithm
. [ ]
= —
[ ]
OR
. [ ]
= +
[ ]
E 0electrode = standard electrode potential , R = universal gas constant =8.314 JK -1 mol-1
F = Faraday (96500 coulomb) , n= number of electrons in the electrode , T = temperature
For solids [M] = 1
Substituting the value of R, F an

and temperature 298 K , we get
.
= + [ ]
.
/ = / + [ ]
2. With the help of Daniell cell, derive Nernst equation for cell potential.
Consider Daniell cell, Zn / Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu
Cell reaction is, Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
.
For Zinc electrode , / = /
+ [ ]
.
For copper electrode, / = /
+ [ ]
Ecell = Ecathode _ Eanode =

. .
E Cu2+ /Cu _ E Zn2+ /Zn =( /
+ [ ]) − ( +
/
+ [ ]) =
.
( /
− +
/
)+ ( [ ]− [ ])
. [ ]
= +
[ ]
Here n=2
. [ ]
= + OR
[ ]
. [ ]
= −
[ ]
3. Write anode reaction,
tion, cathode reaction, overall reaction and Nernst equation of Cu-Ag
Cu cell.
At anode (oxidation) Cu Cu→ Cu2+ + 2e-
At cathode (reduction) 2 Ag+ + 2e-→2 Ag
Overalll reaction Cu + 2 Ag+ → Cu2+ + 2 Ag
ell representation, Cu / Cu2+ // Ag+ / Ag
Cell
. [ ]
Nernst equation is = − [ ]
at 298 K
4. Explain the variation of specific conductance (conductivity ) on dilution.
Specific conductance (conductivity ) of an electrolyte solution decreases with dilution (decrease in
concentration) due to decrease in number of ions per unit volume of the solution .
5. With the help of graph,h, explain the variation of molar conductance of strong electrolytes and weak
electrolyte on dilution.
Strong electrolytes ionize completely in aqueous

solution. On dilution inter ionic forces decreases. As a
result molar conductance increases slightly.
Weak electrolytes are slightly ionized. On dilution, the
degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes increases and
molar conductance increases sharply.
6. State Kohlrausch’s law and give their applications.

Kohlrausch’s law states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte is the sum of the limiting
molar conductivities of cations and anions of the electrolyte present in the solution.
Ʌ0m = ν+ λ+ + ν− λ−
ν+ = number of cations , λ+ =limiting molar conductivity of cations
ν- = number of anions , λ- =limiting molar conductivity of anions
0 0 3+ 0 2−
Example: Ʌ m (Al2(SO4)3 = 2 λ (Al ) + 3 λ (SO4 )
Applications:
(i) It is used to calculate the limiting molar conductivity of weak electrolytes.
Example: (1) CH3COOH is a weak electrolyte and limiting molar conductivity is calculated using
strong electrolytes CH 3COONa, HCl and NaCl
Ʌ0(CH3COOH) = Ʌ0(CH3COONa) + Ʌ0(HCl) − Ʌ 0(NaCl)
Explanation :
Ʌ0(CH3COONa) = λ0CH3COO− + λ0Na+ ………….(1)
Ʌ0(HCl) = λ0H+ + λ0Cl- ………….(2)
Ʌ0(NaCl) = λ0Na+ + λ 0Cl− ………….(3)
Equation (1) + (2) – (3) gives
Ʌ0(CH3COONa) + Ʌ0(HCl) - Ʌ0(NaCl) = λ 0CH3COO- + λ0Na+ + λ0H+ + λ0Cl- - λ0Na+ - λ0Cl-
= λ 0CH3COO- + λ0H+ = Ʌ0(CH3COOH)
(2) NH4OH is a weak electrolyte(base)
Ʌ0(NH 4OH) = Ʌ 0(NH4Cl) + Ʌ0(KOH) - Ʌ0(KCl)
Explanation :
Ʌ0(NH 4Cl) = λ 0NH4+ + λ0Cl- ………….(1)
Ʌ0(KOH) = λ0K+ + λ0OH- ………….(2)
Ʌ0(KCl) = λ0 K+ + λ0Cl- ………….(3)
Equation (1) + (2) – (3) gives
Ʌ0(NH 4Cl) + Ʌ0(KOH) - Ʌ0(KCl) = λ0NH4+ + λ0Cl- + λ0K+ + λ0OH- -( λ0 K+ + λ0Cl- )
= λ0NH4+ + λ0OH- = Ʌ0(NH4OH)
(3) H2CO3 is a weak electrolyte (acid)
Ʌ0(H2CO3) = Ʌ0( H2SO4) + Ʌ0(Na2CO3) - Ʌ0(Na2SO4)
(4) H2O is a weak electrolyte
Ʌ0(H2O) = Ʌ0(NaOH) + Ʌ0(HCl) - Ʌ0(NaCl)
(ii) It is used to calculate degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes.
Ʌ
α = Ʌcm = molar conductance at any concentration
Ʌ
Ʌ0m = molar conductance at infinite dilution (limiting molar conductivity)
7. Differentiate primary cells and secondary cells with examples.
Primary cell Secondary cell
The electrode reactions are not reversible The electrode reactions are reversible
These are not rechargeable These are rechargeable
Eg. Dry cell , mercury cell Eg. Lead storage cell, Nickel Cadmium cell
8. Explain (a) Lead storage battery (b

(b) Nickel Cadmium cell
(a) Lead storage battery
Anode→ Lead
Cathode→ → Grid of lead packed with lead dioxide
Electrolyte→ 38 % sulphuric acid
At anode Pb + SO42- → PbPbSO4 + 2 e-
At cathode PbO2 + SO42-+4 H++ 2 e- → PbSO4+ 2H2O
Overall reaction: Pb + PbO 2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Use: It is used in automobiles and invertors
Cell potential (voltage) depends on the concentration of sulphuric acid
On charging the battery, the reaction is reversed and PbSO4 on anode and cathode is converted in to Pb and
PbO2 respectively.
(b) Nickel Cadmium cell
Overall reaction: Cd + 2 Ni(OH)3 → CdO +2 Ni(OH)2 + H2O
Uses: It is used in electronic watches, calculators etc.
9. What are fuell cells? Give examples for fuel cells.
Fuel cells are devices which convert the energy produced by the combustion of fuel directly in to
electrical energy.
Examples (i) hydrogen-oxygen
oxygen fuel cell (ii) methane oxygen fuel cell (iii) methanol –oxygen fuel cell
10. With the help of diagram explain hydrogen-oxygen
hydrogen oxygen fuel cell. Give its reactions also.
It consists of porous carbon electrodes

containing suitable catalysts (platinum or
palladium).
H2 and O2 gases are bubbled through the porous
electrodes in to aqueous NaOH or KOH solution.
The reactions takes place at the electrodes are

At anode 2 H2 + 4 OH-→ 4 H2O + 4 e-
At cathode O2 + 2 H2O +4 e-→ 4 OH-
Overall reaction 2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O
H2- O2 fuel cell works continuously as long as the gaseous fuels are supplied. Voltage is 0.9 V.
It was used for providing electric power in Apollo Space Programme.
11. What are the advantages of fuel cells?
(i) Fuel cells have long life.
(ii) They are highly efficient.
(iii) They are pollution free.
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CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL KINETICS

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1. Which are the factors affecting the rate of a reaction?

(i) Concentration of reactants(ii)Temperature(iii)Nature of the reactants(iv)Exposure to light (Radiation)
(v)Presence of catalyst
2. Define rate law or rate expression.
For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , k = rate constant
Rate law is the experimentally determined relationship between the rate of a reaction and the
concentration of reactants.
3. The general formula to find the unit of rate constant is mol 1-n Ln-1 s -1
For zero order → mol L-1 s-1 , For first order → s -1 , For second order → mol -1 L s-1
4. What are the differences between order and molecularity?
For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , Order= x +y , Molecularity = a +b
Order Molecularity
Order is the sum of the power of the Molecuarity is the number of reacting species
concentration terms in the rate equation undergoing simultaneous collision in the reaction
Order is determined experimentally Molecularity is theoretical concept
Order may be zero, fractional and integral Molecularity is always integral number
numbers
Order gives some idea about reaction Molecularity does not give any idea about reaction
mechanism mechanism.
Order is applicable to elementary and complex Molecularity is applicable only to elementary reactions.
reactions
5. What are elementary reaction and complex reaction?
If all the reactants in the balanced chemical equation take part simultaneously in the collision,
the reaction will takes place in single step, is called elementary reaction.
E.g H2+I2 → 2 HI
A reaction which takes place in several steps is called complex reaction
A complex reaction contains several elementary reactions.
The overall reaction depends on slowest step and so slowest step is the rate determined step
,
2 H2O2 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 H2O + O2 ,
[ ]
= = k [H2O2] [I−]
This reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I- . This reaction takes place in two steps.
Step 1 : H2O2 + I − → H2O + IO− Slow step, rate determining step
− −
Step 2: H2O2 + IO → H2O + O2 + I Fast step
6. What is first order reaction and give examples
If the rate of the reaction is proportional to the first power of the concentration of the reactant is called
first order reaction.
Examples for first order reaction.

