2b Heat Transfer Arctic Engineering

with assistance from Tom Ravens

Welcome back to the second part of the second learning module for Fundamentals
of Arctic Engineering online.
We’re going to review in this module the fundamental principles of heat transfer.
Exchange of heat energy relates to all aspects of engineering, architecture,
construction, and living in the North. Principles of heat transfer apply to heat loss
from dwellings or machinery enclosures, to unwanted gain of heat by Arctic
permafrost, and to natural adaptations of cold regions plants and animals. Basic
knowledge of physical laws associated with heat transfer is essential for good cold
regions engineering practice.

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2b Heat Transfer Arctic Engineering

Transfer of heat energy occurs by three fundamental modes: conduction, convection,

and radiation. Conduction is transfer heat energy by direct contact between two
substances or through a continuous substance.
Convection is a transfer of heat between a solid body and a moving fluid in which it
is immersed.
Radiation involves emission of electromagnetic waves by all substances whose
temperature is above absolute zero. Objects toward which the radiation is directed
then absorb this emitted electromagnetic energy.

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Fourier’s Law governs heat transfer by conduction. A temperature gradient in a

homogenous body corresponds to an energy transfer from the high temperature
region to the low temperature region. The minus sign in Fourier’s Law assures that
heat flows from high to low temperature.
The differential dT/dn is the temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow.
Thermal conductivity, k, has units of W/m-K, but can also be expressed in W/m-°C,
since ° Celsius and Kelvins have the same value, as a temperature difference. In the
British system of units, k has units of Btu/hr-ft-degree Fahrenheit. Since a
convenient unit of power, like Watts in SI, doesn’t exist in the British system, the
time dimension is important in British units for thermal conductivity.

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The differential dT/dn may be simplified to a ratio of discrete differences, T/x, if

the temperature gradient is linear and the heat transfer is steady state. The
temperature gradient is expected to be linear in homogenous materials, according to
Fourier’s Law. The x direction is along the primary direction of heat transfer, from
high temperature to low temperature.

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The table shows representative values of thermal conductivity for some familiar
materials. We expect metals to have high thermal conductivity, that is, to be
efficient conductors of heat energy. Stone and glass are less efficient conductors of
heat energy.

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Wood has about 5 times the thermal conductivity of glass wool or fiberglass
insulation, of interest to those of you thinking about building a log cabin. Water is
about 20 times more conductive than air, which relates to various strategies for
emergency survival in the cold. It is interesting to note that water vapor is somewhat
less conductive than dry air.

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Considerations of utility pipe material relate to cost per unit weight, to structural
strength, and to thermal conductivity.

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2b Heat Transfer Arctic Engineering

The published thermal conductivities of insulation materials relate in part to the

efficiency with which they trap air. In this regard, density of material, as installed,
is an indicator of its thermal conductivity. A low thermal conductivity is the mark
of a good insulation.

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•Heat transfer is enhanced by fluid motion, such as by air or water flowing past a
warmer solid object. Heat is first conducted to the thin, nearly motionless layer of
fluid at the solid boundary and then is convected away by adjacent layers of moving
fluid.

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The familiar wind chill system quoted by weather forecasters is developed to relate
the accelerated heat transfer in windy conditions to that of still air. Colder still air
temperatures are necessary to achieve the same rate of cooling as (warmer) wind
flowing past exposed skin. It is the rate of heat exchange that is affected by fluid
motion, not the final equilibrium temperature.

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Newton’s Law of Cooling governs heat transfer by convection. The rate of energy
transfer by this mode is also proportional to a temperature difference. The difference
between the upstream fluid temperature, Tu, beyond the influence of contact with
the solid, and the surface temperature of the solid, Ts, drives the heat exchange
between the fluid and the solid. The empirical convective heat transfer coefficient,
h, usually must be determined by experiments. The total surface area, A, in contact
with fluid is important. Fin-like objects convect heat from both sides.

