Memory

3. Parallel distributed processing (PDP)

- an active system that receives
model
information from the senses, organizes and
-Model of memory in which
alters it as it stores it away, and then
memory processes are proposed to
retrieves the information from storage.
take place at the same time over a
large network of neural connections.
Process of Memory

1. Encoding - the set of mental operations

Three-Stage Process of Memory
that people perform on sensory
-Information enters through the
information to convert that information
sensory system, briefly registering in
into a form that is usable in the brain’s
sensory memory. Selective attention
storage systems.
filters the information into short-
term memory, where it is held
2. Storage - holding onto information for
while attention (rehearsal)
some period of time.
continues. If the information
receives enough rehearsal
3. Retrieval - getting information that is
(maintenance or elaborative), it will
in storage into a form that can be used.
enter and be stored in long-term
memory.
Models of Memory

1. Information-processing model
-Model of memory that assumes the
processing of information for memory
storage is similar to the way a
computer processes memory in a
series of three stages.

2. Levels-of-processing model
Model of memory that assumes
Sensory memory
information that is more "deeply
processed," or processed according to
 Sensory Memory
its meaning rather than just the
- the very first stage of memory,
sound or physical characteristics of
the point at which information
the word or words, will be
enters the nervous system through
remembered more efficiently and for
the sensory systems.
a longer period of time.
 Iconic memory
 Digit-span test
- visual sensory memory, lasting only
– memory test in which a series
a fraction of a second.
of numbers is read to subjects in the
experiment who are then asked to
Capacity – everything that can be seen
recall the numbers in order.
at one time.
Duration - information that has just
-Conclusions are that the
entered iconic memory will be
capacity of STM is about seven
pushed out very quickly by
items or pieces of information, plus
new information, a process
or minus two items, or from five to
called masking.
nine bits of information.
 Eidetic imagery - the rare ability to
-"magical number" = 7
access a visual memory for 30
 Chunking
seconds or more.
– bits of information are combined
into meaningful units, or chunks, so
 Echoic memory - the brief memory of
that more information can be held in
something a person has just
STM.
heard.
 Maintenance rehearsal
- practice of saying some
Capacity - limited to what can be
information to be remembered over
heard at any one
and over in one’s head in order to
moment and is smaller than
maintain it in short-term memory
the capacity of iconic memory
(STMs tend to be encoded in
Duration – lasts longer that iconic —
auditory form).
about 2 to 4 seconds

 Duration of STM
Short-Term Memory
- lasts from about 12 to 30 seconds
without rehearsal.
 Short-term memory (STM)
(working memory)
 STM is susceptible to interference
- the memory system in
(e.g., if counting is interrupted,
which information is held for brief
have to start over).
periods of time while being used.

Long-Term Memory
Selective attention – the ability to focus
on only one stimulus from among all
 Long-term memory (LTM)
sensory input.
- the system of memory into which
all the information is placed to be
kept more or less permanently.
 Elaborative rehearsal
Declarative LTM
- a method of transferring
1. All the things that people know.
information from STM into LTM
by making that information
2. Semantic memory - type of declarative
meaningful in some way.
memory containing general knowledge, such
as knowledge of language and information
Types of Long-Term Memory
learned in formal education.
1. Procedural (nondeclarative) memory
- type of long-term memory
3. Episodic memory - type of declarative
including memory for skills,
memory containing personal information
procedures, habits, and conditioned
not readily available to others, such as
responses. These memories are not
daily activities and events.
conscious but are implied to exist
because they affect conscious
4. Semantic and episodic memories are
behavior.
forms of explicit memory - memory that is
consciously known.
2. Declarative memory
– type of long-term memory
Organization of Memory
containing information that is
conscious and known (memory for
 LTM organized in terms of related
facts).
meanings and concepts.
 Semantic network model - model of
Procedural (Nondeclarative) LTM
memory organization that assumes
information is stored in the brain in a
1. Skills that people know how to do.
connected fashion, with concepts that
are related stored physically closer to
2. Also include emotional associations,
each other than retrieval cue a stimulus
habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that
for remembering.
may or may not be in conscious awareness.