(i) Hydrogenation of ethene . C2H4(g) + H2 (g) → C2H6(g) Rate = k [C2H4]
(ii) All natural and artificial radioactive
adioactive decay
(iii) Decomposition of N2O5
(iv) Decomposition of N2O
7. Derive the integrated rate equation of first order reaction.
Consider a first order reaction R → P
− [ ]
, =
According to rate law, rate , r = k [R]
[ ]
By equating both equations, we get Differential rate equation = [ ]
[ ]
On re arranging, [ ]
=
On integrating , - ln [R] = kt + I ∵ ∫ =
I is the integration constant and its value is obtained by applying initial condition , t=0, [R] = [R] 0
Substitute these in the above equation we get, - ln [R]0 = k x 0 + I
Therefore, I = - ln [R]0
Substitute the value of I in the above equation , - ln [R] = kt - ln [R]0
OR ln [R]0 - ln [R] = kt
[ ]
OR = ln a – ln b = ln a/b
[ ]
[ ]
= [ ]
To Convert natural log to common log multiply with 2.303
. [ ]
The integrated rate equation of first order reaction, =
[ ]
[R0] = initial concentration of reactant, [R] = concentration of reactant at time t.
8. Draw the graphs of first order reaction.
- ln [R] = kt - ln [R]0
Multiply by - , then ln [R] = -kt + ln [R]0
y = mx +c
Straight line plot between ln [R] vs time
If we plot log[R]0/[R] against t, we get a straight line with slope k/2.303
. [ ]
=
[ ]
[ ]
=
[ ] .
9. Half life period of a first order reaction is independent of the initial concentration of the reactant. Prove.
. [ ]
The integrated rate equation of first order reaction, = [ ]
. [ ]
∴ =
[ ]
At t = t1/2 , [R] = [R0]/2
. [ ] . . . .
∴ / = = = =
[ ]
.
Therefore half life period for first order reaction is / =
No concentration terms in half life period equation
equation,, and so half life period of a first order reaction is
independent of the initial concentration of the reactants.
10. What is the effect of temperature on reaction rate?

Most of the reactions are increased by increase in temperature.
When the temperature
perature is increased by
10 0C, the rate of the reaction and rate
constant are doubled.
The ratio of the rate constants of a
reaction at two temperatures differing
by 10 0C is called temperature
coefficient.
According to Arrhenius, a chemical
reaction cann take place by the collision
of reactant molecules. When
molecules collide, an unstable
unsta
activated complex is formed,, which decomposes to form product.
The energy required for the reactants to form activated complex is called activation energy.
When temperature increases,, molecules having activation energy increases, effective collision
increases and the rate of the reaction increases.
11. Write Arrhenius equation and explain each term.
It is the relationship between rate constant and temperature.
=
k= rate constant, Ea = activation energy, R = universal gas constant, T = temperature
A = Arrhenius factor (frequency factor) . It is the number of binary collisions per second per litre.
Its logarithmic form is = − OR

= −
.
12. What is activation energy? How will you calculate activation energy?
The excess energy which must be supplied to the reactant molecules to under
undergo
go chemical reaction is called
activation energy.
(I) Graphically we can calculate activation energy.

= −
.
Graph is plotted between log k and 1/T. straight line graph

is obtained.
Slope = - Ea/ 2.303R.
From this Ea can be calculated.
Ea = slope x 2.303 R
(II) Activation energy can be calculated by measuring the values of rate constants at different
temperatures.
=
.
================================================
CHAPTER 5 SURFACE CHEMISTRY

YOUTUBE CHANNEL
CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
===============================================================
1. What is Adsorption?
The phenomenon of accumulation of molecules of a substance on the surface of a liquid or solid rather
than the bulk is called adsorption.
The material providing the surface upon which adsorption takes place is called adsorbent.
The substance adsorbed or attached is called adsorbate.
Examples for adsorbents are silica gel, alumina gel, charcoal, clay etc.
2. Compare physisorption and chemisorptions.
Physisorption Chemisorption
The attractive force between adsorbent and The attractive force between adsorbent and adsorbate
adsorbate are weak vander waal’s forces are strong chemical bonds
Low enthalpy of adsorption (20 to 40 kJmol -1) High enthalpy of adsorption (80 to 240 kJmol-1)
Reversible Irreversible
Not very specific Highly specific
Forms multi molecular layer Forms unimolecular layer
Usually takes place at low temperature Usually takes place at high temperature.
Does not require activation energy Require activation energy
Easily liquefiable gases are more adsorbed Gases which can react with adsorbent shows
chemisorptions.
e.g., charcoal adsorb ammonia gas e.g., platinum adsorb hydrogen gas(hydride formation)
3. With the help of graph , explain

lain the effect of pressure on the adsorption of a gas on solid.
Adsorption increases with increase of pressure and

become steady at saturation pressure.
4. Write Freundlich adsorption isotherm ,its logarithmic form and graph
x /m = kP1/n
x /m =extent of adsorption , P = pressure
k and n are constants and are obtained from graph.
Logarithmic form is log x/m = log k + 1/n log P
5. What are Homogeneous catalysis and Heterogeneous catalysis?

Homogeneous catalysis: -Here the reactants and catalyst are in same phase
( )
2SO 2 (g) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯⎯ 2 SO 3 (g) (Lead chamber process for manufacture of sulphuric acid)
()
CH3COOCH 3(l) + H2O(l) ⎯⎯⎯ CH3COOH (l) + CH3OH(l) (ester hydrolysis)
Heterogeneous catalysis: Here the reactants and catalyst are in different phase .
( )
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ⎯⎯ 2 NH 3 (g), (Haber process for the manufacture of ammonia)
( )
2SO 2 (g) + O2 (g) ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 SO3 (g), (Contact process for manufacture of sulphuric acid)
6. What are Colloids ?
A colloid is a heterogeneous system in which the diameter of the particles of dispersed phase is
between 1nm and 1000nm. Eg. Starch water, Starch→ dispersed phase, Water → dispersion medium
The substance dispersed (small amount) is called dispersed phase.
The medium in which dispersion takes place (large amount) is called dispersion medium
7. Distinguish between lyophilic colloid and lyophobic colloid
Lyophilic colloid Lyophobic colloid
Solvent loving Solvent hating
Strong interaction between dispersed phase Weak interaction between dispersed phase and
and dispersion medium dispersion medium
Stable and does not require stabilizing agents Unstable and require stabilizing agents
Reversible irreversible
Can be easily prepared Can not be easily prepared and prepared by
indirect methods
They are mainly prepared from organic They are mainly prepared from inorganic materials
materials
erials like starch, gum, gelatin , rubber etc. like metals(gold sol. Silver sol) metal sulphides,
metal hydroxides etc.
8. Explain multi molecular colloid, macromolecular colloid and associated colloid.

Multi molecular colloids:- They are formed by the aggregation of large number of atoms or molecules
having size less than 1 nm. e.g., Gold sol, Sulphur sol, Ferric hydroxide sol
Macromolecular colloids:- they are molecules of large size. e.g., Polymers.
Associated colloids:- These are the solutions which behave as normal electrolytes at lower
concentration
oncentration and colloids at higher concentrations due to the formation of associated particles. Such
colloids are called associated colloids and the associated pa
particles
rticles are called micelles. e.g., Soaps and
detergents.
9. What is Kraft temperature and critical micelle concentration?
The formation of micelles takes place only above a particular

part
temperature called Kraft temperature and above a particular
concentration is called Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC)
(CMC
10. Explain the different Properties of colloids

(I) Tyndall effect :-The
The phenomenon of scattering of light by colloidal particles aass a result of which the
path of the light beam is visible is called Tyndall effect. The working of ultra microscope is based on
tyndall effect. Blue colour of sky is due to Tyndall effect.
Tyndall effect is observed when light enters in to dark room through small slits.
Tyndall effect is observed during the projection of pictures in the cinema hall.
Conditions for Tyndall effect:
(i) The diameter of the dispersed particles is not much smaller than the wavelength of the light used.
(ii) The refractive indices of dispersed phase and dispersion medium differ greatly in magnitude.
(II) Electrophoresis :- The movement of colloidal particles under the influence of electric field is called
electrophoresis. Positive charged sol move towards cathode ((negative
negative electrode) and negative sol to
anode (+ve electrode). Therefore this method is used to determine the charge of the colloids.
11. What are Emulsions ?
Colloids in which both the dispersed phase and dispersion medium are liquids are called emulsions.
Types of emulsions Dispersed Dispersion medium examples Emulsifying agent
phase
Water in oil type water oil fish oil Lamp black
Oil in water type oil water milk Gum
=============================================================================================


6 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF

ELEMENTS
=======================================================
1. Which are different metallurgical processes?
Step 1 Crushing and
grinding of the ore
Step 2 Concentration of the (I)Hydraulic washing For Haematite (Fe2O3 )
ores (II)Magnetic separation For Iron ores
(III)Froth floatation For Sulphide ores (e.g PbS)
(IV)Leaching For Ore of Al, Au & Ag
Step 3 Conversion of Calcination For Carbonate or hydoxides ores
concentrated ore to
oxide. Roasting. For Sulphide ores
Step 4 Reduction of oxides By using thermodynamic For Iron, zinc ,copper etc
principles of metallurgy
By using electrolytic principles For aluminium
of metallurgy
Step 5 Refining of metals (I)Distillation . For Zn, Cd & Hg (low boiling metals)
(II)Liquation. For Tin, lead (low melting metals)
(III)Electrolytic refining. For Copper
(IV)Zone refining. For Semiconductors: silicon ,
germanium
(V)Vapour phase refining.
(a)Mond’s process. For Nickel
(b)Van arkel process. For Titanium, zirconium, thorium
(VI)chromatography
2. What is Concentration of ore?