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•As indicated by these example values for convection coefficients, the size and
shape of the object is important, as are the properties of the particular fluid in which
the object is immersed. The approximate velocity of the fluid is also important,
particularly as it relates to turbulent behavior. The units of h, when multiplied by an
area and a temperature difference, are appropriate for a resultant heat transfer rate in
Watts or Btu’s per hour.

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The Stefan-Boltzman law is a simple predictor of the rate at which energy is emitted
from an ideal “black body.” The temperature must be in degrees Rankine or
Kelvins. Since the temperature is taken to the fourth power, precision of
temperature measurements, that is the number of significant figures, is important.

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Most objects, including those that behave as blackbodies with regard to radiation,
do not emit a single wavelength of radiation. Energy is distributed over a range of
wavelengths surrounding a wavelength of maximum emissive power. Wien’s
Displacement Law is another simple relationship that predicts the wavelength of
peak spectral power. This wavelength is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of the emitting body. The higher is the temperature, the shorter will be
the wavelength of peak emission. The constant of proportionality, as stated here, has
units appropriate to yield a wavelength in micrometers or meters x 10-6.
Electromagnetic radiation has a frequency that corresponds to each wavelength.
Wien’s Law predicts a higher frequency, corresponding to a shorter wavelength, for
a higher temperature.

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The emission spectra of the Sun and the Earth are plotted here on the same
wavelength and frequency scales. The Sun, as predicted by Wien’s Law, emits
maximum radiation intensity in the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This peak wavelength corresponds to the 6,000 degrees Celsius surface temperature
of the Sun.
The average surface temperature of the Earth is about 18 degrees Celsius. This
temperature corresponds to a peak spectral wavelength in the longer-wave infrared
range.
The bars in the lower half of the figure illustrate the way different substances absorb
radiant energy. Gases in the atmosphere are more efficient absorbers at some
frequencies than they are at others. The greenhouse gases, including carbon
dioxide, don’t absorb much visible light, but efficiently absorb longer-wavelength
infrared radiation, as emitted by the surface of the Earth.

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This slide, repeated from the first module, again illustrates the impact of this
balance between Earth radiation emission and absorption by greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. If more heat is absorbed in the atmosphere, versus transmitted into
space, the Earth will respond by warming. Eventually, a higher Earth temperature
will shift the frequency of radiation emissions to a wavelength more readily
transmitted through the atmosphere to strike a new balance with incoming solar heat
energy. The abundance and distribution of carbon dioxide on Earth are at the crux of
global warming studies.

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A radiant exchange of heat energy between two objects requires radiation by one
and absorption by the other. The transfer will be from the object of higher
temperature to the object of lower temperature. Both factors of geometry and of
efficiency, relative to blackbody behavior, are important in evaluation of an
exchange of radiant energy. The efficiency of the exchange is represented by the
emissivity parameter.

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In practice, both the emissivity and geometric considerations must be expressed as

functions, rather than constants. As noted, these functions are not necessarily
independent.

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•The sketch is intended to show that real situations of heat transfer often involve
combined conduction, convection, and radiation. This example implies that the heat
lost from the inside of the enclosure through the wall by conduction equals the heat
lost by convection and radiation at the outside of the wall. This relation assumes a
steady-state condition in which temperatures are not changing and have reached an
equilibrium state.

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R-values are useful in problems of combined modes of heat transfer. Since both
conduction and convection are proportional to temperature difference, a practical
definition of thermal resistance (i.e., R-value) is the temperature difference
associated with a given heat transfer rate per unit area. R-values are functions of
thermal conductivity and thickness of the material along the direction of heat
transfer. The R-value is the temperature difference between two locations per unit
heat flux (e.g., W/m2) between the two locations. The absolute thermal resistance,
R, is very much related to R-value and is the temperature difference per unit flow
rate (e.g., W). There is considerable confusion in the literature since, for example,
some writers use R to denote temperature difference per unit heat flux.