Cues to help Remember

3. Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory
from the point of injury or trauma
1. Retrieval cue – a stimulus for
forward, or the inability to form new
remembering.
long- term memories. Usually does NOT
affect procedural LTM.
2. Encoding specificity - the tendency for
memory of information to be improved if
4. Procedural memory often called implicit
related information (such as surroundings
memory - memory that is not easily
or physiological state) available when the
brought into conscious awareness.
memory is first formed is also available
 False positive – error of recognition in
when the memory is being retrieved.
which people think that they recognize
some stimulus that is not actually in
3. Encoding specificity State-
memory.
dependent learning
 Father Bernard Pagano enters a
- memories formed during a
courthouse during his time as a suspect
particular physiological or psychological
in a series of robberies. He was falsely
state will be easier to recall while in a
identified for the crimes committed by
similar state.
another man, who eventually confessed
to the robberies. False positives occur
 Recall
when people mistakenly believe they
- type of memory retrieval in which the
have recognized someone or something
information to be retrieved must be
that they have actually never seen.
"pulled" from memory with very few
external cues.
Eyewitness Testimony
----Retrieval failure
 Elizabeth Loftus study.
– recall has failed (at least
-Showed that what people see and
temporarily).
hear about an event after the fact
 Tip of the tongue phenomenon.
can easily affect the accuracy of
 Serial position effect - tendency of
their memories of that event.
information at the beginning
-Eye witness testimony not always
and end of a body of
reliable.
information to be remembered
more accurately than  Automatic encoding - tendency of
information in the middle of certain kinds of information to enter
the body of information. long-term memory with little or no
Primacy effect - tendency to remember effortful encoding.
information at the beginning of a body of
information better than the information  Flashbulb memories - type of automatic
that follows. encoding that occurs because an
unexpected event has strong emotional
Recency effect - tendency to remember associations for the person remembering
information at the end of a body of it.
information better than the information
ahead of it.

 Recognition - the ability to match a

piece of information or a stimulus to a
stored image or fact.
How LTMs Are Formed
 Distributed practice - will produce
 "...remembering is more like making up
better retrieval than massed practice
a story than it is like reading one
 Ebbinghaus found that his recall of
printed in a book."
words from his memorized word lists
 Constructive processing - referring to
was greatest immediately after learning
the retrieval of memories in which
the list but rapidly decreased within
those memories are altered, revised, or
the first hour. After the first hour,
influenced by newer information.
forgetting leveled off.
 Hindsight bias - the tendency to
falsely believe, through revision of older
 Encoding failure - failure to process
memories to include newer information,
information into memory.
that one could have correctly predicted
the outcome of an event.
 Memory trace - physical change in the
 Monday morning quarterbacking –
brain that occurs when a memory is
hindsight bias
formed.

Memory Retrieval Problems

-Decay - loss of memory due to the passage
 Misinformation effect - the tendency
of time, during which the memory trace is
of misleading information presented
not used.
after an event to alter the memories
of the event itself.
-Disuse - another name for decay, assuming
that memories that are not used will
Reliability of Memory Retrieval
eventually decay and disappear.

 False memory syndrome - the creation

 Memories after many years – not
of inaccurate or false memories through
explained by memory trace theory.
the suggestion of others, often while
the person is under hypnosis.
 Proactive interference - memory
 Evidence suggests that false memories
retrieval problem that occurs when
cannot be created for just any kind
older information prevents or interferes
of memory.
with the retrieval of newer information.
-The memories must at least be plausible.

Forgetting – Ebbinghaus
 Curve of forgetting - a graph showing
a distinct pattern in which forgetting is
very fast within the first hour after
learning a list and then tapers off
gradually.
Formation of LTMs
 Consolidation - the changes that take
place in the structure and functioning
of neurons when an memory is formed.

 Hippocampus – area of brain

responsible for the formation of LTMs.
Case of H.M.

AMNESIA
1. Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory
from the point of some injury or trauma
backwards, or loss of memory for the past.

2. Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory

from the point of injury or trauma
forward, or the inability to form new
long- term memories ("senile dementia").
Case of H.M.

3. Infantile amnesia - the inability to

retrieve memories from much before age 3.

*Autobiographical memory - the

memory for events and facts related to
one’s personal life story (usually after age
3).

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE

 The primary memory difficulty in

Alzheimer’s is anterograde amnesia,
although retrograde amnesia can also
occur as the disease progresses.

