THE EFFECT OF FOUNDRY STEEL SLAG ON THE DURABILITY

PROPERTIES OF LATERITIC SOIL

BY

OLADIPUPO Eniola Ridwan

MATRIC NO: 160402514

PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL & ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF
LAGOS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) DEGREE IN CIVIL &
ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR: DR. S.I ADEDOKUN

OCTOBER 2021
 CERTIFICATION

It is hereby certified that this project is an original work carried out by OLADIPUPO, Eniola
Ridwan of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
University of Lagos, with Matriculation Number 160402514 in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) Degree in Civil & Environmental
Engineering.

................................. ....................................
DR S.I. ADEDOKUN DATE
(PROJECT SUPERVISOR)

................................... ………………………
PROF. E.E IKPONMWOSA DATE
(HEAD OF DEPARTMENT)

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 DEDICATION

I dedicate this project to ALLAH (S.W.T) for the grace he bestowed upon me to carry out this
project successfully, and I also dedicate this project to my family, most especially my mother for
always supporting throughout my journey in the University of Lagos.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, gratitude to Almighty ALLAH for his grace and love towards me from birth
till this moment.

Special thanks to my mother Mrs. K.T Oladipupo and my sister, who were always helpful and
encouraging through difficult times during the five-year duration of my course in the University
of Lagos.

I would also like to thank my awesome and hardworking project supervisor Dr S.I Adedokun for
his support, patience and professional guidance through the course of the project.

Finally, I appreciate my friends and my colleagues in the soil mechanics laboratory that were
always ready to assist me in ensuring the completion of my work.

God bless you all and my prayer is that we all excel in our endeavors.

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 ABSTRACT

Lateritic soil is abundance and can be found in tropical parts of the world (Nigeria, Ghana, Brazil
etc.) and it is fairly cheap and available in most states of Nigeria (Lagos, Ondo, Abia, Anambra,
Oyo etc.). Lateritic soil contains clay minerals but they tend to be silica-poor and they do not
meet certain criteria required for their intended geotechnical use. Steel slag is the waste gotten
from the production of steel which the accumulation or dumping of steel slag is also causing
environmental problem to our surroundings. In this study, the effect of foundry steel slag on the
strength and durability properties of lateritic soil was investigated.

The steel slag sample was collected at Nigeria foundry, Ogun state, while the lateritic soil sample
was collected from Sango. The research was conducted in the Soil mechanics and Geotechnics
laboratory, University of Lagos. The mix proportion of the lateritic soil and foundry steel slag
were subjected to series of tests such as grain size distribution, Atterberg limit tests, compaction
test, California bearing ratio (CBR), unconfined compressive strength (UCS) and Durability test
to determine the impact of foundry steel slag on this properties.

The study shows that the soil is a reddish-brown lateritic soil, classified as an A-2-7 (good
subgrade material) and SC (clayey sand) under AASHTO classification and USC classification.
It was further observed that with the addition of steel slag, the percentage of sample passing
through sieve No. 200 becomes finer while that the increase in steel slag decreases the
consistency properties of the soil. This in turn reduces the liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity
index of the stabilized samples compared to natural soil sample. Furthermore, the increase in
steel slag percentages results in a decrease in optimum moisture content (OMC) with the increase
of the maximum dry density (MDD) which results in an increase in the soil strength. The result
of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) indicates an increase in the CBR value due to increase in
the percentage of steel slag compared to natural soil, and ultimately, there was an increase in the
Unconfined Compressive Strength and durability of the soil as the content of steel slag increase.

The addition of foundry steel slag to the lateritic soil notably improves its geotechnical properties
of the soil significantly.

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 Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of Study..........................................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement............................................................................................................................2
1.3 Aim and Objectives............................................................................................................................2
1.4 Scope of Study...................................................................................................................................3
1.5 Significance of Study..........................................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................................4
2.1 Lateritic Soil.......................................................................................................................................4
2.2 Steel Slag...........................................................................................................................................4
2.2.1 Steel Slag Characterization.........................................................................................................5
2.2.2 Application of Steel Slag.............................................................................................................5
2.3 Soil Stabilization.................................................................................................................................8
2.3.1 Methods of Stabilization.............................................................................................................9
2.3.2 Advantages of Soil Stabilization................................................................................................10
2.4 Review on Previous Work................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER THREE...................................................................................................................................14
3.1 Materials..........................................................................................................................................14
3.2 Chemical Composition Test of Foundry Steel Slag and Lateritic Soil................................................14
3.3 Moisture Content............................................................................................................................14
3.4 Specific Gravity................................................................................................................................15
3.5 Sieve Analysis...................................................................................................................................15
3.6 Atterberg Limit.................................................................................................................................16
3.6.1 Liquid limit................................................................................................................................16
3.6.2 Plastic limit................................................................................................................................16
3.7 Compaction.....................................................................................................................................17
3.8 Unconfined Compressive Strength..................................................................................................17
3.9 California Bearing Ratio...................................................................................................................18
3.10 Durability Test................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER FOUR.....................................................................................................................................20
4.1 Natural Soil Characteristics..............................................................................................................20
4.2 Chemical Composition Test of Foundry Steel Slag and Lateritic Soil................................................22
4.3 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on Particle Size Analysis................................................................23

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 4.4 Specific Gravity................................................................................................................................23
4.5 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on Atterberg Limit Test.................................................................24
4.6 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag Compaction Test...........................................................................25
4.7 Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on California Bearing Ratio..................................................................26
4.8 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on Unconfined Compressive Strength..........................................27
CHAPTER FIVE.......................................................................................................................................30
5.1 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................30
5.2 Recommendation............................................................................................................................31

REFERENCES……………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32

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 LIST OF TABLES

Tables Title pages

4.1 Properties of Natural Soil 22

4.2 Chemical composition of lateritic soil and steel slag 23

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title pages

4.1 Grain size distribution cure for Natural Soil 22

4.2 Variation of grain size distribution with the steel slag 24

4.3 Variation of Atterberg limit with the steel slag content 25

4.4 Variation of OMC with the steel slag content 26

4.5 Variation of MDD with the steel slag content 27

4.6 Variation of CBR with the steel slag content 28

4.7 Variation of UCS with the steel slag content 29

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 APPENDICES

Appendix Title Pages

1 Atterberg’s limit test result 34

2 Compaction test result 34

3 California bearing ratio test result 34

4 Unconfined compressive strength test result 35

5 Durability test result 36

6 pictures 37

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 ABBREVIATIONS

FSS FOUNDRY STEELSLAG

BSL BRITISH STANDARD LIGHT

LL LIQUID LIMIT

PL PLASTIC LIMIT

PI PLASTICITY INDEX

MDD MAXIMUM DRY DENSITY

OMC OPTIMUM MOISTURE CONTENT

CBR CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO

UCS UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Soil stabilization refers to the procedure in which a special soil, a cementing material, or other
chemical or non-chemical materials are added to a natural soil or a technique use on a natural
soil to improve one or more of its properties. One may achieve stabilization by physically mixing
the natural soil and stabilizing materials together so as to achieve a homogeneous mixture or by
adding stabilizing material to an undisturbed soil deposit and obtaining interaction by letting it
permeate through soil voids (Abood et al, 2007).