Removal of impurities from the ore is called concentration of ore.
3. What are the different methods of concentration of ores?
(I) Hydraulic washing :- It is used when the gangue is lighter than ore(for oxide ores).e.g. Haematite
(II) Magnetic separation :- It is used when either the impurities or ore is magnetic. Iron ores such as
haematite, magnetite and iron pyrites can be separated by magnetic separation.
(III) Froth floatation:- Froth floatation method is used for the concentration of lighter sulphide ores of
copper, zinc and lead .
Principle of this method is that the surface of the sulphide ore is preferentially wetted by oil and
impurities by water.
The powdered ore is mixed with water in a rectangular tank. To this, collectors such as pine oil and
froth stabilizers such as cresols and aniline are added. It is agitated by passing air through it. Froth is
produced. The froth is skimmed off, washed with water and dried.
Two sulphide ores can be separated by adding depressants. For example, NaCN is used as
depressant to separate ZnS ore from PbS ore. NaCN prevents ZnS from forming froth. So PbS alone
forms froth.
(IV) Leaching:- Removal of impurities by adding chemicals is called leaching.

(a) Bauxite is leached by using NaOH [ caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) ]. Only Al2O3 dissolves
forming sodium aluminate. The impurities are removed by filtration. The filtrate containing
sodium aluminate is neutralized by passing CO 2 gas. Hydrated Al2O3 is produced. The precipitate
is filtered and ignited to form pure alumina (Al2O3)
Al2O3 + 3 H2O +2 NaOH → 2 Na[Al(OH) 4]
2 Na[Al(OH) 4] + CO2→ Al2O3 . x H 2O + 2 NaHCO3
Al 2O3 .x H2O → Al2O3 + x H2O
(b) Silver is leached by using sodium cyanide (NaCN)
(c) Gold is leached by using potassium cyanide ( KCN)
4. With examples explain calcinations and roasting.
Calcination:- The process of heating the ore in the absence of air. It is used for carbonate ores and
hydroxide ores.
CaCO 3 → CaO + CO2
ZnCO 3 → ZnO + CO2
Roasting :-The process of heating the ore in excess of air. It is used for sulphide ores.
2 ZnS + 3O2 → 2 ZnO +2 SO2
2 PbS + 3O2 → 2 PbO +2 SO2
5. The extraction of copper :-
The main ore of copper is Copper pyrites ( CuFeS2)
Concentrated by froth flotation method.
Ore is roasted. Copper pyrites decomposes to Cu2S and FeS
2 CuFeS2 + O2→ Cu 2S + 2 FeS + SO2
FeS is converted to FeO. It is removed as slag by treating with silica.
FeO + SiO2 → FeSiO3
The molten mass contains mainly cuprous sulphide along with traces of ferrous sulphide( FeS).
This is called copper matte.
Copper matte is then transferred in to silica lined convertor. Hot air is blast.
2 Cu2S + 3 O2 →2 Cu2O + 2SO2
2 Cu2O + Cu 2S → 6Cu + SO 2
The copper obtained is 99% pure and is called blister copper due to blistered appearance due to the
evolution of SO2 .
Pure copper is obtained by electrolytic refining.
6. Hall-Heroult process for the extraction of aluminium.
Bauxite is concentrated by leaching with sodium hydroxide.
Aluminium is produced by the electrolysis of alumina by Hall Heroult process.
Cathode → Iron tank lined with carbon. ,
Anode → Graphite rods
Electrolyte → Mixture of alumina and cryolite or calcium ﬂuoride.
Cryolite is added to increase the conductivity and to lower melting point.
At anode graphite is oxidized to carbon monoxide and then to carbon dioxide by releasing electrons.
At cathode Al 3+ is reduced to Al Al3+ + 3 e- → Al
7. Explain refining methods of metals

(I) Electrolytic refining :-
Copper , zinc etc purified by this method. Impure
metal is taken as anode and pure metal is taken
as cathode. Its salt solution is taken as
electrolyte
For the purification of copper, impure
copper is anode and pure copper is cathode.
Copper sulphate solution is electrolyte.
At anode Cu →Cu2+ + 2 e-
At cathode Cu 2+ + 2 e- → Cu
Impure copper is oxidized to Cu2+ and
moves to cathode and reduced to copper.
(II) Vapour phase refining methods : Van Arkel method and Mond’s process
(a) Van Arkel method:- Iodine is used in the van Arkel method for the purification of
titanium ,zirconium and thorium. The crude metal is heated with iodine. Metal iodide vapour is
produced. The metal iodide is decomposed electrically on a tungsten filament. Pure metal is deposited
on the filament.
Zr + 2 I2 ⎯⎯ ZrI4 ,
Impure
,
ZrI4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Zr + 2 I2
Pure
(b) Mond’s process:- Carbon monoxide is used in the purification of nickel in Mond’s process.
Nickel is heated with carbon monoxide and nickel tetra carbonyl vapour is produced. It is decomposed at
high temperature.
℃
Ni + 4 CO ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Ni[CO]4 ,
Impure
℃
Ni[CO]4 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ Ni + 4 CO
Pure
=========================================================================


CHAPTER 7 : THE p – BLOCK ELEMENTS FOCUS 2022

PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR (8040) , 9947444175
=========================================================================
1. How ammonia is prepared in the laboratory?

By heating ammonium salt with strong alkali.
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH → Na 2 SO4 + 2 NH3 + 2 H2O
2. Explain Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia.
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
Optimum temperature 700 K , Optimum pressure 200 atm , Iron or iron oxide catalyst in the presence
of small amount off potassium oxide or aluminium oxide as promoter.
3. Explain the structure and uses of ammonia molecule .
Trigonal pyramidal (three bond pairs and one lone pair)
Ammonia is lewis base due to the presence of lone pair of electron.
Uses of ammonia : (i) Preparation of nitrogenous fertilizers like urea, ammonium

sulphate etc (ii) Liquid ammonia as refrigerant
4. Confirmatory test for copper salts :-- Copper reacts with ammonia gives deep coloured complex.
5. Nitric acid is manufactured by Ostwald process. Give reaction
reactions.
(I) Ammonia is mixed with oxygen and is passed over platinum gauze catalyst at 500 K temperature
and 9 bar pressure.
4 NH3 + 5 O2 → 4NO + 6H2O
(II) Oxidation of NO to NO 2.
2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
(III) NO2 is dissolved in water to form nitric acid.
3 NO2 +H2O → 2 HNO 3 + NO
6. Give any uses of nitric acid.
I) In the manufacture of ammonium nitrate fertilizer.
II) For the preparation of nitroglycerine, trinitrotoluene, and other organic nitro compounds.
III) As a laboratory reagent.
IV) In the pickling of stainless steel.
7. Draw the structure of nitric acid molecule.
Planar molecule
8. Explain the action of nitric acid on copper and zinc.
Copper reduces concentrated nitric acid to nitro
nitrogen
gen dioxide and dilute nitric acid to nitric oxide
Cu + 4 HNO3 (conc) → Cu(NO3)2 + 2NO2+ 2H2O
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 (dilute) → 3 Cu(NO 3)2 + 2NO+ 4H2O
Zinc reduces dilute nitric acid to nitrous oxide and concentrated nitric acid to nitrogen dioxide
4 Zn + 10 HNO3 (dilute) → 4 Zn(NO3)2 + N2O+ 5H2O
Zn + 4 HNO3 (concentrated) → Zn(NO3)2 + 2NO2+ 2H2O
9. The brown ring in the brown ring test of nitrogen is [ Fe(H2O)5NO]2+
10. Phosphorous halides
Phosphorous trichloride(PCl3) Phosphorous penta chloride(PCl5)
Preparation P4 + 6 Cl2→4 PCl3 PCl3+ Cl2→PCl5
Reaction with PCl3+ 3 H2O→H3PO3 + 3 HCl PCl5+ 4 H2O→H3PO4+ 5 HCl
moisture Phosphorus trichloride on hydrolysis Phosphorus pentachloride on hydrolysis
(hydrolysis) give phosphorus acid give phosphoric acid
Structure pyramidal Trigonal bi pyramidal
Hybridisation Sp3 Sp3d

11. Why PCl3 fumes in air?
PCl3+ 3 H2O→H3PO3 + 3 HCl
Phosphorus trichloride on hydrolysis with moisture give phosphorus acid and HCl. HCl is fuming gas
12. Explain the structure of PCl5
PCl5 has Trigonal bi pyramidal geometry(Sp3d hybridization). Two type bonds are present.
Two axial bonds and three equatorial bonds. Axial bonds are longer .This is due to the axial bonds suffer
more repulsion as compared to equatorial bonds
13. What happens when is PCl5 heated?
PCl5 on heating gives PCl3 and Cl2 , (PCl5→ PCl3+ Cl2)
14. Draw the structures of Sulphuric acid(H2SO4)
Sulphuric acid is dibasic acid .

15. Explain contact process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid(H2SO4)
It involve three steps:
(I) Burning of sulphur or sulphide ores in air to SO2 .
S + O2 → SO2
(II) Conversion of SO2 to SO3 by the reaction with oxygen in the presence of vanadium pentoxide
catalyst. Optimum temperature 720 K , Optimum pressure 2 bar.
2SO 2 + O2 → 2 SO 3
(III) Absorption of SO3 in sulphuric acid to give oleum.

SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7
Dilution of oleum with water gives sulphuric acid.
16. What happens when con. sulphuric acid is added to calcium fluoride?
When con. sulphuric acid is added to calcium fluoride, hydrogen fluoride is formed.
CaF2 + H2SO4→ CaSO4 + 2 HF
17. What happens when SO3 is passed through water?
When water is added to SO3 , sulphuric acid is formed.
SO3+ H2O → H2SO4
18. Con. H2SO4 is a dehydrating agent. Sulphuric acid removes water from organic compounds.
Eg. Charring action on carbohydrates
.
C12H22O11 ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ 12 C + 11 H 2O
19. Give some uses of Sulphuric acid
(I) Sulphuric acidis used in the manufacture of fertilisers (e.g., ammonium sulphate, superphosphate).
(II) In petroleum refining
(III) In the manufacture of pigments, paints and dyes
(IV) In storage batteries
(V) In the manufacture of nitrocellulose products
(VI) As a laboratory reagent.
20. What are Interhalogen compounds ? Which are four types? Explain
The compounds formed by the combination of two different halogens are called inter halogen compounds.
Four types are XX’, XX’3 , XX’5 XX’7 .
Condition:- X must be heavier halogen and more electropositive.
XX’ type XX’ 3 type XX’ 5 type XX’ 7 type
linear Bent T shape Square pyramidal Pentagonal bipyramidal
ClF, IF, IBr ClF 3 , BrF3 , ICl 3 IF5 , Br F5 IF7
21. Inter halogen compounds are more reactive than halogens (except fluorine) .why?
This is because X-X’ bond is weaker than X-X bond in halogens.
22. Give any one use of Interhalogen compounds ?
Interhalogen compounds are very useful fluorinating agents. ClF3 and BrF3 are used for the production of
UF6 in the enrichment of 235U
=========================================================================


========================================================================
UNIT 8 THE d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS FOCUS WITH MALAYALAM

PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175
YOUTUBE CHANNEL : CHEM DSM
========================================================================
1. The groups 3 to 12 are d-block
block elements. They are called transition elements.
There are 4 transition series. 3d series, 4d series , 5d series and 6d series.
2. What are the properties of transition elements?
(I) All are metals with high melting and boiling points.
(II) They show variable oxidation states.
(III) Most of them are paramagnetic.
(IV) Mostst of them form coloured compounds.
(V) Transition metals form complex compounds.
(VI) Many of the transition metals and their compounds act as catalyst.
(VII) They can form interstitial compounds and alloys.
3. Explain magnetic property of transition elements.
Most of the
he transition elements are paramagnetic due to the presence of unpaired electrons
Greater the number of unpaired electrons, greater the paramagnetism.
Magnetic moment , µ = ( + ) where n= no. of unpaired electrons
1 2
• Scandium ,Sc : [Ar] 3d 4s Sc3+ 3 d0 No. of unpaired electrons = 0
• Titanium , Ti: [Ar] 3d2 4s2 Ti3+ 3 d1
No. of unpaired electrons = 1
• Vanadium , V: [Ar] 3d 3 4s2 V3+ 3 d2
• Chromium , Cr : [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Cr3+ 3 d3
• Manganese, Mn: [Ar] 3d5 4s2 Mn2+ 3 d5

• Copper, Cu : [Ar] 3d 10 4s1 Cu2+ 3 d 9
• Zinc, Zn : [Ar] 3d 10 4s2 Zn2+ 3 d10
• No. of unpaired electrons = 0
4. The transition element compounds show colour. Give reason.

The colour of transition metal compounds are due to the presence of unpaired ‘d’ electrons. (d-d
(d
transition)
Eg:- Sc3+ colourless ( d 0 since no unpaired electron.)
Cu2+ coloured (d9 due to unpaired electron, d-d
d transition is possible).
Zn2+ colourless ( d10 completely filled , no unpaired electron)
5. Why transition elements form complex compounds?

(I) The cations of these metals are small in size and have high effective nuclear charge. Thus they accept
lone pair of electrons from other molecules or ions.
(II) The transition elements have vacant d orbitals which can accept lone pair of electrons from ligands.
6. Why transition elements show catalytic properties?
It is due to the ability to show variable oxidation states and to form complexes.
7. Describe the method of preparation of potassium dichromate from chromite ore.

Chromite ore (FeCr2O4) + Sodium carbonate + Air → Sodium chromate.
4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2 CO3 + 7 O2 → 8 Na2 CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8 CO2
Sodium chromate + sulphuric acid → Sodium dichromate
2 Na2 CrO 4 + H2 SO4 → Na2 Cr2O7 + Na2 SO4 + H2O
Sodium dichromate + Potassium chloride → Potassium dichromate (orange crystal).
Na2 Cr2O7 + 2 KCl → K2 Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
8. The dichromate and chromate ions are inter convertible depending on the P H of the solution. Explain.
Chromate ion + Acid → Dichromate ion (Orange crystal )
Dichromate ion + Alkalie → Chromate ion (Yellow crystal )
2CrO4 2- + 2 H+ → Cr2O72- + H2O
(yellow) (orange)
Cr2O72- + 2 OH- → 2CrO4 2- + H2O
9. Draw structures of chromate and dichromate ions.
Chromate ion has tetrahedral

geometry.
In dichromate ion, two tetrahedrals
are connected by oxygen atom.
10. Potassium dichromate is powerful oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Give examples.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 e- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
(I) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes H 2S to S.
Cr2O72- + 8 H+ + 3 H2S → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 S
(II) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes ferrous salt to ferric salt.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 Fe2+ → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 6 Fe3+
(III) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes iodide to iodine.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 I- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 I2
11. Give some uses of potassium dichromate( K2 Cr2O7)
It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis. It is used as oxidizing agent.
THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f – BLOCK)

12. What are Lanthanoids?
The fourteen elements after lanthanum (from cerium to lutetium) in which last electron enter in 4f
orbitals are called lanthanoids.
13. What is Lanthanoid contraction? Give the reason for it . What are its consequences?
The steady decrease in the size of atoms or ions of the lanthanoids with increase in atomic number is
called lanthanoid contraction.
The reason lanthanoid contraction :-Along the lanthanoid series the nuclear charge increases by one
unit and the new electron is added to the same inner shell (4 f) . The electrons in 4 f orbitals cannot
effectively screen the nucleus from the outermost electron . Hence the increased nuclear charge
attracts the electron cloud more and there will be a steady contraction in size.
Consequences of lanthanoid contraction :-The atomic radii of elements of 4 d series and 5 d series of
same group are similar due to lanthanoid contraction. Eg. Zirconium(Zr) and hafnium(Hf) has
similar size. Hence their properties are similar, they exist together and difficult to separate.
14. Give some applications of d-block elements
(I) Some of the transition metals and their compounds act as catalyst in chemical industries.
Examples: Iron( Fe) in Haber process for manufacture of ammonia. Vanadium pentoxide(V2O5)
in contact process for manufacture of sulphuric acid
(II) Iron and steels are most important construction materials
(III) In batteries zinc, Nickel etc are used
(IV) KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are used as primary standards in volumetric analysis
15. Give some applications of f-block elements
(I) Misch metal is an alloy of 95 % lanthanoids and 5 % iron and traces of S, C, Ca and Al. It is used
mainly for bullets, shell and lighter flint.
(II) Uranium , Thorium are used as fuels in nuclear reactors
CHAPTER 9 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

================================================================
1. What are Coordination compounds?

Co-ordination compounds are compounds which contain central metal ion surrounded by neutral
molecules or ions.
K4[Fe(CN)6] ↔ 4 K+ + [Fe(CN)6]4-
2. Nomenclature of coordination compounds

(I) First positive part, then negative part
(II) In coordination part, first ligands in the alphabetical order, then central metal atom
(III) Number of ligands are indicated by bi, tri, tetra etc.
For ligands having numbers in their names bis , tris , tetrakis etc and their name in bracket.
(IV) The name of negative ligands end in ‘o’ e.g. Cl- → chlorido , OH- →hydroxido , CN -→ cyano
(V) Neutral ligands are named as such. (Exceptions: H2O →aqua , NH3→ ammine, CO →carbonyl )
(VI) If the complex is positive, the name of the metal as such.
(VII) If the complex is negative, the name of the metal end in ‘ate’ . e.g Fe →Ferrate , Zn → Zincate ,
Co→ Cobaltate , Pt→ Pla nate , Ag→ Argentate , Au→ Aurate
(VIII) The oxidation number is indicated in parenthesis after the name of the central metal atom.
3. Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds
(I) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 → Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride
(II) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 → Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride
(III) K3[Fe(CN)6] → Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)
(IV) K2[PdCl4] → Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)
(V) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH 2CH3)]Cl → Diamminechlorido(methylamine)platinum(II) chloride
(VI) [Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3 →Triamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride
(VII) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO 2)] → Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)
(VIII) K3[Cr(C2O4)3] →Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)
(IX) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl → Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride
(X) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl → Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride
(XI) Hg[Co(SCN) 4] → Mercury tetrathiocyanatocobaltate(III)
(XII) [Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] →Diamminesilver(I) dicyanoargentate(I)
(XIII) [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 →Tris(ethane-1,2–diammine)cobalt(III) sulphate
4. Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds
(I) Tetraamineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride → [ Co(NH3) 4 (H2O)Cl]Cl2
(II) Potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II) → K 2[Zn(OH)4]
(III) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III) → K 3[Al(C2O4) 3]
(IV) diamine)cobalt(III) → [ CoCl2(en)2] +

Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)
(V) Tetracarbonylnickel(0) → [Ni(CO)4 ]
(VI) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride → [Co(NH3) 4 (H2O)2]Cl3
(VII) Potassium tetracyanonickelate(II) → K 2[Ni(CN)4]
(VIII) Tris(ethane–1,2–diamine)
diamine) chromium(III) chloride → [Cr(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3] Cl3
(IX) Amminebromidochloridonitrito
Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II) → [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)] −
(X) Dichloridobis(ethane–1,2––diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate →[Pt Cl 2(H2NCH2CH2NH2)2](NO3)2
(XI) Iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II) → Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
5. Classification of Isomerism
Structural isomerism Sterio isomerism
(a) Ionization isomerism (a) Geometrical isomerism
(b) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) (b) Optical isomerism
(c) Linkage isomerism
(d) Coordination isomerism
6. Explain each type of structural isomerism with examples.
(I) Ionization isomerism:- Isomers having same molecular formula but different ions in solution.
Eg. [Co(NH3)5 Br]SO4 , [Co(NH3)5 (SO4)]Br
First complex give the test of sulphate ion and second give the test of bromide ion. ion
(II) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) ::- Isomers having same molecular formula but different
number of water molecules inside and outside the coordination sphere.
Eg. [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 [Cr(H2O)5 Cl]Cl2 . H2O [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl .2 H2O
(III) Linkage isomerism :- Linkage isomerism is shown by complexes containing ambidentate ligands.
Here the linkage of ambidentate ligand to the central metal atom is different.
Eg. NO2- can link through nitrogen atom or oxygen atom.
[Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 , [Co(NH3)5 (ONO)]Cl2
(IV) Coordination isomerism :- Coordination isomerism occurs in compounds containing both cationic
and anionic coordination sphere
spheres. This isomerism arises due to interchange
nterchange of ligands between
cationic and anionic coordination spheres.
[Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6 ] , [Cr(NH 3)6] [Co(CN)6 ]
7. Explain Geometrical isomerism. Draw the Geometrical isomers of [Pt (NH3)2Cl2]
Geometrical isomerism arises when ligands occupy different positions around the central metal ion. If two
identical ligands on same side, it is called cis isomer. If two identical ligands on opposite side, it is called
trans isomer. It is common in square planar complexes and in octahedral complex complexes.
es.
Eg. diammine dichloro platinum (II) shows cis and trans form
8. Draw the cis and trans form of tetra ammine dichloridocobalt (III)ion and [CoCl 2(en)2]+
,
9. Explain fac and mer isomer with example.