 There are various drugs in use or in

development for use in slowing or
stopping the progression of Alzheimer’s
disease.
Thinking and Mental Images
reached by thinking and behaving in
 Thinking (cognition) - mental activity
certain ways.
that goes on in the brain when a
person is organizing and attempting to
 Trial and error (mechanical solution) –
understand information and
problem-solving method in which one
communicating information to others.
possible solution after another is tried
until a successful one is found.
 Mental images - mental representations
that stand for objects or events and
 Algorithms - very specific, step-by-step
have a picture-like quality.
procedures for solving certain types of
problems.
CONCEPTS
 Concepts - ideas that represent a class
 Heuristic - an educated guess based on
or category of objects, events, or
prior experiences that helps
activities.
narrow down the possible
 Superordinate concept - the most
solutions for a problem. Also
general form of a type of concept, such
known as a "rule of thumb."
as "animal" or "fruit."
-Representative heuristic – assumption
 Basic level type - an example of a type
that any object (or person)
of concept around which other similar
sharing characteristics with the
concepts are organized, such as "dog,"
members of a particular
"cat," or "pear."
category is also a member of
 Subordinate concept – the most specific
that category.
category of a concept, such as one’s
-Availability heuristic - estimating the
pet dog or a pear in one’s hand.
frequency or likelihood of an
 Formal concepts - concepts that are
event based on how easy it is
defined by specific rules or features.
to recall relevant information
 Natural concepts - concepts people
from memory or how easy it
form as a result of their experiences
is for us to think of related
in the real world.
examples.
 Prototype - an example of a concept
-Means–end analysis - heuristic in
that closely matches the defining
which the difference between
characteristics of a concept.
the starting situation and the
--A platypus is a "fuzzy" natural concept
goal is determined and then
steps are taken to reduce that
PROBLEM-SOLVING
difference.
 Problem solving - process of cognition
 Insight - sudden perception of a
that occurs when a goal must be
solution to a problem.
PROBLEM-SOLVING BARRIERS
Theories of Intelligence
 Functional fixedness - a block to
1. Spearman’s Theory
problem solving that comes from
 g factor – the ability to reason and
thinking about objects in terms of only
solve problems, or general intelligence.
their typical functions.
 s factor – the ability to excel in
 Mental set - the tendency for people
certain areas, or specific intelligence.
to persist in using problem-solving
patterns that have worked for them in
2. Gardner’s Theory
the past.
 Multiple intelligences - verbal/linguistic,
 Confirmation bias – the tendency to
musical, logical/mathematical,
search for evidence that fits one’s
visual/spatial, movement, interpersonal,
beliefs while ignoring any evidence that
intrapersonal, naturalists and existential
does not fit those beliefs.
intelligence.

CREATIVITY
 Creativity
-the process of solving
problems by combining ideas or
behavior in new ways.

-Convergent thinking - type of

thinking in which a problem is
seen as having only one answer,
and all lines of thinking will
eventually lead to that single
answer, using previous
knowledge and logic.
-Divergent thinking – type of
thinking in which a person
starts from one point and
comes up with many different
3. Triarchic theory of intelligence -
ideas or possibilities based on
Sternberg’s theory that there are
that point (kind of creativity).
three kinds of intelligences: analytical,
creative, and practical.
INTELLIGENCE
 Analytical intelligence - the ability to
-the ability to learn from one’s
break problems down into component
experiences, acquire knowledge, and use
parts, or analysis, for problem
resources effectively in adapting to new
solving.
situations or solving problems.
 Creative intelligence - the ability to
deal with new and different concepts
 and to come up with new ways of
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY
solving problems.
 Practical intelligence – the ability to
 Developmentally delayed - condition in
use information to get along in life
which a person’s behavioral and
and become successful.
cognitive skills exist at an
earlier developmental stage
IQ TESTS
than the skills of others who
are the same chronological age.
 Intelligence quotient (IQ) - a number
A more acceptable term for
representing a measure of intelligence,
intellectual disability.
resulting from the division of one’s
--Intellectual disability or developmental
mental age by one’s chronological age
delay is a condition in which IQ falls below
and then multiplying that quotient by
70 and adaptive behavior is severely
100.
deficient for a person of a particular
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields
chronological age.
an IQ score.
 Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield a
 Four levels of delay are:
verbal score and a performance score, as
-Mild: 55–70 IQ
well as an overall score of intelligence.
-Moderate: 40–55 IQ
-Severe: 25–40 IQ
DEVELOPMENT OF IQ TEST
-Profound: Below 25 IQ.
 Standardization - the process of
giving the test to a large group of
 Causes of developmental delay include
people that represents the kind of
deprived environments, as well as
people for whom the test is designed.
chromosome and genetic disorders and
 Validity - the degree to which a test
dietary deficiencies.
actually measures what it’s supposed to
measure.
GIFTEDNESS
 Reliability - the tendency of a test to
produce the same scores again and
 Gifted - the 2 percent of the
again each time it is given to the same
population falling on the upper
people.
end of the normal curve and
 Deviation IQ scores - a type of
typically possessing an IQ of
intelligence measure that assumes that
130 or above.
IQ is normally distributed around a
 Terman conducted a longitudinal study
mean of 100 with a standard
that demonstrated that gifted children
deviation of about 15.
grow up to be successful adults for the
--Norms
most part.
-Terman’s study has been criticized for a
-Semantics - the rules for determining the
lack of objectivity because he became too
meaning of words and sentences.
involved in the lives of his participants,
4. Phonemes - the basic units of sound in
even to the point of interfering on their
language.
behalf.
5. Pragmatics - aspects of language
involving the practical ways of
 Emotional intelligence – the awareness
communicating with others, or the social
of and ability to manage one’s own
"niceties" of language.
emotions as well as the ability to be
self-motivated, able to feel what
Language and Cognition
others feel, and socially skilled. Viewed
 Linguistic relativity hypothesis - the
as a powerful influence on success in life.
theory that thought processes and
concepts are controlled by language.
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND
 Cognitive universalism – theory that
INTELLIGENCE
concepts are universal and influence the
 Stronger correlations are found between
development of language.
IQ scores as genetic relatedness
increases.
Animal Language
 Heritability of IQ is estimated at 0.50.
 Studies have been somewhat successful
 The Bell Curve - book that made widely
in demonstrating that animals can
criticized claims about the heritability
develop a basic kind of language,
of intelligence.
including some abstract ideas.
 Controversy exists over the lack of
LANGUAGE
evidence that animals can learn syntax,
- a system for combining symbols
which some feel means that animals are
(such as words) so that an unlimited
not truly learning and using language.
number of meaningful statements can be
made for the purpose of communicating
Ways To Improve Thinking
with others.