Soil stabilizing additives are used to improve the properties of less desirable road soils. When
used, these stabilizing agents can improve and maintain soil moisture content, increase soil
particle cohesion and serve as cementing and water proofing agents (Janathan, 2004).

Steel slag are generated as waste material or every day byproduct from steel industries. Slag is
produced from different types of furnaces with different operating conditions. Slag contains
Ferrous Oxide, Calcium Oxide, Silica etc. Physical and chemical properties of slag are affected
by different methods of slag solidification such as air-cooled, steam and injection of additives
(Wei et al, 2016).

Laterite is both a soil and a rock type rich in iron and aluminum and is commonly considered to
have formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red coloration, because
of high iron oxide content. They develop by intensive and prolonged weathering of the
underlying parent rock. Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical
weathering which produces a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy
of the resulting soils. The majority of the land area containing laterites is between the tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn(wikipedia).

Over the years, the number of abandoned sites has increased geometrically which has led to
scarcity of land and natural resources. However, in most civil engineering practices the
possibility of getting a construction site that will meet the design requirements without
modification is very low. Therefore, in other to solve this problem, soil stabilization came into

1
play. With stabilization, soil which has abundant of soil clay and organic materials can be
improved to meet the civil engineering requirements.

Nigerian constructors and contractors in this area of the country’s professional life don’t
consider the examinations to determine the need to modify or treat rood, silty, lateritic and
clayey soils before use as sub grade materials. As a result, 90% of Nigerian roads fail each other
day even soon after construction. With the foregoing, civil engineers in Nigeria have a crucial
area of interest if they must continue to be relevant in this field and if they hope to change the
dashing hope and expectations of Nigerians (Onyelowe, 2011).

1.2 Problem Statement

Problematic laterite soils are those that do not yield reproducible results using standard
laboratory testing procedures. The soils are difficult to evaluate as engineering construction
materials. The peculiar problems of these soils have been identified as volumetric, thermal and
mechanical instabilities i.e. the susceptibility to significant changes on the addition of small
levels of thermal or mechanical energy.

Mineralogically, these laterite soils generally contain the clay-mineral halloysite, which are
sensitive to drying and the relative humidity of the environment. The soils are also known to
contain hydrated iron and aluminum oxides, some of which change irreversibly to dehydrated
forms on drying or desiccation.

The problematic lateritic soil has made construction of buildings and roads not suitable hence,
this has led to us adding steel slag which will improve the durability properties of the soil

Also, accumulation or dumping of steel slag is also causing environmental problem to our
surroundings.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to investigate the effect of steel slag on the durability properties of
lateritic soil, with the following objectives;
i. To determine the geotechnical properties of lateritic soil.

2
ii. To determine the chemical composition of the lateritic soil and steel slag.
iii. To determine the effect of steel slag on the index properties of the lateritic soil.
iv. To determine the effect of steel slag on compaction characteristics of the lateritic soil.
v. To determine the effect of steel slag on the strength and durability properties of the lateritic
soil.

1.4 Scope of Study

This project is to determine the effect of powdered steel slag on the durability properties of
lateritic soil. With this in mind, extensive laboratory analysis will be carried out in other to
determine the liquid limit, plastic limit as well as the optimum moisture content and the
maximum dry density of both the unstabilized soil and stabilized soil under different variations
of the stabilizing agents. This will allow for comparison between the results gotten from the
unstabilized soil sample and the effect of the stabilizing agent on the geotechnical properties of
the soil after which a conclusion can be drawn.

1.5 Significance of Study

Steel slag is mainly used in construction, agriculture and other fields. In the field of construction,
steel slag is often used in cement, steel brick and concrete aggregate due to its poor stability, low
activity and other adverse factor. Steel slag as a catalyst, has a broad prospect in the field of
pyrolysis, tar cracking, photocatalysis and electrocatalysis, and other aspect has shown high
efficiency catalytic performance.

Steel slag improves the swelling potential of clay soils, both percentage of free swell and swells
pressure decrease almost linearly with increase in steel slag content. Steel slag increases the
engineering properties of clay. The increase in steel slag aggregate content decreases the
plasticity and increase the maximum dry density of the clay soil.

If the research shows that steel is potent enough to improve engineering properties of laterite for
construction of road, then this will provide an alternative method of stabilizing soils, which can
be applied into proper engineering use. It will also have a positive impact on the environment
because steel slag originally is a waste in the environment, but if this research proves that SS is a
good stabilizing agent, the rate at which it is been disposed in the environment would reduce.

3
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Lateritic Soil

Laterite soil is examined for its suitability as a construction material by the consideration of its
mineralogy and basic geotechnical properties as well as its consolidation and permeability in the
compacted state (Ogunsanwo, 1989).

Lateritic soils are those in which there is an immature laterite horizon from which a true laterite
horizon will develop if appropriate conditions prevail long enough (Gidigasu 1974). Laterite is a
soil and rock type rich in iron and aluminium and is commonly considered to have formed in hot
and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red coloration, because of high iron oxide
content. They develop by intensive and prolonged weathering of the underlying parent rock.
Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces
a wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils
(wikipedia).

Lateritic soil layer that is rich in iron oxide and derived from a wide variety of rocks weathering
under strongly oxidizing and leaching conditions. It forms in tropical and subtropical regions
where the climate is humid. Lateritic soils may contain clay minerals; but they tend to be silica-
poor, for silica is leached out by waters passing through the soil. Typical laterite is porous and
claylike. It contains the iron oxide minerals goethite, HFeO2; lepidocrocite, FeO(OH); and
hematite, Fe2O3. It also contains titanium oxides and hydrated oxides of aluminum, the most
common and abundant of which is gibbsite, Al 2O3·3H2O. The aluminum-rich representative of
laterite is bauxite (lortha, 2010).

2.2 Steel Slag

Steel slag (SS) is produced as a by-product of manufacturing of steel. It is produced during the
separation of steel from impurities, and it results from the fusion of limestone flux with ash from
coke and the siliceous and aluminous residue. Steel slag has pozzolanic properties and a high
potency for synthesis of alkaline activated products (Yusuf et al, 2015).