In Ma3b3 type octahedral complexes, if identical ligands
occupy adjacent positions at the corners of an
octahedral face, the isomer is called facial (fac) isomer.
When the positions of similar ligands are around the
meridian
eridian of the octahedron, the isomer is called
cal
meridional (mer) isomer.
10. Why is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes?

It is because the relative positions of the ligands attached to the central metal atom are same with respect
to each other.
11. Explain Optical isomerism? What is the condition for Optical isomerism?
Optical isomers differ in their action towards plane polarized light. The isomer which rotates the plane
polarized light to the right is called dextro rotatory (d or +).The isomer which rotates the plane polarized
lightt to the left is called laevo rotatory(l or -). The d and l isomers are non super imposable mirror images.
12. Draw optical isomers of (a) tris(ethylene diamine)cobalt(III)ion.(b) [CoCl 2(en)2]+
Trans form is optically inactive.

13. The hexa aqua manganese (II) ion contain five unpaired electrons, while the hexa cyanido manganese (II)
ion contain only one unpaired electron. Explain using crystal field theory.
In hexaa aqua manganese (II) ion, manganese is in +2 oxidation state. 3d5 configuration.
Here ligand is water, weak field ligand and the crystal field splitting is low.
3 2
So the electronic configuration is t 2g e g .So five unpaired electrons.
= ( + = ( + )= √ = .
In hexa cyanido manganese (II) ion, manganese is in +2 oxidation state. 3d5 configuration.
Here ligand is cyanide,, strong field ligand and the crystal field splitting is high.
5 0
So the electronic configuration is t 2g e g .So only one unpaired electron.
= ( + = ( + )= √ = .
14. What are Metal carbonyls?
Complexes containing carbon monoxides as ligands are called metal carbonyls
Ni(CO)4 → Tetracarbonyl nickel(0) → Tetrahedral
Fe(CO)5 → Pentacarbonyl iron(0) → Trigonalbipyramidal
Cr(CO)6 → Hexacarbonyl chromium(0) →Octahedral.
Mn2(CO)10 → Decacarbonyl dimanganese(0) →It It is made up of two square pyramidal Mn(CO)5 units joined
by a Mn – Mn bond.
Co2(CO)8 → Octacarbonyl dicobalt(0) →It has a Co – Co bond bridged by two CO groups
15. Discuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls.
The M-CC bond in metal carbonyl has sigma( σ ) as well as pi ( π ) character.

The metal carbon sigma bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons on the
carbonyl carbon in to a vacant orbital of metal.
The metal carbon pi bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons from a filled
d-orbital
orbital of the metal in to the anti bonding pi molecular orbital of carbon monoxide.
The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect which strengthens the bond between
CO and the metal.
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CHAPTER:10 HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

(BASED ON FOCUS POINTS 2022)

===============================================================
1. Give methods for the preparation of alkyl halide from alcohols.

(i) Alcohol is treated with hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride
.
CH3 CH2OH + HCl ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH2Cl + H2O
(ii) Alcohol is treated with phosphorus trichloride or phosphorus pentachloride.
3 CH 3 CH2OH + PCl3 → 3 CH3 CH2Cl + H3 PO3
CH3 CH2OH + PCl 5 → CH 3 CH2Cl + POCl3 + HCl
(iii) Alcohol is treated with thionyl chloride.
CH3 CH2OH + SOCl2→ CH3 CH2Cl+ HCl + SO2
For the preparation of pure alkyl halide, reaction of alcohol with thionyl chloride is the best method
because by products are gases and easily escape out.
2. Alkyl iodide is prepared by Finkelstein reaction. Write the reaction.
Alkyl chloride or bromide is treated with sodium iodide in acetone solvent, alkyl iodide is formed. This
reaction is called Finkelstein reaction.
CH3 CH2Cl + NaI → CH3 CH2I + NaCl
3. Alkyl fluoride is prepared by Swartz reaction. Write the reaction.
Alkyl chloride or bromide is heated with metallic fluorides such as AgF , Hg 2F2 ,etc. alkyl fluoride is
formed. This reaction is called Swartz reaction.
CH3 CH2Cl + AgF → CH3 CH2F + AgCl
4. Give any method for the preparation of haloarenes ( Chloro benzene and Bromobenzene).
By Sandmeyer’s reaction :-
When aniline is treated with sodium nitrite and

dilute HCl (or Nitrous acid), benzene diazonium
chloride is formed (This is called diazatisation) .
When benzene diazonium chloride is treated with
Cu2Cl2, chlorobenzene is formed. When benzene
diazonium chloride is treated with Cu2Br2,
bromobenzene is formed. This reaction is called
Sandmeyer’s reaction.
5. What are nucleophilic substitution reactions. Give examples.

Halogen of the alkyl halide is replaced by a nucleophile is called nucleophilic substitution reactions
R –X + KOH → ROH + KX ( Alcohol forma on)
R –X + KCN → RCN + KX ( Alkane nitrile or alkyl cyanide forma on )
R –X + AgCN → RNC + AgX ( alkyl isocyanide or carbyl amine forma on)
The stronger nucleophiles ( OH-, CN- , NH2- , OH-) displaces a weaker nucleophile X-
Nucleophilic substitution reactions are two types. SN1 reactions and SN2 reactions .
6. Reactivity order of alkyl halides : RF <RCl <RBr <RI
Here iodide is better leaving group because it is bigger halogen.
7. What are Ambident nucleophiles ?
Nucleophiles possessing two nucleophilic centres. Eg. CN− , NO2−
8. Haloalkanes react with KCN , form alkyl cyanide as major product while with AgCN form isocyanides as
major product. Explain.
KCN ( K+CN−)is ionic and forms cyanide ion in solution. Both carbon and nitrogen are free to bond with
positively charged carbon of haloalkanes. But C-C bond is more stable. So alkyl cyanide is the main
product.
But AgCN ( Ag-CN ) is covalent and so only nitrogen is free to bond with carbon of haloalkanes and
isocyanide is the main product.
9. Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution bimolecular reactions.
It occurs in one step and the reaction is second order.

Rate depend on the concentration of alkyl halide and nucleophile and so it is second order .
Rate = k [alkyl halide] [Nucleophile]
In this mechanism, the nucleophile attacks the partially positive charged carbon atom of the C-X bond
of the substrate from the back side of the C-X bond and the leaving group X - departs simultaneously.
The tertiary halides are less reactive towards SN2 reaction because bulky groups hinder the attack of
nucleophile.
Reactivity order : Primary alkyl halide > Secondary alkyl halide > Tertiary alkyl halide.
CH3Br > CH3 CH2Br > (CH3 )2CHBr > (CH3 )3CBr
10. Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution unimolecular reactions.
It occurs in two steps and the reaction is first
order.
Rate depends on the concentration of alkyl
halide only.
Rate = k [alkyl halide]
Step 1: Alkyl halide(C-X bond) undergo heterolysis and carbocation is formed (slow step)
Step 2 : The carbo cation react with nucleophile to complete substitution reaction (Fast step)
The tertiary alkyl halides are more reactive towards SN1 reaction because tertiary carbocation is more
stable.
Reactivity order : Tertiary alkyl halide > Secondary alk

alkyl
yl halide > Primary alkyl halide
(CH3 )3CBr >(CH3 )2CHBr >CH3 CH2Br > CH3Br
11. Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards SN 1 reaction. Why?
This is because allyl carbocation and benzyl carbocation are resonance stabilized.
Allyl carbocation
Benzyl carbocation
12. What is Optical activity?y? What is the condition for optical activity?
When plane polarized light is passed through certain substances, they can rotate the plane polarized light
either to left or right. Such substances are called optically active substances and this property is called
optical activity.
The rotation towards left is called laevo rotatory (l or -)) .The rotation towards right is called dext
dextro
rotatory (d or +) .
For optical activity, the molecule must be dissymmetric or chiral.
A molecule is said to be dissymmetric or chiral if it is not super imposable on its mirror image.
An organic compound is chiral, if its four valancies are different
different.
13. What are enantiomers?
Enantiomers are non super imposable mirror images

which rotate the plane polarized light in equal amount
but in opposite direction. Enantiomers have same
physical properties, but their behavior towards plane
polarized light is different.
14. What is Racemic mixture ? Racemic

acemic mixture is optically inactive. Why?
An equimolar mixture of enantiomers are called racemic mixture (dl or ±) .
Racemic mixture is optically inactive. It is due to rotation due to one enantiomer is cancelled by the
rotation due to the other enantiomer.
15. What are the differences between SN1 reaction and SN2 reaction?
SN1 reaction SN2 reaction
Rate depend on the concentration of alkyl Rate depend on the concentration of both
halide only alkyl halide and nucleophile
Takes place in two steps and carbocation is Takes place in one step and carbocation is
the intermediate not the intermediate
Reactivity order is Reactivity order is
tertiary
rtiary alkyl halide> secondary alkyl halide> tertiary alkyl halide<secondary alkyl halide<
primary alkyl halide primary alkyl halide
Racemic mixture is formed Inversion of configuration takesplace
(Both retention and inversion)
16. Give examples for the electrophilic substitution reactions of chlorobenzene.
The halo group in benzene is ortho para

directing due to more electron density at
ortho and para position.
(i) Nitration: When chlorobenzene is treated with a mixture of a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and
concentrated sulphuric acid (nitrating mixture) , ortho and para nitro chlorobenzene is formed.
(ii) Sulphonation: When chlorobenzene is treated with concent

concentrated
rated sulphuric acid, ortho and para chloro
benzene sulphonic acid is formed.
(iii) Halogenation:
When chlobenzene is treated with