 Mental activity that requires creativity

Elements and Structures of Language
and the use of memory abilities, such
1. Grammar - the system of rules
as working crossword puzzles and
governing the structure and use a of
reading books, can help to keep the
language.
brain fit.
2. Syntax - the system of rules for
combining words and phrases to
form grammatically correct
sentences.
3. Morphemes - the smallest units of
meaning within a language.
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
 Chromosome disorders include Down
 Human development - the scientific
syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and
study of the changes that occur in
Turner’s syndrome, whereas genetic
people as they age from conception
disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis,
until death.
sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease.
 Conception - the moment at which a
 Longitudinal design - research design
female becomes pregnant.
in which one participant or group of
 Ovum - the female sex cell, or egg.
participants is studied over a long
 Fertilization - the union of the
period of time.
ovum and sperm.
 Zygote - cell resulting from the uniting
NATURE VS. NURTURE
of the ovum and sperm; divides into
 Nature - the influence of our
many cells, eventually forming the baby.
inherited characteristics on our
personality, physical growth,
CONCEPTION AND TWINS
intellectual growth, and social
 Monozygotic twins - identical twins
interactions.
formed when one zygote splits into
 Nurture - the influence of the two separate masses of cells, each of
environment on personality, physical
which develops into a separate embryo.
growth, intellectual growth, and social
 Dizygotic twins - often called fraternal
interactions.
twins, occurring when two eggs each
 Behavioral genetics – focuses on nature
get fertilized by two different sperm,
vs. nurture.
resulting in two zygotes in the uterus
GENETICS AND DEVELPMENT
at the same time.