4
Steel slag powder has hydraulic properties, and its hydration process is similar to that of cement
(Sun, and Guo, 2015). Studies have shown that concrete that contains steel slag powder performs
better in terms of workability than plain cement concrete does (Peng, 2010).

2.2.1 Steel Slag Characterization

Steel slag has three characteristics namely:

1. The first characteristic is the gelling activity, the mineral composition of steel slag
silicate, ferroaluminate, aluminate determines the gelling performance of steel slag;
2. The second characteristic is stability. The steel slag contains CaO and MgO, which are
easy to produce volume expansion after hydration, and this is the main factor affecting
the stability of steel slag.
3. The third characteristic is the wear resistance, the wear resistance of steel slag and its
own structure and mineral composition. Experimental studies have shown that after
grinding and screening of steel slag, chemical analysis is carried out on the sieve residue,
and the screened substance is basically iron metal. Therefore, the poor wear resistance of
steel slag is mainly due to the inclusion of metal iron rather than the mineral itself.

2.2.2 Application of Steel Slag

According to the Malaysia Environmental Quality (Scheduled Waste) Regulation (2005), Steel
slag is classified as non-hazardous waste which can be disposed off to appropriate landfills. The
disposal of steel slag requires large landfill area which is rather unfavourable in economical
terms. Therefore, several research and development have been conducted to establish the
potential use of slag in different applications. However, it might have the risk that different
components of slag might elute, especially on the heavy metal. Therefore, it is necessary to
examine this metallurgical waste material in appropriate ways. Typical applications of steel
slagare sealing aggregate (skid resistant), asphalt aggregate, base, sub-base, construction fills,
subsoil drains, grit blasting and waste water treatment. The various applications for steel slag in
2010 are explained below.
5
Cement Productions - In cement and concrete industries, slag can be used either as an aggregate
or binder in stabilized base courses. In order to conserve natural resources and reduce
environmental impact, slags can be used as an aggregate. To diminish the need for cement which
is expensive in cost, slag is replaced and used as a binder. Because of these advantages, many
researchers have examined adding slag content to cement and concreted (Frias et al, 2009).

Addition of slag to cement presents some important technical advantages over ordinary Portland
cements. These benefits can be enumerated as development of mechanical strengths, low
solubility of the hydrates and porosity, lower heat of hydration, excellent durability and stronger
aggregate–matrix interface. However, there are some disadvantages such as high shrinkage,
formation of micro-cracks and rapid setting. Therefore, the combination of various type of slags
(activated, chemical and physical modified) to cement are investigated. For instance, it can boost
the hydration ability of slag cement concretes, improving the mechanical performance of cement,
enhancing the strengths of cement, autogenous deformation on the cracking, microstructure and
durability, resistance.

Road Construction - Industrial by-products such as steel slag can be utilized instead of natural
aggregates in order to prevent depletion of resources. Million tons of sand, till and crushed rocks
were extracted from mines due to roads construction. It is well known that technical, economical
and many environmental benefits are obtained when steel slag has been considered as alternative
construction materials (Suer et al, 2009). Due to prominent properties of steel slag, it is an ideal
aggregate for asphalt surface course materials and road surface treatments. It has been proven
that the use of steel slag in road construction mixtures has more advantage compared to
conventional asphalt. The investigations of the asphalt mix and road surface have shown very
good results in terms of stability, stiffness and durability. The slag asphalt, as expected, provided
good friction values, noise reduction levels, enhances resistance to cracking at low temperatures
with excellent performance in roughness and good resistance against water permeability (Ameri
et al, 2013).

Water And Wastewater Treatment - As slag has good sportive characteristics and is low cost,
it is widely used in wastewater and water treatment, and may be the alternative of using granular
activated carbon. Various researches such as adsorptions of dye, heavy metals and organics were

6
carried out by using steel slag. However, the uptake capacity of slag is dependent on the pH
solution. The hydration of slag composition in the aqueous solutions provides a high pH. The
possible hydration reactions can be occurred with different compositions of slag as followings:

CaO+ H ₂0 →Ca(OH )₂

MgO+ H ₂O → Mg (OH ) ₂

With the high pH condition, the slag surface is neg atively charged and adsorption metal ions
especially cations are preferred. However, heavy metal absorption by using slags can be
conducted with a condition of either high temperature or low pH under certain conditions.
(Yamashita et al,1983). investigated the possible mechanisms of removing dissolved heavy
metals from aqueous waste liquids via the converter furnace slag. (Yamashita et al,1983). They
suggested that the removal can be attributed to one or more of following effects: adsorption,
coprecipitation, hydroxide precipitation as hydroxide, sulphide and ion exchange. Wastewater
from the steel mill contains a high concentration of heavy metals due to the accumulation of
filtered particles from the filtration process of wastewater. A direct release of the backwash
water into the environment may cause serious effects to both land and aquatic lives. Based on the
toxilogical studies, metals are toxic and non-biodegradable and may continue to exist in these
water bodies. Furthermore, the heavy metals also have the tendency to accumulate in the food
chain. Hence, a strict environmental regulation has been established in an effort to mitigate the
heavy metals contamination of the discharge of industrial effluent. Absorption of lead ions by
two different types steel slag was carried out in column-type contact process M.R. (Nilforoushan
et al, 2008).

Phosphorus Removal - Phosphorus (P) from agricultural wastewater is one of the major
pollutants in natural water that cause the algae growth and eutrophication of lakes. Therefore,
Phosphorus is one of the major nutrients that are needed to be removed from domestic
wastewater before being discharged into water bodies. The application of an appropriate
technology to remove the maximum capacity of nutrients is imperative. In order to remove
phosphorus from wastewater, various methods or approaches have been attempted, including
biological, chemical process (precipitation, metal salt addition) and physical (electro-dialysis,
reverse osmosis). Among all the methods, the chemical precipitation is expensive and increasing

7
sludge volume by up to 40%. The biological phosphorus removal needs a lot more volume or
space (anaerobic unit) than the other processes. Various researches on the potential use of
industrial byproducts to remove P from wastewater were studied in the late 1980s. The P
removal is along with the development of constructed wetlands (CW). This method is a low-cost
technology for pollution treatment, which slag performs an important role in absorbing
impurities especially phosphorus. By comparing most industrial by products, steel slag is a low-
cost and abundant material, which its combination with small secondary treatment systems (such
as constructed wetlands) is preferred in compared to the other methods (Drizov et al. 2008).