Cl2 in the presence of AlCl3 or FeCl3,
ortho and para dichlorobenzene is
formed.
(iv) Friedel Craft reaction :
When chlobenzene is treated with CH3Cl in the

presence of anhydrous AlCl3, a mixture of ortho
and para chloro toluene is formed.(Friedel craft
alkylation)
When chlobenzene is treated with CH3COCl in

the presence of anhydrous AlCl 3, a mixture of
ortho and para chloro acetophenone is
formed.(Friedel craft acylation)
CHAPTER 11 ALCOHOLS,PHENOLS AND ETHERS

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1. How will you prepare primary alcohol and secondary alcohol from aldehyde and ketone?
Aldehydes on reduction with reducing agents such as H2/Ni , LiAlH4 etc gives primary alcohols.
Ketones on reduction give secondary alcohols.
RCHO + H2 RCH2OH
2. How will you prepare primary alcohol and secondary alcohol from aldehydes and ketones using Grignard
reagent?
Formaldehyde (Methanal) on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give primary
alcohol.
H–CHO + R MgX → R–CH2–OMgX ⎯ R–CH2–OH + Mg(OH)X
Formaldehyde Adduct 1 0 alcohol
Other aldehydes on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give secondary alcohol.
R–CHO + R MgX → R2–CH–OMgX ⎯ R2–CH–OH + Mg(OH)X
Aldehyde Adduct 20 alcohol
Ketones on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give tertiary alcohol.
R2–CO + R MgX → R3–C–OMgX ⎯ R3–C –OH + Mg(OH)X
Ketone Adduct 3 0 alcohol
3. How will you prepare phenol?
(i) Phenol from chlorobenzene
When chlorobenzene is heated with aqueous NaOH
under high pressure of 300atm and high
temperature of 623 K, phenol is formed.
(ii) Phenol from benzene diazonium chloride.
On warming benzene diazonium

salt with water, phenol is formed.
4. Explain Dehydration alcohols.

Alcohol is dehydrated in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid to alkene.
Reactivity order is Tertiary alcohol> Secondary alcohol> Primary alcohol
/
CH3CH2OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH2= CH2
5. Electrophic substitution reactions of phenol.
In phenol –OH group is ortho para directing group
(i) Nitration : On nitration with dilute nitric acid, phenol give ortho and para nitro phenol.
These are separated by steam distillation. Ortho nitro phenol is steam volatile due to intra molecular hydrogen
bonding. Para nitro phenol is not steam volatile due to inter molecular hydrogen bonding.
With nitrating mixture ( Mixture of concentrated nitric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid) , phenol gives
2,4,6- tri nitro phenol. (picric acid)
6. Phenol + Con. HNO3 →Picric acid (2,4,6- tri nitro phenol)

7. Reimer –Tiemann reaction:
When phenol is heated with chloroform and alkali, salicylaldehyde(2- hydroxyl benzaldehyde) is formed.
Phenol + Chloroform+ aqueous NaOH → Salicylaldehyde

8. How will you manufacture ethanol?
Molasses is diluted to 10% sugar solution . Yeast is added and at a temperature of about 305 K.
Yeast supplies enzymes invertase and zymase which brings about the fermentation.
6-10 % ethanol called wash is formed.
C12H22O11 + H2O ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ C 6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Fructose
C6H12O6 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2

Uses of ethanol : (i) Alcoholic beverage (ii) industrial solvent (iii) preservative for biological specimens.
9. What is denatured spirit?

The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking by mixing in it some copper sulphate(to give colour) ,
pyridine( to give foul smell)and methanol (to make poisonous) is called denaturation of alcohol.
10. How will you distinguish 10, 20 and 30 alcohol using Lucas test?
R–OH + HX ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R –X + H 2O
Lucas reagent is a mixture of concentrated HCl and anhydrous zinc chloride.
Reactivity order is ,Tertiary alcohol> Secondary alcohol> Primary alcohol
Alcohol is water soluble, but alkyl halide is does not and give turbid solution.
Tertiary alcohol gives immediate turbity.
Secondary alcohol gives turbidity after five minutes.
Primary alcohol gives turbidity only on heating.
11. Explain Williamson’s ether synthesis.
When alkyl halide is heated with sodium alkoxide , ether is formed is called Williamson’s ether
synthesis.
CH3ONa + BrCH2 CH3 → CH3O CH2 CH3 + NaBr
By this method both symmetric and unsymmetric ethers can be prepared.
For the preparation of alkyl aryl ether, alkyl halide and

sodium phenoxide must be heated.
Reason: Halogen attached to benzene ring is not
reactive.
C6H5ONa + BrCH2 CH3 → C6H5O CH2 CH3 + NaBr
For the preparation of ether having tertiary alkyl group, tertiary alkoxide must be used. Otherwise
alkene is the product.
Reason: Sodium alkoxide is not only nucleophile, but also base and so it accept acid from tertiary alkyl
halide and form alkene.
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(ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ

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CHAPTER 12 ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
(ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ

YOUTUBE ചാനൽ കാണുകകാണുക. SUBSCRIBE െച ുക )
=========================================================================
1. How will you prepare aldehydes
hydes and ketones ?
(i) By the oxidation of alcohols :
R– CH2–OH ⎯⎯ R– CHO ,
Primary alcohol on oxidation with CrO 3 or PCC (Pyridinium chlorochromate) gives aldehyde.
Secondary alcohol on oxidation gives ketone.
(ii) By the catalytic dehydrogenation of alcohols using Cu at 573 K.
/
R– CH2–OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R
R– CHO
Primary alcohol on dehydrogenation gives aldehye.

Secondary alcohol on dehydrogenation gives ketone.
2. How will you prepare aldehydes?
(i) Rosenmund’s reduction : Aldehydes are obtained by the reduction of acid chloride in the
presence of palladium and bariu
barium sulphate is called Rosenmund’s reduction.
+ ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ RCHO
e.g. Conversion of benzoyl chloride to benzaldehyde
(ii) Etard’s reaction : Toluene is oxidized to benzaldehyde using chromyl chlorides is called Etard’s
reaction.
(iii) Gattermann-Koch
Koch reaction :
When benzene is treated with carbon monoxide

and hydrogen chloride in the presence of
anhydrous aluminium chloride or CuCl,
benzaldehyde is formed .This reaction is called
Gattermann-Koch reaction
3. How will you prepare Ketones?

(i) By friedel craft acylation of benzene.
4. Explain oxidation of aldehydes and ketones

ketones.
Aldehydes undergo easy oxidation even with mild oxidizing agents to corresponding acids. Mild
oxidants are Tollens reagent and Fehlin’s solution.
[ ]
R–CHO RCOOH
Ketones are not readily oxidized. But undergo oxidation with strong oxidizing agents gives a mixture of
acids with lesser number of carbon atoms.
[ ]
+
5. How will you distinguish aldehydes and ketones?
(i) Tollens test(Silver
ilver mirror test) : Tollens reagent is ammoniacal silver nitrate solution .
Aldehydes give silver mirror with tollens reagent. Ketones does not.
RCHO + 2 [Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3 OH- → RCOO- + 2Ag + 2 H2O + 4 NH3
(ii) Fehling’s test: Fehlin’s solution is alkaline solution of copper sulphate containing some
sodium potassium tartrate. Aliphatic aldehyde give red brown precipitate with fehling solution .
Aromatic aldehydes and ketones do not give this test.
RCHO + 2 Cu2+ + 5 OH- → RCOO- + Cu2O + 3 H 2O
Red brown precipitate
6. Explain the following name reactions
reactions:
(a) Clemmenson’s reduction : Reduction of aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding
hydrocarbons in the presence of zinc amalgam and concentrated HCl is called clemmenson
reduction.
(b) Wolf –Kishner

Kishner reduction: Reduction of aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding
hydrocarbon by treating with hydrazine followed by heating w
with
ith KOH in ethylene glycol solvent.
(c) Aldol condensation :-- Aldehydes and ketones having alpha hydrogen when treated with
dilute alkali give beta hydroxyl aldehyde or beta hydroxyl ketone. This on heating give alpha beta
unsaturated aldehyde or ketone. ThiThiss reaction is called aldol condensation. Acetaldehyde ( ethanal)
has α- hydrogen and so it give aldol condensation
(d) Cannizaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not contain αα- hydrogen when treated with
concentrated alkali, one aldehyde is oxidized to acid and the other is reduced to alcohol .
Formaldehyde( Methanal ) and benzaldehyde give this test because they have no α- α hydrogen,
acetaldehydee does not give this test.
H-CHO + H-CHO
CHO + Conc. KOH → CH3OH + HCOOK
Formaldehyde Methanol Potassium formate
7. How will you distinguish methanal (formaldehyde ) and ethanal (acetaldehyde)?