 Genetics - the science of

PERIODS OF PREGNANCY
inherited traits.
 Germinal period - first two weeks after
 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) -
fertilization, during which the zygote
special molecule that contains the
moves down to the uterus and begins to
genetic material of the organism.
implant in the lining embryo name for
 Gene - section of DNA having the
the developing organism from two
same arrangement of chemical elements.
weeks to eight weeks after fertilization.
--Dominant - referring to a gene that
 Embryonic period - the period from
actively controls the expression of a trait.
two to eight weeks after fertilization,
--Recessive - referring to a gene that only
during which the major organs and
influences the expression of a trait when
structures of the organism develop.
paired with an identical gene.
-Critical periods - times during which
 Chromosome - tightly wound strand of
certain environmental influences can have
genetic material or DNA.
an impact on the development of the
schemas) a mental concept formed
infant.
through experiences with objects and
-Teratogen - any factor that can cause a
events.
birth defect.
 Fetal period - the time from about
Piaget’s Stage Theory
eight weeks after conception until the
birth of the child.
 Sensorimotor stage - Piaget’s first
-Fetus - name for the developing organism
stage of cognitive development in which
from eight weeks after fertilization to
the infant uses its senses and motor
the birth of the baby.
abilities to interact with objects in the
environment.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
AND CHILDHOOD
Object permanence - the knowledge that
 Four critical areas of adjustment for
an object exists even when it is not in
the newborn are:
sight.
-Respiration
-Digestion
 Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second
-Circulation
stage of cognitive development in which
-Temperature regulation
the preschool child learns to use
 Infants are born with reflexes that help
language as a means of exploring the
the infant survive: sucking, rooting,
world.
Moro (startle), grasping, and Babinski.
 The senses, except for vision, are fairly
Egocentrism - the inability to see the
well developed at birth.
world through anyone else’s eyes.
 Gross and fine motor skills develop at a
fast pace during infancy and early
Centration - in Piaget’s theory, the
childhood.
tendency of a young child to focus only on
one feature of an object while ignoring
IMMUNIZATIONS
other relevant features.
 Immunizations are far less dangerous
than the diseases they are designed to
Conservation - in Piaget’s theory, the
prevent and are one of the most
ability to understand that simply changing
effective weapons in the fight against
the appearance of an object does not
infectious diseases.
change the object’s nature.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Irreversibility - in Piaget’s theory, the
 Cognitive development - the
inability of the young child to mentally
development of thinking, problem
reverse an action.
solving, and memory scheme (plural
 Concrete operations stage - third stage
 Temperament - the behavioral
of cognitive development in which the
characteristics that are fairly well
school-age child becomes capable of
established at birth.
logical thought processes but is not yet
-Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy
capable of abstract thinking.
-Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and
 Formal operations - Piaget’s last stage
irritable
of cognitive development in which the
-Slow to warm up - need to adjust
adolescent becomes capable of abstract
gradually to change.
thinking.

 Attachment - the emotional bond

Vygotsky’s Theory
between an infant and the primary
caregiver.
 Scaffolding - process in which a more
Secure - willing to explore, upset when
skilled learner gives help to a less skilled
mother departs but easily soothed upon
learner, reducing the amount of help as
her return.
the less skilled learner becomes more
capable.
Avoidant – unattached; explore without
 Zone of proximal development (ZPD) -
"touching base."
Vygotsky’s concept of the difference
between what a child can do alone and
Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset
what that child can do with the help
when mother leaves and then angry with
of a teacher.
mother upon her return.

Newer Theory
Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely
attached and sometimes abused or
 Child-directed speech – children attend
neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and
to higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song
depressed.
speech.

Erikson’s First Four Stages and fifth stage

STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
 Cooing
 Babbling
 One-word speech (holophrases)
 Telegraphic speech
 Language acquisition device - governs
the learning of language during
infancy and early childhood.
1. Trust versus mistrust - first stage
of personality development in which the
infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust
develops as a result of consistent or
inconsistent care.
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt -
second stage of personality development in
which the toddler strives for physical
independence.

3. Initiative versus guilt - third stage

of personality development in which the
preschool-aged child strives for emotional
and psychological independence and
attempts to satisfy curiosity about the
world.

4. Industry versus inferiority - fourth

stage of personality development in which
the adolescent strives for a sense of
competence and self-esteem.

5. Identity versus role confusion - fifth

stage of personality development in which
the adolescent must find a consistent sense
of self.

GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT

 Gender- the behavior associated with
being male or female.
 Gender identity - perception of one’s
gender and the behavior that is
associated with that gender.
PUBERTY AND ADOLESCENCE
behavior is governed by moral principles
 Adolescence - the period of life from
that have been decided on by the
about age 13 to the early twenties,
individual and which may be in
during which a young person is no
disagreement with accepted social norms.
longer physically a child but is not yet
an independent, self-supporting adult.
PHYSICAL CHANGES AND AGING
 Puberty - the physical changes that
 Adulthood begins in the early twenties
occur in the body as sexual
and ends with death in old age.
development reaches its peak.
--Divided into young adulthood, middle
---Period of about four years.
adulthood, and late adulthood.

Egocentric Thinking
 Personal fable - type of thought
common to adolescents in which young
people believe themselves to be unique
and protected from harm.
 Imaginary audience - type of thought
common to adolescents in which young
people believe that other people are
just as concerned about the
adolescent’s thoughts and
characteristics as they themselves are.
 Women experience a physical decline
in the reproductive system called the
climacteric, ending at about age 50
with menopause - the cessation of
ovulation and menstrual cycles and the
end of a woman’s reproductive
capability.
 Andropause - gradual changes in the
sexual hormones and reproductive
system of males.