The slag contains various metal oxides such as iron oxides and alumina that may be effective in
P reduction from domestic, agricultural effluents and municipal (Pratt et al, 2010). Steel Slag is a
light weight porous medium with numerous sites for sorption. Steel slags have different physic-
chemical property due to various feedstock ores, fluxes and manufacturing process. These
differences caused a board range of P sorption capacity by using slag, ranging from 76.4 to 8390
mg/kg. Many experiments have been carried out in laboratory to evaluate the sorption capacity
of slag. These studies have found slag to be a promising substrate for P-removal. (Bankole et al,
2004).

2.3 Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization refers to the procedure in which a special soil, a cementing material, or other

chemical or non-chemical materials are added to a natural soil or a technique use on a natural
soil to improve one or more of its properties. One may achieve stabilization by physically mixing
the natural soil and stabilizing materials together so as to achieve a homogeneous mixture or by
adding stabilizing material to an undisturbed soil deposit and obtaining interaction by letting it
permeate through soil voids (Abood et al, 2007).

Soil stabilization is the process of the alteration of the geotechnical properties to satisfy the
engineering requirements (Attoh-Okine, 1995).

Makusa (2012) opined that Soil stabilization can be accomplished by several methods. All these
methods fall into two broad categories namely: mechanical stabilization and chemical
stabilization.

8
The effectiveness of stabilization depends on the ability to obtain uniformity in blending
the various materials. The method of soil stabilization is determined by the amount of
stabilization required and the conditions encountered on the project. An accurate soil
description and classification is essential for selecting the correct materials and procedures.
Soil stabilization is the treatment of soils in order to rectify its deficiencies in engineering
properties and especially as a road construction material. Some of the important aims of soil
stabilization is the following;
i. Increase in strength and stiffness of the soils
ii. Increase in durability
iii. Enhancement of workability
iv. Reduction of compressibility
v. Reduction of permeability
vi. Reduction in volume instability
vii. Control of dust and protection from erosion.

2.3.1 Methods of Stabilization

Three methods of Stabilization have been identified in Engineering Geology and are equally
relevant to building technology:

1. Mechanical Stabilization: This according to (Lemougna et al, 2011) involves

compacting the soil with the aim of improving its resistance to shearing, compressibility,
permeability and porosity. This altogether leads to changes in density. The processes of
mechanical stabilization are compaction and consolidation.

2. Physical Stabilization: This process acts on soil texture. It is achieved by mixing

different types of soil and introduction of natural or synthetic fibres from cereal plants,
animals and minerals into the soil. Physical stabilization may also utilize other forms of
curing which include; air cure, heat treatment, moisture curing, freezing etc.

9
 3. Chemical Stabilization: This involves acting on the physico-chemical properties of the
soil by the addition of chemicals. This is the most widely used method in compressed
earth bricks as well as in building construction generally.

2.3.2 Advantages of Soil Stabilization

Numerous kinds of stabilizers were used as soil additives to improve its engineering properties.
A number of stabilizers, such as lime, cement and powdered steel slag, depend on their chemical
reactions with the soil elements in the presence of water (Mallela et al, 2004). Other additives,
such as geofiber and geogrid, depend on their physical effects to improve soil properties
(Viswanadham et al., 2009).

Some of the advantages of soil Stabilization are:

1. Cost Effective Solution:  for many roads and mine haul roads, having constant access is
essential to the operation of business.  Many soil stabilization techniques are permanent
and do not need constant application to maintain the road conditions.  With one
application, you can ensure the operation of your business and guard against unnecessary
stoppage which causes setbacks and additional costs.
2. Save on Time: Delays and setbacks can be quite common in major projects. With the
application of a soil stabilizer such as EarthZyme, you can eliminate any unnecessary
stoppages in work caused by rainfall or factors that are beyond your control.
3. Minimal Environmental Footprint: constant traffic, especially on mine sites where haul
trucks carry massive loads on a daily basis, can have negative impact on the
environment.  A soil stabilizer can ensure the roads are not damaged during and after the
project.
4. Saves on Waste: there are soil stabilizers like EarthZyme that are designed to utilize the
soil on site for the road stabilization process.  Specific to EarthZyme, we utilize the clay
content in soils to enable the stabilization process. This eliminates the need to haul in
soils and other materials from off site.
5. Easily transported: EarthZyme is very concentrated, enabling it to be packaged and
shipped in 20-litre totes. Just 1 litre of EarthZyme can treat 33 m3 of compacted soil.
This makes the cost per 1km or mile of road negligible compared to alternative products.

10
 6. Ease of Application: EarthZyme is easily applied using standard construction equipment
and techniques. A construction of an EarthZyme road requires a pulverizing mixer or
grader, water truck, and a steel drum roller or hauls truck. Cypher Environmental prides
ourselves on providing training and detailed technical support to our distributors, which
results in the successful projects.

2.4 Review on Previous Work

Lateritic soils are readily available in tropical countries like Nigeria; and this makes its
utilization as a construction material economically attractive. In the natural state, some lateritic
soils exhibit poor engineering properties such as high plasticity, poor workability, low strength,
high permeability, tendency to retain moisture and high natural moisture content (Maigien,
1964). Consequently, they do not meet existing standard requirements for use in engineering
projects except after modification or stabilization of some of its geotechnical properties.

Portland cement and lime have been used, among other chemical stabilizers, to stabilize soils in
Nigeria (Ola, 1975). Notably, their cost and, sometimes, scarcity necessitates the need to
continually search for alternative ways of achieving acceptable stabilization (Bankole, 2011). In
recent years, researchers in the field of geotechnical engineering (Amu et al, 2011) have turned
their attention to materials (such as bagasse ash, rice husk ash, eggshell, forage ash, and steel
slag) previously regarded as waste, for use as soil stabilizers.

Steel slag is an industrial by-product from the steel-making process, which makes use of either a
basic oxygen furnace (BOF) or an electric arc furnace (EAF). It is produced when molten steel is
densimetrically separated from impurities in steel-making furnaces. Steel is manufactured in a
two-step process. First, iron ore is smelted in a blast furnace producing “pig iron”. Next, steel is
made from pig iron and/or steel scrap in a BOF or EAF (Bosela et al., 2008). About 75 to 150
kilograms of BOF slag is produced per ton of steel whereas about 65 to 80 kilograms of EAF
slag is produced per ton of steel (National Slag Association, 2012). Although these values
depend on the raw material used (Mahieux et al, 2009).

In Nigeria, it is estimated that 0.35 to 0.45 million tons of steel slag is being generated annually,
(Akinwumi, 2012). Utilization of a large proportion, if not all, of this steel slag would conserve

11
natural resources, save valuable landfill space, reduce the cost of its disposal and the effect of
pollution resulting from its disposal in an environmentally-unfriendly manner (open dumping).