(i) By aldol condensation :- Acetaldehyde ( eth
ethanal) has α- hydrogen and so give aldol condensation.
Fomaldhyde and benzaldehyde do not have alpha hydrogen and does not give aldol condensation.
(ii) By Cannizaro reaction:- Formaldehyde( Methanal ) give this test because they have no α-
α hydrogen.
Acetaldehyde does not give this test.
8. How will you prepare carboxylic acids?
(i) By the oxidation of alcohols and aldehydes gives acid.
Primary alcohol on oxidation gives aldehyde, which on further oxidation gives acid with same
number of carbon atom
atoms.
/ /
R– CH2–OH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R– CHO ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R–COOH
(ii) By side chain oxidation of alkyl benzene with alkaline potassium permanganate.
e.g. conversion of toluene to benzoic acid by adding alkaline potassium permanganate
9. Carboxylic acid is acidic. Give reactions.

Carboxylic acids are acidic because they readily lose proton and the carboxylate ion formed is
resonance stabilized.
Like acids, carboxylic acids react with metals give hydrogen gas.
Carboxylic acids react with alkali gives salt and water.
Carboxylic acid react with sodium bi carbonate gives brisk effervescence due to the evolution of carbon
dioxide gas.
2 RCOOH + 2 Na → 2 RCOONa + H 2
RCOOH + NaOH → RCOONa + H2O
RCOOH + NaHCO3 → RCOONa + H2O + CO2
10. Why is carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenol?
In phenoxide ion, negative charge is localized over one oxygen atom. But in carboxylate ion, negative
charge is delocalized over two electronegative oxygen atoms and so it is more stabilized than
phenoxide ion.
11. With the help of an example, explain carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenol.
( How will you distinguish phenol and carboxylic acid?)
Phenol does not react with sodium bi carbonate.
Carboxylic acids react with sodium bi carbonate gives brisk effervescence due to the evolution of
carbon dioxide gas.
RCOOH + NaHCO3 → RCOONa + H2O + CO2
12. Explain the effects of substituents on acidity of carboxylic acid.
Electron withdrawing groups increases acidity of carboxylic acids. This is because the electron
withdrawing groups decrease the negative charge on the carboxylate ion and stabilize it. The loss of
proton becomes relatively easy. E.g. mono chloro acetic acid is stronger acid than acetic acid.
As the number of electron withdrawing groups increases acidity of carboxylic acids increases e.g.
trichloroacetic acid > dichloroacetic acid >acetic acid.
Cl3CCOOH > Cl2CHCOOH > CI CH2COOH > CH3COOH
As the electronegativity of halogen increases, acidity increases.
F CH2COOH > CI CH 2COOH > BrCH2COOH > I CH2COOH
Electron releasing groups decrease the acidic strength . Electron releasing group increase the negative
charge on carboxylate ion , destabilize it and held proton tightly and so acidity decreases.
CH3COOH is weaker acid than HCOOH
13. Why is benzoic acid is more acidic than acetic acid.
In benzoic acid, -COOH group is connected to sp2 hybridised carbon atom and it is more electronegative
than sp3 hybridised carbon atom in acetic acid.
In substituted benoic acids, electron releasing groups decreases acidit

acidityy ,while electron withdrawing
groups increases acidity.
14. Reduction of carboxylic acid

Carboxylic acid on reduction with LiAlH 4 gives alcohol
/
R-COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ R-CH
CH2OH
/
CH3CH2 COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH2 CH2OH
15. Explain Hell-Volhard –Zelinsky

Zelinsky reaction.
When carboxylic acids having alpha hydrogen are treated with chlorine or bromine in the presence of
red phosphorus, alpha halo acids are produced. This reaction is called HVZ reaction.
,
CH3 COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯ Br-CH2 CHCOOH
Ethanoic acid 22-bromo ethanoic acid
,
CH3 CH2 COOH ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ CH3 CH(Cl) COOH
Propanoic acid 22-chloropropanoic acid
16. Explain electrophilic substitution of benzoic acid.
(i) Benzoic acid to Meta
eta nitro benzoic acid (ii) Benzoic acid to Meta
eta bromo
br benzoic acid
=============================================================
=========================================================================


YOUTUBE CHANNEL
CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
================================================================
CHAPTER 13 AMINES

YOUTUBE CHANNEL
CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
================================================================
1. Amines are alkyl or aryl derivatives of ammonia.
2. Give any two methods for the preparation of primary amine.

(i) By the reduction of nitriles or amides.
/
− ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ −
/
− ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ −
(ii) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction:
reaction:- Acid amides on reduction with
bromine in the presence of alkali give primary amines having one carbon atom less than the
parent amide. This reaction is called Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction.
− + + → − + + +
− + + → − + + +
3. What is Carbylamines reaction? What is its importance?
Aliphatic or aromatic primary amines on heated with chloroform and alcoholic KOH , produce foul
smell isocynide or carbylamines. This is a test for primary amine. Secondary and tertiary amines do not
give this test. So Carbylamines reaction is used to distinguish primary amines from other amines.
− + + ⎯ − + +
− + + ⎯ − + +
Methanamine methyl carbylamine
− + + ⎯ − + +
Aniline Phenyl carbylamine
4. How will you distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary amines using Hindsberg reagent?
Hindsberg’s reagent is benzene sulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl)
(i) Primary amine react with benzene sulphonyl chloride((Hindsberg’s reagent) gives
N-alkyl
alkyl benzene suphonamide which is soluble in alkali
RNH2 + C 6H5SO2Cl → C 6H5SO2NHR
(ii) Secondary amine react with benzene sulphonyl chloride (Hindsberg’s reagent ) gives N,N-dialkyl
N,N
benzene suphonamide which is insoluble in alkali.
R2NH + C6H5SO2Cl → C 6H5SO2NR2
(iii) Tertiary amine do not react with benzene sulphonyl chloride (Hindsberg’s reagent)
5. How will you prepare benzene diazonium chloride?

When aniline is treated with nitrous acid (sodium nitrite and HCl) in ice cold condition, benzene
diazonium chloride is formed.
− + + ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ − + +
Aniline Benzene diazonium chloide
6. Substitution reactions of benzene diazonium chloride

Sandmeyer reaction (For the preparation of chloro benzene, bromo benzene or cyano benzene)
/
− ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ − +
/
− ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ − +
/
− ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯ − +
7. Explain coupling reaction of benzene diazonium salt with examples

Benzene diazonium chloide +Phenol or Aniline (or their derivatives) → Azo dye
(I) Benzene diazonium chloide react with phenol gives para hydroxy azo benzene
(II) Benzene diazonium chloide react with anilinegives para amino azo benzene
==========================================================


===============================================================
CHAPTER 14 BIOMOLECULES

================================================================
1. What are Carbohydrates ?

Hydrates of carbon. Cx(H2O)y
Carbohydrates are optically active poly hydroxy aldehydes or poly hydroxy ketones or compounds
which give these on hydrolysis.
2. How will you classify carbohydrates depending on their behavior towards hydrolysis.
(I) Monosaccharides:- These carbohydrates cannot be hydrolysed in to smaller molecules.
e.g. Glucose( C6H12O6) , Fructose( C6H12O6)
(II) Oligosaccharides:- These are carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give two to ten monosaccharide units.
E.g. Sucrose, maltose , lactose (disaccharides).
(III) Poly saccharides :- These are carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide
units.
E.g. starch, cellulose.
3. What are reducing sugar and non reducing sugar?
Reducing sugar :- Carbohydrates which reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
eg., All monosaccharides, maltose, lactose.
Non-reducing sugars :-Carbohydrates which cannot reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
E.g., sucrose , starch, cellulose
4. How glucose is prepared?
When sucrose is boiled with dilute acids, glucose and fructose are formed.
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

glucose fructose
5. What is glycosidic linkage?
The linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
Disaccharides Reducing/non reducing sugar On hydrolysis Glycosidic linkage
Sucrose (cane Non reducing sugar D(+) glucose and C-1 of α-D glucose and C-2 of
sugar) D(-) fructose β-D fructose.
Maltose(malt sugar) Reducing sugar α-D glucose C-1 of α-D glucose and C-4 of
other α -D glucose.
Lactose (milk sugar) Reducing sugar D- glucose and C-1 of β-D galactose and C-4
D- galactose of β-D glucose.
6. Explain inversion of cane sugar.(hydrolysis of cane sugar)
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Glucose Fructose
Aqueous solution of sucrose is dextrorotatory. When hydrolysed by dilute acid, sucrose gives an
equimolar mixture of D(+) glucose and D(-) fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose ( -92.4 0) is
more than the dextro rotation of glucose (+52.5 0), the mixture will be laevorotatory. Thus the
hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation from dextro to laevo. Hence this
reaction is called inversion of cane sugar and the product mixture is called invert sugar.
7. Explain different type polysaccharides.
Polysaccharides Components Uses

Starch Amylose and amylo pectin Polymer of α- D glucose Energy storage of plants
(α- D glucose)
glycogen α- D glucose Similar to amylo pectin Animal starch.