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The application of R-factors is better understood by working an example problem.

Let’s consider a layer of pipe insulation of inner radius, ri, and outer radius, ro.
Fourier’s Law for heat radial conduction is shown. The surface area associated with
any radius, r, is equal to the circumference, 2,r times the length, L.

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The differential equation of Fourier’s Law can be solved by separation of variables and
integration, if the inner and outer temperatures are known and steady state conditions exist. The
integration of 1/r with respect to dr between the discrete limits of ri to ro, results in a natural
logarithm of the ratio of outer over inner radii. By algebra, the difference of two logs equals the
log of their ratio. In other words, the ratio of radii ro to ri.

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A general definition of the absolute thermal resistance (R = delta T / q) for the tubular
insulation is shown.

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The multiple tubular layers shown here might correspond to an inner pipe
surrounded by two successive layers of insulation. The radii are numbered 1 to 4
from the inner radius of the pipe to the outer radius of the second layer of insulation.
The temperature inside the pipe is T1. The temperature at the outside of the pipe and
inside of the first insulation layer is T2, and so on.

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The solution of Fourier’s Law by successive radial integration is shown. In the top equation,
each of the terms in the denominator, if divided by 2 PI L , constitutes the absolute thermal
resistance (R) of each layer. In the second equation, we clarify that the total absolute
thermal resistance is the sum of the absolute thermal resistances of the individual layers,
including the pipe itself. This same form of Fourier’s Law can be applied to linear heat
transfer, as well.

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The numerical values of parameters for a two-layer example are given below the
sketch. The situation might be that of an industrial process, where the air outside of
the pipe cannot be allowed to rise above a certain maximum safe temperature.

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The numerical solution, using the integrated form, is shown here. You should try on
your own to get the same answer for heat transfer per meter length by use of R-
factors.

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This numerical example involves linear heat transfer through a vertical wall
composed of inside sheetrock, fiberglass insulation, and outer wood siding. The
inner and outer temperatures, inner and outer convection coefficients, layer
thicknesses, and layer thermal conductivities are given beside the sketch. This
multi-layered example involves both conduction and convection. We are neglecting
radiation in this example.

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2b Heat Transfer Arctic Engineering

Total absolute thermal resistance of wall:

1 L L L3 1

The sum of individual absolute thermal resistances, including inner and outer
absolute thermal resistances for convection, is computed here. Convection, in this
regard, can be visualized as conduction through a thin film of fluid in contact
with the solid surface. The convection R's do not apply a thickness term as
do the conduction R's. The area is incorporated in each R to predict total heat
transfer rate by the modified Fourier's Law.

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The numerical solution of heat transfer rate, as the total temperature difference
across the system divided by the sum of absolute thermal resistances (R's), is
presented here. The added simplicity of heat transfer computations using
absolute thermal resistances is apparent in this case.

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Once the heat transfer rate through the system is known, various forms of Fourier’s
Law can be applied to derive estimates of temperature anywhere along the path of
heat transfer. If puzzled about the origin of the top equation, see slide 11. Note,
The differential form of Fourier’s Law with finite differences is advantageous for
interpolating temperatures within a conducting layer, such as temperatures within
the insulation layer. It is often important, for example, to know if and where the
freezing temperature of water occurs within an insulation layer. The solution
shown here applies the fact that all layers share the same heat transfer rate.
Temperature gradients vary in each layer in relation to their individual thermal
conductivities and thicknesses.

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This concludes the presentation on fundamentals of heat transfer. Two references I

can recommend are listed on the slide. Other good references exist as college
textbooks by other publishers on the subject of heat transfer.
A second set of homework exercises is available now in the “Assignments” area of
the web site. These practice problems will help clarify the principles we have just
reviewed.
Please post your questions about this presentation or about the heat transfer
exercises on the Discussion Board, so others can benefit from the exchange.
This is Orson Smith, signing off for now.

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