The results obtained from this research shows that steel slag can be more profitably used as an
admixture with cement or lime in order to meet the requirement for use as sub-base material.

Akinwunmi (2014) carried out comprehensive research on soil modification with steel slag. The
sample collected for the experiment were collected from the borrow pit of Covenant University
behind the university, Ogun State, Nigeria. The steel slag sample was exposed to the atmospheric
condition for six to twelve months to mitigate the effect of hydration of free calcium and
magnesium oxides contained in steel slag is known to be responsible for its volumetric
instability. From the results obtained, the soil was classified as A-7-6(5) according to the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) soil
classification system and has a natural moisture content of 14.3%, with its plasticity index
greater than 11. The fines are clayey, according to AASHTO system and the engineering
properties of such a soil are mostly influenced by its mineralogy. The activity of the soil was
calculated to be 0.5 and consequently classified as inactive. The optimum moisture content of the
soil decreased as the amount of steel slag in the mixture increased from 0 to 8% before a slight
increase for the 10% slag content. The decrease in optimum moisture content of the soil-slag
mixtures as the steel slag content increased was strongly correlated, r = -0.965. Also, it was
observed that pulverized steel slag was beneficially used to improve the plasticity, uncured
strength and drainage characteristics of the lateritic soil without any adverse swell behaviour
observed.

Magdi and Alaa (2017) in their investigative research on soil stabilization with steel slag on
expansive soil. The steel slag was also subjected to crushing and sieving through sieve no. 4
(4.75mm). The dry soil mixed with each percent of steel slag at five different contents (5%, 10%,
15%, 20% and 30%) then subjected to testing. The laboratory test was conducted to determine
the properties of stabilized and natural soil which include consistency limits, compaction proctor,
free swell and unconfined strength test.

12
From the results obtained, they concluded that the strength of expansive soil can be effectively
improved by addition of Steel Slag. The Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) values
increases with increase in Steel Slag. The UCS values of the soil are increased with higher rate
up to 10 % Steel Slag and then decrease with slower rate. The UCS value at 10% Steel Slag
showed almost 1.5 times improvement as compared to untreated soils.

Oluwasola et al (2020) carried out a comphrensive study on the effect of slag in the engineering
properties of lateritic soil. The dry lateritic soil was mixed with each percent of steel slag at ten
different contents (2%, 4%, 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, 14%, 16%, 18%, 20%) then subjected to testing
in the laboratory. The test was conducted to determine the properties of stabilized and natural
soil which include consistency limits, sieve analysis, compaction, California bearing ratio and
unconfined strength test.
It was then observed when the results are compiled from the laboratory test done that the study
shows that the optimum moisture content (OMC) of lateritic soil sample stabilized with steel slag
decreases as compared to the natural sample. The study also reveals that the increase in steel slag
causes a decrease in consistency properties. This in turn reduces the plasticity index and
shrinkage limit of the soil sample compared to natural soil sample. The result of the California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) shows an increase in the CBR due to increase in the percentage of steel
slag compared to natural soil. The research also shows an increase in the Unconfined
Compressive Strength as the content of steel slag increase. Conclusively, addition of steel slag to
the lateritic soil notably improves its geotechnical properties.

Compared to the previous works done by Akinwunmi (2014), Magdi and Alaa (2017) as well as
oluwasola (2020) as stated above, this research is focused on the investigation effect of steel slag
on the durability properties of lateritic soil. The study is aimed at understanding the index and
strength characteristics of lateritic soil treated with induction furnace slag at varying proportion
(0%, 3%,6%,9%,12%,15% and 20%).

13
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials
Lateritic Soil – The soil sample was collected at a borrow pit in sagamu [ 6° 39' 23" N, 3° 47'
43" E] for use in the admixture evaluation. The material is being used as a very poor subgrade
material in road construction. The material was taken as disturbed samples with the use of shovel
and digger which was taken to the geotechnical laboratory of the school, where it was analyzed.

Steel Slag - The foundry steel slag (FSS) was gotten from Nigeria foundries limited, sango ota,
Ogun State, Nigeria. The foundry steel slag (FSS) was collected in coarse form which was then
taken to a local grinder and turned into powdered form which is best suited in determining the
durability properties of lateritic soil.

3.2 Chemical Composition Test of Foundry Steel Slag and Lateritic Soil
Samples of the steel slag and lateritic soil was analyzed using X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer at
Faculty of science, University of Lagos (UNILAG), Akoka, Lagos State, Nigeria to determine
the chemical composition of these two materials.

3.3 Moisture Content

The natural moisture content of the lateritic soil was determined in accordance with BS 1377
(1990) Part 2; Test 1(A). A weighing container was cleaned and weighed to the nearest 0.01g.
Freshly crumbled sample was loosely placed in the weighed container. The container with
sample was weighed to the nearest 0.01g and placed in an oven and dried for 24 hours. The dried
sample and container were then weighed to the same accuracy. Moisture content was determined
using the equation;

M 2−M 3
w= 3.1
M 3−M 1

14
W - Moisture content (%)

M1 - mass of container (g)

M2 - mass of container + wet soil (g)

M3 - mass of container + dry soil

3.4 Specific Gravity

The determination of specific gravity was carried out according to BS 1377 (1990) test (B) for
fine–grained soils. The density bottle and the stopper were weighed to the nearest 0.01g (m1).
The air-dried soil was transferred into the density bottle, and the bottle, content and the cover
were weighed as m2. Water was then added just enough to cover the soil, the solution is gently
stirred to remove any air bubble. The bottle was then completely filled up and covered. The
covered bottle was then wiped dry and the whole weighed to the nearest 0.01g (as m3). The
bottle was subsequently emptied and filled completely with water, wiped dry and weighed to the
nearest 0.01g (m4). The specific gravity is calculated using eqn.

G M 2−M 1 3.2
S= ¿
¿¿

The procedure was repeated to obtain two values from which the average specific gravity of the
modified BCS and IOT were determined.

3.5 Sieve Analysis

The particle size distribution of the natural soil was determined using both sedimentation
analysis and dry sieving of the coarse fraction as specified by BS 1377 (1990) for cohesive soils.
The soil sample (100 g) was soaked for 24 hours and washed through BS No. 200 sieve. The
materials retained was oven-dried for 24 hours and sieved by agitating it through a range of
sieves from sieves No. 7 or 2.4 mm sieve and downwards. The mixture that passes through sieve
No. 200 was poured into a 1000 ml measuring cylinder then 25 ml of sodium hexametaphosphate

15
(commercial grade) was added and stirred thoroughly, then hydrometer is immerse gently and
readings were taken at intervals stipulated by BS 1377; 1990 Part 2.

