GMAT1110 Orientation and Theodolites

Orientation and theodolites

- Orientation
- Horizontal directions and angle
- Zenith angles
- Theodolite instrumentations
- Booking and reduction of observations
- Testing and theodolite errors

Orientation

- North – True, grid, magnetic…

- Orientation by the sun
- Orientation by stars
- Magnetic orientation
- Orientation by gyro
- Orientation by GPS
- Orientation by surveying

Orientation north

- Need to define the orientation of the coordinate system

- What is a north?
- True north (azimuth)
 Pointing to the north pole (spin axis)
 Magnetic north
- Magnetic north
 Pointing to magnetic north – not north pole
 Magnetic north moves with time
- Grid north
 Pointing along the grid lines of a defining coordinate system (e.g. MGA2020)
- Arbitrary north
 Some local north adopted for a local project
Orientation north

- We know that north = 0o

- 90o = East = 450o
- -10o = 350o
- -10o30’=349o30’
- Forward bearing = back bearing -180o

Orientation by the sun

- In Aus. The sun rises in the east sets in the west and traverses across the northern sky (the
earth rotates with the sun)
- If the local time is well known, it is possible to determine the true north
- This could be used for rough orientation using a wristwatch or more precisely using a
theodolite and accurate timing
- In the northern hemisphere this method would determine south.

Orientation by the stars

- Orientation using the stars follows a similar principle to that of the sun i.e. transits of the
local meridian
- A star almanac is used, and positions of certain stars are predicted and observation taken to
determine the orientation (azimuth) of a nearby reference object, This orientation is not
necessarily true north but can be used to determine true north.
- In the northern hemisphere there exists a pole star i.e. a star located directly above the spin
axis of the earth. The makes finding true north at night very easy. In Australia sigma octantis
 is close to the southern pole but is invisible to the naked eye. It can be observed with a
theodolite telescope.

Magnetic orientation

- A magnetised needle if allowed will follow the magnetic field of the earth giving magnetic
north.
- Magnetic north departs from true north, and this is referred to on topographic maps as
magnetic declination
- In addition, the grid-magnetic angle varies with time.
- Compass surveys were conducted by early surveyors in Aus. – must be careful of attractors
i.e. ore bodies
- Surveyors still use compasses for minor tasks.

Orientation by gyro

- Because the earth spins, if a gyro is spun anywhere on the surface of the Earth and allowed
to precess freely, it will ultimately align its spin axis perpendicular to the true north meridian
at that point. The gyro will oscillate back and forth across the meridian.
- Gyro-theodolites can determine true north to 20’’ and better after sufficient time awith care
- Gyro’s are very useful for mining and tunnelling.

Orientation by GPS

- The Global positioning system can also be used to determine orientation, however it does
only coordinates.
 - Orientation is therefore derived by computing the join between coordinates.
- Fast updates of position can be used to navigate toward known points and give real time
orientation (heading).

Orientation by surveying

- Surveyors often orient themselves by using known coordinates from survey marks in the
ground.
- From here surveyors adhere to a particular bearing system derived from some homogenous
coordinate system either at a local, statewide or national level.
- A join calculation determines bearing and distance

What is a theodolite?

- A theodolite is an instrument that measures horizontal directions and zenith angles

(compared with vertical angles)
- The two ‘protractors’ mounted at right angles.
- Telescopes to provide the ‘line-of-sight’
- Bubbles (or alternatives) to define vertical and horizontal planes.

Theodolite construction

- Horizontal and vertical graduated circles

- Levelling mechanisms
- Circle reading systems
- Centring system
An old school theodolite

Modern day theodolite

Horizontal directions and zenith angles

- The vertical axis is aligned with the direction of gravity (by levelling the theodolite).
- Horizontal angle between two vertical planes (directions) each containing the point of
interest
 - Zenith angle in vertical plane between zenith and point of interest

Measurement sensitivity

- 360o, graduated in arc minutes (‘) and arc seconds (“) e.g. 91 o23’15”
 - Theodolites typically measure to a few arc seconds (some <1”)
- 1’ ≈ 3cm displacement at 100 m
- 10” ≈ 5mm displacement at 100 m
- Accuracy of single measurement affected by a range of theodolite errors, some of which can
be eliminated through correct observation practice.
- Modern theodolites are “electronic” and may record observations into memory.

Levelling

- Spot bubble
 For rough centring
- Plate bubble
 Main operation
- Compensator
 High accuracy vertical

Centring

- ‘plumbob’
- Optical plummet
- Centring rod (rare)
- Centring laser

Problems of the theodolite

- Temporary adjustments – centring, levelling, parallax/

- Permanent adjustment problems:
 Plate level out of adjustment
 Optical plummet out of adjustment
 Horizontal collimation
 Vertical circle index error, (+vertical collimation)
 Trunnion axis dislevelment