 Increase in health problems, decrease in

DEVELOPMENT OF MORALITY
 Preconventional morality - first level of
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
in which the child’s behavior is governed
by the consequences of the behavior.
 Conventional morality - second level of
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
in which the child’s behavior is governed
by conforming to the society’s norms
of behavior.
reaction time, and stability in
intelligence and memory.
Erikson’s Last three stages
1. Andropause - gradual changes in the
sexual hormones and reproductive system
of males.
2. Increase in health problems, decrease in
reaction time, and stability in intelligence
and memory.

 Postconventional morality - third level 3. Ego integrity - sense of wholeness that

of Kohlberg’s stages of moral
comes from having lived a full life and the
development in which the person’s
ability to let go of regrets; the final
 ADHD in adults can be treated with
completion of the ego.
medication and/or therapy.

THEORIES OF AGING
MOTIVATION
 Activity theory - theory of adjustment
 Motivation - the process by which
to aging that assumes older people are
activities are started, directed, and
happier if they remain active in some
continued so that physical or
way, such as volunteering or developing
psychological needs or wants are met.
a hobby.
 Extrinsic motivation - type of
motivation in which a person performs
 Cellular clock theory - based on the idea
an action because it leads to an
that cells only have so many times that
outcome that is separate from or
they can reproduce; once that limit is
external to the person.
reached, damaged cells begin to
accumulate.
INSTINCT APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION
 Instincts - the biologically determined
 Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes
and innate patterns of behavior that
by, repeated use and abuse of the
exist in both people and animals.
body’s tissues cause it to be unable to
 Instinct approach - approach to
repair all the damage.
motivation that assumes people are
governed by instincts similar to those
 Free radical theory - oxygen molecules
of animals.
with an unstable electron move around
the cell, damaging cell structures as
DRVE REDUCTION THEORY OF
they go.
MOTIVATION
 Need - a requirement of some material
STAGES OF DEATH AND DYING
(such as food or water) that is essential
 Denial
for survival of the organism.
 Anger
 Drive - a psychological tension and
 Bargaining
physical arousal arising when there is
 Depression
a need that motivates the organism
 Acceptance
to act in order to fulfill the need and
reduce the tension.
 Drive-reduction theory - approach to
ADULTH ADHD
motivation that assumes behavior arises
 Many children with ADHD grow up to
from physiological needs that cause
be adults with ADHD, affecting their
internal drives to push the organism to
work, relationships, and emotional well-
satisfy the need and reduce tension and
being.
arousal.
 Primary drives - those drives that
ARROUSAL APPROACH TO MOTIVATION
involve needs of the body such as
 Stimulus motive - a motive that
hunger and thirst.
appears to be unlearned but causes an
 Acquired (secondary) drives - those
increase in stimulation, such as curiosity.
drives that are learned through
experience or conditioning, such as
 Arousal theory - theory of motivation
the need for money or social approval.
in which people are said to have an
 Homeostasis - the tendency of the
optimal (best or ideal) level of tension
body to maintain a steady state.
that they seek to maintain by
increasing or decreasing stimulation.
 Homeostasis
In homeostasis, the body maintains
 Yerkes-Dodson law - law stating
balance in the body’s physical states.
performance is related to arousal;
For example, this diagram shows how
moderate levels of arousal lead to
increased hunger (a state of
better performance than do levels of
imbalance) prompts a person to eat.
arousal that are too low or too high.
Eating increases the level of glucose
(blood sugar), causing the feelings of
-This effect varies with the difficulty of
hunger to reduce. After a period
the task: easy tasks require a high-
without eating, the glucose levels
moderate level while more difficult tasks
become low enough to stimulate the
require a low-moderate level.
hunger drive once again, and the entire
cycle is repeated.
 Sensation seeker - someone who needs
more arousal than the average person.
THREE TYPES OF NEEDS
1. Need for achievement (nAch) - a need
INCENTIVE APPROACHES TO
that involves a strong desire to succeed
MOTIVATION
in attaining goals, not only realistic ones
but also challenging ones.
 Incentives - things that attract or lure
people into action.
2. Need for affiliation (nAff) - the
need for friendly social interactions and
 Incentive approaches - theories of
relationships with others.
motivation in which behavior is
explained as a response to the external
3. Need for power (nPow) - the need to
stimulus and its rewarding properties.
have control or influence over others.

 Expectancy-value theories - incentive

theories that assume the actions of
humans cannot be predicted or fully
 understood without understanding the
 Glucagons- hormones that are secreted
beliefs, values, and the importance that
by the pancreas to control the levels of
a person attaches to those beliefs and
fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the
values at any given moment in time.
body by increasing the level of glucose
in the bloodstream.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Weight set point – the particular level
of weight that the body tries to
 Self-actualization - according to Maslow,
maintain.
the point that is seldom reached at
 Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate
which people have sufficiently satisfied
at which the body burns energy when
the lower needs and achieved their full
the organism is resting.
human potential.