3.6 Atterberg Limit

The Atterberg limits test included the determination of liquid limits, plastic limits and plasticity
indices of the natural and modified soil samples. They were also conducted in accordance with
Test 1(A) B S 1377 (1990) Part 2 for the natural soil and BS 1924 (1990) for the stabilized soils.

3.6.1 Liquid limit

Test 1(A) B.S 1377 (1990) describes the procedure for the determination of liquid limit test of a
soil which was adopted for this work. In this test, 200 g of the sample material passing BS No.
40 sieve (425 μm aperture) was placed on a clean glass plate. The soil was thoroughly mixed
with water on this flat glass plate, using palette knife and spatula to form a homogenous paste. A
proportion of the paste was placed in Casagrande apparatus and level parallel to the base of the
chip and divided by drawing the grooving tool through the paste along diameter passing the
centre of the hinge. The crank was turned to lift-drop the cup at the rate of 2 revs per second,
noting the number of blows (falls) that would make the bottom two parts of the groove come
together. . The liquid limit tests were determined at various moisture contents from drier states to
the wetter states. The moisture content was plotted against the respective number of blows on the
semi logarithm paper. The liquid limit was deduced as the moisture content corresponding to 25
blows.

3.6.2 Plastic limit

A portion of the soil/soil–IOT mixes used for the liquid limit test was retained for the
determination of plastic limit. A small portion of the soil sample was put on a flat glass plate and
mixed thoroughly enough to be shaped into a small ball. The ball was then moulded between
fingers and then rolled on the glass plate with palm of hand into thread of about 3mm diameter

16
when the thread crumbles by shearing. The crumbled threads were immediately put in weighing
pan for moisture content determination. The same test was performed for each of the modified
soils.

Having determined the values of the liquid limit and the plastic limit of the soil, plasticity Indices
of the natural and modified soil samples were derived using equation;

PI =¿−PL 3.3

where, PI = Plasticity Index

LL= Liquid Limit

PL= Plasticity Limit

3.7 Compaction
Compaction tests on the soil samples were carried out in accordance with BS 1377 (1990) Part
4:3:3 using the British Standard light (BSL) and British Standard heavy (BSH) energies.as well
as West African Standard (WAS) described in Nigerian General Specifications (1997). For the
BSL, 3 kg of soil sample was thoroughly mixed with 8 % of water (and the water is added at 8 %
for each of the compactions). The wet soil was then placed in 1000 mm³ mould and compacted
in three equal layers; each layer receiving 27 blows of 2.5 kg rammer, falling through a height of
300 mm. At the end of the compaction, extension collar on the mould was removed and the top
of the soil trimmed to level by means of a straight edge. The weight of the mould and the soil
sample were measured. The weight of the mould and base had earlier been measured. The
amount of water content corresponding to maximum dry density of the sample read from the
MDD/moisture content graph.

3.8 Unconfined Compressive Strength

The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests were performed on the soil samples according
to BS 1377; 1990 Part 7 using the British Standard light (BSL) energy levels. The natural air-
dried soil sample/the stabilized soil samples were compacted in 1000 cm3 moulds at their
respective optimum moisture contents using the BSL energy levels described earlier. The

17
predetermined quantities of soil, foundry steel slag and water obtained from moisture-density
relationship were thoroughly mixed. Three samples for various percentages of soil foundry steel
slag mixes were extruded from the moulds and trimmed into a cylindrical specimen of 50 mm
diameter and 100 mm length. Each specimen was cured by sealing in a polythene bag for 7, 14
and 28 days with another set of samples cured for 7days and soaked in water for another 7 day
for durability assessment.

At the elapsed day of curing, the specimens were then placed centrally on the lower platen of a
compression testing machine and a compressive force was applied to the specimen with a strain
control at 0.10 % mm. Record was taken simultaneously of the axial deformation and the axial
force at regular interval until failure of the sample occurred. The UCS of the sample was
determined at the point on the stress–strain curve at which failure occurred. The UCS was
calculated from the following equation:

FAILURE LOAD
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH =
SURFACE AREA OF SPECIMEN
3.4

3.9 California Bearing Ratio

The California bearing ratio (CBR) test was carried out as a measure of strength of the natural
and stabilized soil. The aim of the CBR test was to determine the relationship between force and
penetration. The CBR is expressed by the force exerted by the plunger by the depth of its
penetration into the specimen. The tests were carried out in conformity with the B.S. 1377
(1990), B.S. 1924 (1990) and the Nigerian General Specifications (1997).

For the British Standard light (standard Proctor) compaction, 5 kg of the natural or stabilised soil
sample were mixed at respective optimum moisture content in 2360 cm3 mould, at the three
compactive efforts. The mixture was then compacted in 3 equal layers in the CBR mould, with
62 blows of the 2.5 kg rammer was applied to each layer for BSL. The extension collar was
removed and the top of the compacted sample trimmed carefully and waxed. The specimens
were then transferred to the CBR testing machine. The plunger was then made to penetrate the
specimen at a uniform rate. The dial reading indicating, forces were taken each at 0.25 mm
interval of penetration until the maximum of 7.50 mm was attained or alternatively until failure
18
was reached. The bottom of the specimens was also tested in like manner. The CBR curves were
plotted using the values obtained from the tests. The CBR was calculated at the penetration of
2.50 mm and 5.0 mm as:

MEASURE LOAD
CBR= × 100 % 3.5
STANDARD LOAD

where standard load = 13.24 kN of 2.5 mm penetration

= 19.96 kN of 5.0 mm penetration

However, where the values are within 10 % of each other, the mean value of the two readings
was considered, otherwise the higher value was recorded as the CBR of the specimen.

3.10 Durability Test

The durability assessment (under adverse field conditions) of the soil sample was determined by
resistance to loss in strength when immersed in water. It was expressed as the ratio of UCS of the
specimen cured for 7 days and soaked for another 7 days to the UCS of the specimen cured for
14 days:

UCS (7 days cured +7 days soaked )

RESISTANCE ¿ LOSS ∈STRENGTH ( % )= ×100 % 3.6
UCS (14 days cured)

19
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Natural Soil Characteristics

The graphical representation of the sieve analysis for the lateritic soil shown in Figure 4.1 shows
the percentage passing No. 200 BS sieve is 30.32% for the lateritic soil sample. The results meet
the standard requirement in line with the Nigeria Federal Ministry of Works Specification for the
grain size distribution of particles. The specification under reference states that the percentage
passing No. 200 BS sieve should not be greater than 35%.