8. Explain the two components of starch : Amylose and Amylo pectin.
Amylose Amylopectin
It is the linear polymer of α- D glucose It is the branched polymer of α- D glucose
Water soluble Water insoluble
15-20 % of starch 80-85 % of starch
Glucose units are joined by C 1-C4 Glucose units are joined by C1,C4 α glycosidic
α- glycosidic linkage linkage and branch by C1-C6 glycosidic linkages
9. What are Proteins ?
Proteins are complex nitrogeneous organic compounds of high molecular mass found in living systems.
Chemically all proteins are polymer of alpha aminoacids.
Proteins are polypeptides having molecular mass more than 10000.
10. What is denaturation of protein?
The phenomenon in which proteins undergo changes in physical and biological properties without
affecting its chemical composition under the effect of heat or chemical reagents is called denaturation
of protein.
During denaturation secondary and tertiary structure will change. .Primary structure will not change.
E.g. Coagulation of egg white on boiling, curding of milk.
11. What are nucleic acids?
Nucleic acids are polymer of nucleotides. So they are called poly nucleotides.
Nucleic acids are two types (i) Deoxyribo nucleic acid(DNA) (ii) Ribo nucleic acid(RNA)
Nucleotide :- Pentose sugar + nitrogeneous base + Phosphate ester linkage
12. Biological functions of nucleic acids
Genetic information of a species and individual is stored in DNA and it is the chemical basis of heredity.
Proteins are synthesised by RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the synthesis of a particular
protein is stored in DNA

================================================================
CHAPTER 15 POLYMERS

================================================================
1. What are polymers?

Polymers are bigger high molecular mass molecules formed by the combination of simple molecules called
monomers. Eg:- plastics, rubber, starch, cellulose, proteins
2. Classification of polymer based on source
(I) Natural polymers: starch, cellulose, proteins, natural rubber, silk , wool.
(II) Synthetic polymers: nylon, terylene, synthetic rubbers like Buna-S ,Buna-N and neoprene
(III) Semi synthetic polymers: rayon
3. Classification of polymer based on structure

(I) Linear polymers :- Long and straight chains. High density. e.g. polythene, PVC
(II) Branched chain polymers: - linear chains have some branches. Low density e.g low density
polythene
(I) Cross linked or network polymers :-It contain strong covalent bonds between various linear polymer
chains. It is shown by molecules having bi functional or tri functional monomers. e.g Bakelite
4. Differentiate addition polymers and condensation polymers

Addition polymers Condensation polymers
(Chain growth polymers) (Step growth polymers)
Addition polymers are formed by the repeated Condensation polymers are formed by the elimination of
addition of monomer units and growing chain simple molecules like water, acid etc from monomers
occurs having functional groups
Monomers are unsaturated compounds like Monomers are molecules having bi functional or tri
alkenes and alkadienes functional groups
e.g. Poly vinyl chloride (PVC), polythene e.g. Terylene, Bakelite,Nylon-66
5. Classification of polymer based on inter molecular forces

(i) Elastomers :- These are rubber like polymers with elastic properties. Weak inter molecular forces
between the polymer chains. e.g. Buna-S, Buna –N , neoprene
(ii) Fibres :- Thread like polymers. Strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen bonds.
E.g. polyamides (nylon 6,6), polyesters(terylene)
(iii) Thermoplastic polymers :- Thermoplastics are polymers which become soft on heating and hard on
cooling and this process can be repeated many times. These can be reused. The inter molecular force
is between elastomers and fibres.E.g. polythene, polypropylene, poly styrene, PVC
(iv) Thermosetting polymers :- These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched polymers , which on
heating undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and again become infusible. These cannot be
reused. E.g. Bakelite, urea formaldehyde polymers.
6. Distinguish homo polymer and copolymer with examples.

Polymers formed by polymerization of one type of monomers are called homopolymers.
E.g. polythene
Polymers formed by polymerization of two or more different monomers are called copolymers.
E.g. Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR)
7. Explain two types of polythenes.
(i) Low density polythene( LDPE ) :- It is obtained by the polymerization of ethene under high
pressure of 1000 to 2000 atmospheres and a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of
traces of dioxygen or a peroxide initiator.
The LDPE has highly branched structure and so low density.
LDPE is chemically inert,flexible and poor conductor of electricity.
LDPE is used as insulation of wires, for making squeeze bottles and flexible pipes.
(ii) High density polythene (HDPE) :- It is obtained by the polymerization of ethene in the
presence of Ziegler Natta catalyst (It is a mixture of triethyl aluminium and titanium tetra chloride).
It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins, bottles , pipes.
8. What is Teflon.? How is it prepared ? Give its use .

Poly tetrafluoroethene is called Teflon (PTFE).
It is formed by the polymerization of tetra fluoro ethene in the presence of catalyst and at high
pressure. It is resistant to heat and chemicals.
It is used in non stick frying pans and also used in making oil seals and gaskets
9. What are Poly amides ? Which are they?

These are polymers having amide linkage (-CO-NH- ).
(i) Nylon 6,6 :-
It is a condensation polymer of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.
It is used in making bristles of brushes, carpets, fabrics etc.
(ii) Nylon 6 :-
It is polymer of caprolactum. It is used in making tyre cords, fabrics , ropes etc.
10. Chemically what is Natural rubber?

Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene(2-methyl butadiene)
Natural rubber is cis-1,4-poly isoprene
11. Vulcanization improves the elasticity of rubber. What is vulcanization?
The process of heating natural rubber with sulphur to improve its qualities is called vulcanization.
During vulcanization, sulphur atoms form cross links at the reactive sites of the rubber chain.
Vulcanized rubber has excellent elasticity, low water absorption and good resistance to oxidation and
organic compounds.
======================================================

(ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ YOUTUBE

ചാനൽ കാണുക. SUBSCRIBE െച ുക
===============================================================
CHAPTER 16 CHEMSTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

================================================================
1. What are Antacids? Give examples for it
Drugs used to reduce acidity in stomach are called antacids.
Acidity in stomach is due to the over production hydrochloric acid.
Over acidity leads to indigestion, ulcers etc.
e.g : NaHCO3 , Aluminium hydroxide, Magnesium hydroxide
Histamine stimulates the secretion of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in stomach. Drugs like cimetidine
(Tegamet) and ranitidine (Zantac) prevent the interaction of histamine with receptors present in the
stomach wall and result in release of lesser amount of acid
2. Which are neurologically active drugs.
Analgesics and tranquilizers are neurologically active drugs.
3. What are Tranquilizers (Anti depressant drugs )?
Drugs used for the treatment of mental diseases are called tranquilizers.
It is present in sleeping pills.
Examples : Iproniazid, phenelzine, chlordiazepoxide , meprobemate, equanil, barbituats (veronal
,seconal )
4. What are Analgesics? How will you classify it? Give examples for each
Drugs used to reduce pain .
These are two types
(i) Narcotic(morphine, heroin,codeine),
(ii) Non narcotic(aspirin, paracetamol) .
Narcotic analgesics are habit forming drugs.
5. Give examples for anti microbials
Antiseptic and disinfectant
6. What are Antiseptics? Give examples for it
Drugs used to kill or prevent the growth of micro organism and can be directly applied to living tissues.
Examples: Dettol, tincture iodine, iodoform , furacine, soframicine.
7. What is the similarity and the difference between antiseptic and disinfectant?
Both kill microorganisms.
Antiseptic will not affect body tissues. Disinfectants are not safe to living tissues. It is applied on inanimate
objects like floors, instruments etc..
e.g. 0.2% phenol is antiseptic while 1% solution of phenol is disinfectant.

===============================================================

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XII CHEMISTRY CHAPTERS 1 TO 16

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

1. What are differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids?

Rhombohedral or Trigonal a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90 0

Body centred cubic = + =

Face centred cubic = + = + =

Schottky defects Frenkel defects

15. AgBr shows both schottky dfect and Frenkal defect.

16. Metal excess defect due to anion vacancies :-

When zinc oxide is heated, it loses oxygen and turns yellow.

18. Metal deficiency defect due to cation vacancies ::-

A positive ion is missing from its lattice

E.g. FeO, FeS

19. What are F-centres?

Band theory is explained by molecular orbital theory.

( ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ YOUTUBE

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

1. What are the factors affecting the solubility of a gas in liquid?

3. State Henry’s law and give its applications.

6. What are ideal solutions?

7. What are non ideal solutions?

8. What are azeotropes

is the relative lowering of vapour pressure .

= = In dilute solution nB <<<<nA and so we can neglect nB in comparison

When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent,

When a non volatile solute is added to solvent,

Osmotic pressure, = = C = concentration , n= number of moles

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

Substituting the value of R, F an

Ecell = Ecathode _ Eanode =

Strong electrolytes ionize completely in aqueous

6. State Kohlrausch’s law and give their applications.

8. Explain (a) Lead storage battery (b

It consists of porous carbon electrodes

The reactions takes place at the electrodes are

( ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ

CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL KINETICS

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

1. Which are the factors affecting the rate of a reaction?

Examples for first order reaction.

Straight line plot between ln [R] vs time

If we plot log[R]0/[R] against t, we get a straight line with slope k/2.303

10. What is the effect of temperature on reaction rate?

Its logarithmic form is = − OR

(I) Graphically we can calculate activation energy.

Graph is plotted between log k and 1/T. straight line graph

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

3. With the help of graph , explain

Adsorption increases with increase of pressure and

4. Write Freundlich adsorption isotherm ,its logarithmic form and graph

5. What are Homogeneous catalysis and Heterogeneous catalysis?

8. Explain multi molecular colloid, macromolecular colloid and associated colloid.

The formation of micelles takes place only above a particular

10. Explain the different Properties of colloids

( ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

6 GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF

2. What is Concentration of ore?

(IV) Leaching:- Removal of impurities by adding chemicals is called leaching.

7. Explain refining methods of metals

( ഈ NOTES ന്െട വീഡിേയാ ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175