Hunger: Social Causes

 Peak experiences- according to Maslow,
times in a person’s life during which
 Social cues for when meals are to be
selfactualization is temporarily achieved.
eaten.
 Cultural customs.
SELF DETERMINATION THEORY OF
 Food preferences.
MOTIVATION
 Use of food as a comfort device or
escape from unpleasantness.
 Self-determination theory (SDT) -
 Some people may respond to the
theory of human motivation in which
anticipation of eating by producing an
the social context of an action has
insulin response, increasing the risk of
an effect on the type of motivation
obesity.
existing for the action.

Eating Problems
 Intrinsic motivation - type of
motivation in which a person performs
 Obesity
an action because the act itself is
A condition in which the body
rewarding or satisfying in some
weight of a person is 20 percent or
internal manner.
more over the ideal body weight for
that person’s height (actual percents
Hunger: Bodily Causes
vary across definitions).
 Anorexia nervosa
 Insulin - a hormone secreted by the
A condition in which a person
pancreas to control the levels of fats,
reduces eating to the point that a
proteins, and carbohydrates in the body
weight loss of 15 percent below the
by reducing the level of glucose in the
ideal body weight or more occurs.
bloodstream.
 Bulimia
A condition in which a person
develops a cycle of "binging" or
overeating enormous amounts of food
at one sitting, and "purging" or
deliberately vomiting after eating.
Biological Factors of Eating Problems
 Leptin
- a hormone that, when
released into the bloodstream, signals
the hypothalamus that the body has
had enough food and reduces the
appetite while increasing the feeling
of being full.
Role of leptin in obesity.
Genetics and obesity.
 Genetics may play a part in anorexia
and bulimia, as well as insensitivity
to leptin.
Elements of Emotion
 Emotion - the "feeling" aspect of
consciousness, characterized by a certain
physical arousal, a certain behavior that
reveals the emotion to the outside
world, and an inner awareness of
feelings.
 Display rules - learned ways of
controlling displays of emotion in social
settings.
 Common Sense Theory of Emotion
- a stimulus leads to an
emotion, which then leads to bodily
arousal.
 James-Lange Theory of Emotion
- theory in which a
physiological reaction leads to
the labeling of an emotion.
 Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
- theory in which the
physiological reaction and the
emotion are assumed to occur at the
same time.
Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
 Cognitive arousal theory – theory of
emotion in which both the physical
arousal and the labeling of that arousal
based on cues from the environment
must occur before the emotion is
experienced.
 Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion
-Schachter and Singer’s cognitive
arousal theory is similar to the
James-Lange theory but adds the
element of cognitive labeling of the
arousal. In this theory, a stimulus
leads to both bodily arousal and the
labeling of that arousal (based on
the surrounding context), which
leads to the experience and labeling
of the emotional reaction.
 Facial feedback hypothesis - theory of
emotion that assumes that facial
expressions provide feedback to the
brain concerning the emotion being
expressed, which in turn causes and
intensifies the emotion.
 Cognitive-mediational theory - theory
of emotion in which a stimulus must be
interpreted (appraised) by a person in
order to result in a physical response
and an emotional reaction.
Male and Female Physical Differences
 Primary sex characteristics – sexual
organs present at birth and
directly involved in human
reproduction.
Female:
Vagina - the tube that leads from the
outside of a female’s body to the opening
of the womb.
Uterus - the womb in which the baby
grows during pregnancy.
Ovaries- the female sexual glands.
Male
Penis – male sex organ.
Testes (testicles) - the male sex glands.
Scrotum - external sack that holds the
testes.
Prostate gland - gland that secretes most
of the fluid holding the male sex cells or
sperm.
Secondary sex characteristics
Sexual organs and traits that develop at
puberty and are indirectly involved in
human reproduction.
 Female Secondary Sex Characteristics
 Growth spurt
 Onset of the menstrual cycle - monthly
shedding of the blood and tissue that
line the uterus in preparation for
pregnancy when conception does not
occur
 Breast development
-Mammary glands - glands
within the breast tissue that
produce milk when a woman gives
birth to an infant.
 Widening hips
 Pubic hair
 Fat deposits
 Further growth and development of the
uterus, vagina, and ovaries
 Male Secondary Sex Characteristics
 Enlarged larynx (Adam’s apple)
 Deepening voice
 Facial and chest hair
 Pubic hair
 Coarser skin texture
 Large increase in height
 Estrogens - female sex hormones.
 Androgens - male sex hormones.
 Gender
-The psychological aspects of
being male or female.
 Gender roles - the culture’s
expectations for masculine or
feminine behavior, including
attitudes, actions, and
personality traits associated
with being male or female in
that culture.
 Gender typing - the process of
acquiring gender role characteristics.
 Gender identity - the individual’s
sense of being male or female.
Biology and Learning Influences on Gender
 Biological influences - hormones and
chromosomes
 Environmental influences - parenting,
surroundings, and culture on the
formation of gender identity.
GENDER ROLES
 Social learning theory - gender identity
is formed through reinforcement of
appropriate gender behavior as well as
imitation of gender models.
 Gender schema theory - theory of
gender identity acquisition in which a
child develops a mental pattern, or
schema, for being male or female and
then organizes observed and learned
behavior around that schema.
GENDER STEREOTYPING
 Stereotype - a concept held about a
person or group of people that is based
on superficial, irrelevant characteristics.
 Gender stereotype - a concept held
about a person or group of people
that
is based on being male or female.
 Sexism - prejudice about males
and/or females leading to unequal
treatment.
 Benevolent sexism - acceptance of
positive stereotypes of males and
females that leads to unequal
treatment.
 Androgyny - characteristic of possessing
the most positive personality
characteristics of males and females
regardless of actual sex.
Other Male and Female Differences
 Cognitive differences - male advantage
in mathematical and spatial skills and a
female superiority in verbal skills
(decreasing differences).
 Emotional expression - males tend to
talk with each other in a "report" style,
whereas females tend to talk to each
other in a "relate" style.
Stages of Human Sexual Response
 Excitement – beginning of sexual arousal.
 Plateau – physical changes beginning in
first stage continue.
 Orgasm - a series of rhythmic
contractions of the muscles of the
vaginal walls or the penis, also the
third and shortest phase of sexual
response.
--Semen - fluid released from the penis at
orgasm that contains the sperm.
 Resolution - the final phase of the
sexual response in which the body
is returned to a normal state.
--Refractory period - time period in males
 Heterosexual - person attracted to the
just after orgasm in which the male cannot
opposite sex.
become aroused or achieve erection.
 Homosexual - person attracted to
the same sex.
Masters and Johnson Study
 Bisexual - person attracted to both
 Used volunteers, some of whom were
men and women.
prostitutes, and both observed and
measured their physiological responses
Sexual Dysfunction
during all phases of sexual
intercourse.
 Sexual dysfunction - a problem in
sexual functioning.
Kinsey Studies
 Organic or stress-induced dysfunction -
 Series of sexual behavior surveys in the
sexual problem caused by physical
late 1940s and early 1950s
disorder or psychological stress.
 Revealed some highly controversial
 Hypoactive sexual desire, sexual aversion,
findings about the kinds of sexual
female sexual arousal disorder, male
behavior common among people in the
erectile disorder, male orgasmic disorder,
United States, including:
female orgasmic disorder, premature
 Homosexuality
ejaculation, vaginismus, and dyspareunia.
 Premarital sex
 Extramarital sex
Sexually-Transmitted Infections