The result obtained from the liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index are 41.49%, 16.91%
and 24.58% respectively. The soil sample is classified as an A-2-7(Excellent to good subgrade
material) and SC (Clayey sand or sand-clay mixture) according to AASHTO and USC
classification. In the AASHTO classification of the A-2 groups, the maximum value for value
material passing through the No. 200 BS sieve is 35%. The earliest result (30.32% of the
material passing through No BS sieve) is in line with the AASHTO classification, under the
classification, the minimum liquid limit value for A-2-7 group is 41%, the earlier result obtained
for liquid limit is 41.49% which also meets the standard requirement of the specification. Under
the classification, the plasticity index is expected to have a minimum value of 11%, The result
obtained for plastic index is 24,58% which is in line with the specification standard. From the
analysis, the soil sample was classified as an A-2-7 group according to AASHTO classification.

From the classification, the sample is a good subgrade material but it needs to be improved
before it can be used as a subbase and base material for highway pavement. This soil can be
improved with specified admixtures.

20
 100
90

Cummulative percentage passing (%)

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Sieve size (mm)

Fig 4.1: Grain particle size of the lateritic soil

Table 4.1: Properties of the Natural Soil

S/N Properties Results

1. Colour Reddish brown
2. Percentage Passing Sieve No. 200 30.32
3. Liquid Limit (%) 41.49
4. Plastic Limit (%) 16.91
5. Plasticity Index (%) 24.58
6. Specific Gravity of soil 2.55
7. AASHTO Classification A-2-7
8. USC Classification SC
9. Maximum Dry Density 1.816
10. Optimum Moisture Content 15.35
11. Initial Moisture Content 7.541
12. California Bearing Ratio (%) (Soaked) 7.23
13. California Bearing Ratio (%) (Unsoaked) 11.45
14. Unconfined Compressive Strength (kN/m²) 39.92

21
4.2 Chemical Composition Test of Foundry Steel Slag and Lateritic Soil
The samples of the steel slag and lateritic soil was analyzed using X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer
at Faculty of science, University of Lagos (UNILAG), Akoka, Lagos State, Nigeria to determine
the chemical composition of these two materials.

The chemical composition results of these two materials is shown in table 4.2 below:

Table 4.2: Chemical Composition of Lateritic Soil and Steel Slag

Oxide composition Lateritic soil (%) Foundry Steel Slag (%)

SiO2 15.87 44.57

Al2O3 39.56 11.10

Fe2O3 20.08 22.97

CaO 9.15 5.52

MgO 11.20 1.62

MnO 0.03 9.65

SO3 0.001 0.33

Na2O 0.12 0.44

K2O 0.23 0.30

P2O5 0.001 0.08

L.O.I 0.03 9.97

22
4.3 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on Particle Size Analysis
The figure 4.2 below shows the graphical representation of the sieve analysis for the lateritic soil
stabilized with foundry steel slag at different proportions of the slag (0%,3%,6%,9%,12%,15%
and 20%).

According to the result obtained, the percentage passing through sieve No. 200 from 0% to 20%
are 30.32% and 25.2% respectively which shows that as the slag is been added, the lateritic soil
and foundry steel slag mixture becomes finer.

100

90
Cummulative percentage passing (%)

80

70

60 0%
3%
50
6%
40 9%
12%
30 15%
20%
20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve size (mm)

Fig 4.2: Effect of the addition of foundry steel slag on sieve analysis of samples

4.4 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of the soil is defined as the ratio of the weight of the soil to the rate of equal
volume of water. The specific gravity for the lateritic soil sample is 2.55 and for the foundry
steel slag is 2.81.

23
4.5 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on Atterberg Limit Test
The Figure 4.3 below shows the graphical representation of the Liquid limit for the different
percentages of which FSS is been added to the lateritic soil. At 0% which is the highest L.L in
the graph below, it was 41.49%.

However, FSS was added in percentages, there was a decrease from 0% up to 12% of steel slag
added to the lateritic soil. At 0%, the liquid limit was 41.49% and at 12% it was 32.78%. it was
then observed that at 15% and 20% of the addition of steel slag to lateritic soil, there was a slight
increase in the liquid limit of the lateritic soil and foundry steel slag mixture.

The figure 4.3 below also shows the graphical representation of the plastic limit for the different
percentages of foundry steel slag added to the lateritic soil and it decreases from 0% to 12%
(16.91% & 15.63% respectively). However, there was a slight increase in the plastic limit of the
lateritic soil and foundry steel slag mixture at 15% and 20%.

The figure 4.3 below shows the graphical representation of the plasticity index for the different
percentages of foundry steel slag added to the lateritic soil and it decreases from 0% to 12%
(24.58% & 17.15% respectively). However, there was a slight increase in the plastic limit of the
lateritic soil and foundry steel slag mixture at 15% and 20%.

The decrease in the consistency limit with the increase in the steel slag content is due to the size
of particle in the mixture (steel slag is well graded) leading to the reduction in the amount of clay
size in the soil particles (Akinwumi, 2014). Having study the result, the effective point of steel
slag on the treated lateritic soil ranges from 0% to 12% of the steel slag additive.

45
40
35
Consistency Limit (%)

30
25
20 L.L
15 P.L
10 P.I
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Steel Slag (%)

Fig 4.3: Effect of the addition of foundry steel slag on Atterberg limit of sample

24
4.6 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag Compaction Test
The method of re-arranging soil particles in the laboratory by dynamic compaction which is
subjected to British Standard Light (BSL). The compaction characteristics are Optimum
Moisture Content (OMC) and Maximum Dry Density (MDD). The OMC ranged 15.35% at 0%
of foundry steel slag added to 12.76% of foundry steel slag added for BSL. In furtherance, the
MDD also ranged 1.816 Mg/m3 at 0% of foundry steel slag added to 1.943 Mg/m 3 of foundry
steel slag added.

The figure 4.4 below shows that the OMC decreases from 0% to 20% with the addition of
foundry steel slag to the lateritic soil at different percentages, this maybe as a result of the
hydration of lime content of the steel slag. This has led to the reduction of OMC of the treated
sample with increase in foundry steel slag content.

The figure 4.5 below shows the maximum dry density (MDD) increases from 0% to 20% with
the addition of foundry steel slag to the lateritic soil at different percentages. This shows that the
increase in MDD of treated soil sample occurred since steel slag (2.81) have a higher specific
gravity compared to the specific gravity of lateritic soil (2.55).

The graphical representation for the Optimum Moisture Content and Maximum Dry Density are
presented below respectively.

18
Optimum moisture content (%)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
percentages of steel slag(%)

Fig 4.4: Effect of the addition of foundry steel slag on optimum moisture content of samples

25
 2

Maximum dry density (mg/m³)

1.95

1.9

1.85

1.8

1.75
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Percentages of steel slag (%)

Fig 4.5: Effect of the addition of foundry steel slag on maximum dry density content of
samples

4.7 Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on California Bearing Ratio

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is a penetration test for evaluating the strength of subgrade,
base and sub base for road construction. The test was carried out on compacted untreated and
treated soil specimen both in unsoaked condition and in soaked condition in water and the results
obtained are compared with those of a standard material and expressed in percentages.