Janus Report
 Sexually transmitted infections (STI) -
can affect the sexual organs and the
 Large-scale survey of sexual behavior
ability to reproduce and may result in
in the United States in 1990s.
pain, disfigurement, and even death.
 Did not differ widely from those of
 Common bacterial sexually transmitted
Kinsey but looked at many more types
infections (STI) are Chlamydia, syphilis,
of sexual behavior and factors related
and gonorrhea.
to sexual behavior, including:
 Treatable with antibiotics.
 Sexual deviance - behavior that is
 Viral sexually transmitted infections
unacceptable according to societal norms
(STI) include genital herpes (caused by
and expectations.
the herpes simplex virus that also causes
cold sores) and genital warts (caused
Sexual Orientation
by the human papillomavirus).
 Neither can be cured and both can lead
 Sexual orientation - a person’s sexual
to complications such as increased risk
attraction preference for members of a
of cancer.
particular sex.
 AIDS or acquired immune deficiency
syndrome - sexually transmitted viral
disorder that causes deterioration of
the immune system and eventually
results in death due to complicating
infections that the body can no longer
fight.
 There are drug treatments but no cure.

How to Protect Spread of STIs

 Using condoms
 Having only one partner
 Abstaining from sex
 Avoiding IV drug use
 Knowing the symptoms of the various
diseases
 Getting regular physicals