The figure 4.6 below shows the graphical representation of CBR test of soaked and unsoaked
conditions for the lateritic soil and the treated sample for 0% up to 20%. It was observed that
with the increase in percentages of foundry steel slag, the CBR values increases this is due to the
increase in Maximum Dry Density and reduction in Optimum Moisture Content (Shreyas,2017;
Yi et al., 2012). However, the values for the CBR unsoaked is greater than the soaked value and
this may be as a result of the shear strength of the dry soil is higher than that of a saturated soil
(water doesn’t have shear strength for engineering purposes). CBR is mostly related to
mechanical strength.

26
 40

35

30

25
CBR Values
20
unsoaked
15 soaked
10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Percentages of steel slag

Fig 4.6: Effect of foundry steel slag on the CBR of the soil

4.8 The Effect of Foundry Steel Slag on Unconfined Compressive Strength

The unconfined compressive strength (qu) is the load per unit area at which the cylindrical
specimen of a cohesive soil fails in compression.

The figure 4.7 below shows the variation in the unconfined compressive strength with steel slag
content is shown in Table 2. It is observed that the unconfined compressive strength increased
with increasing steel slag content till it reaches 20% of the additive. The increase in unconfined
compressive strength is due to increase in maximum dry density and reduction of optimum
moisture content. This is in agreement with (Mortz and Geiseder 2001; Oluwasolaet al., 2018)
who says the increase in the strength was explained by carbonate hardening due to fine oxides of
calcium that present in the slag material.

27
 90

80

70

60
UCS value (kN/m²)
50

40 7 days
14 days
30 28days
20

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
percentage of foundry steel slag (%)

Fig 4.7: Effect of foundry steel slag on the UCS of the soil

4.9 Durability test

The figure 4.8 below shows the graphical representation of the variation of resistance to loss in
strength of the lateritic soil with foundry steel slag content for BSL compaction. It was observed
that with an increase in the percentage of steel slag added to the lateritic soil, the durability of the
sample is also increasing this shows that there is a relationship between the resistance to loss in
strength and durability.

1.55
Resistance to loss in strength (%)

1.5

1.45

1.4

1.35

1.3

1.25
0 5 10 15 20 25
Percentage o f steel slag (%)

Figure 4.8: The effect of foundry steel slag on the durability of the soil sample

28
In order to simulate the worst condition that could occur in the field, durability was evaluated by
the immersion of specimens in water to determine resistance to loss in strength which is more
acceptable for tropical regions like Nigeria (Ola, 1974). The resistance to loss in strength was
determined as the ratio of the unconfined compressive strength of specimen cured for 7 days, and
later immersed in water for 7 days, to those cured for 14 days. Conventionally, an allowable 20%
loss in strength is recommended for a specimen cured for 7 days and immersed in water for 7
days (Ola, 1974; Osinubi, 1998a; 1999).

29
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
Based on the results of this research, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. The lateritic soil (Reddish brown) used is an A-2-7 soil (good subgrade material) and SC
(Clayey sand) according to AASHTO and USC classification
2. The chemical composition of the lateritic soil contains aluminum oxide which has the
highest constituent in the soil, it also contains silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, iron,
magnesium oxide, manganese oxide etc. The steel slag also contains these constituents
but the (Cao) present in it also helps in the hydration of lime content, therefore it leads to
the decrease in OMC.
3. The liquid limit and plastic limit of the lateritic soil stabilized with foundry steel slag at
different percentages was noted that with the increase in FSS percentages, the liquid limit
and plastic limit decreases. The slag is said to have reduce the liquid limit and plasticity
of the soil. The slag additive proved very effective as it reduces the plasticity index of the
soil.
4. Stabilizing lateritic soil with steel slag notably improved its geotechnical properties,
causing a decrease in optimum moisture content of the soil which is advantageous in
decreasing quantity of water required for compaction, the decrease in OMC is due to the
hydration of the lime content present in steel slag. The study also shows that the
maximum dry density keeps increasing as foundry steel slag is added to the lateritic soil
at different percentages, this could be due to the higher specific gravity of the steel slag
compared to the lateritic soil.
5. Mixing of steel slag with the soil sample is also found to improve its CBR and the
unconfined compressive strength with increase in steel slag content, this is due to
increase in MDD and decrease in OMC which resulted from the higher specific gravity
and hydration of lime content present in the steel slag.
6. The durability properties of the lateritic soil increased with the increase of the foundry
steel slag. The slag is said to have improve the toughness/durability of the soil.

30
5.2 Recommendation
According to the result obtained from this research, it is understood that steel slag can be used as
a soil modifier for use in subgrade since it proved effective in the treated soil sample and weak
soil can be effectively stabilized with steel slag to check its behavior and increase it strength.

31
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 APPENDICIES

APPENDIX 1 – Atterberg Limit result

Steel L.L P.L

Slag (%) (%) (%) P.I (%)
0 41.49 16.91 24.58
3 38.94 16.26 22.68
6 36.67 15.79 20.88
9 34.32 14.52 19.8
12 32.78 15.63 17.15
15 36.79 17.41 19.38
20 39.26 19.85 19.41

APPENDIX 2: Compaction test result

Steel M.D.D
Slag O.M.C (Mg/m3
(%) (%) )
0 15.35 1.816
3 14.84 1.825
6 14.71 1.845
9 14.31 1.87
12 13.8 1.897
15 13.04 1.91
20 12.76 1.943

APPENDIX 3: California Bearing Ratio Result

Steel Slag
Unsoaked (%)
(%) Soaked (%)
0 7.23 11.45
3 12.31 18.3
6 17.57 21.11
9 21.73 25.78
12 23.82 27.02
15 26.45 28.72
20 29.32 33.81

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APPENDIX 4: UCS results

Slag
(%) 7 days (kN/m²) 14 days (kN/m²) 28 days (kN/m²)
0 39.92 45.817 53.213
3 40.837 49.702 56.112
6 43.738 53.571 61.5
9 43.738 56.408 65.737
12 45.635 58.387 70.577
15 48.49 61.356 75.21
20 55.091 65.185 81.975

APPENDIX 5: Durability results

Slag Resistance loss in

(%) strength (%)
0 1.341
3 1.344
6 1.374
9 1.374
12 1.409
15 1.468
20 1.512

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APPENDIX 6: Pictures

Performing Atterberg Test Testing the CBR Sample

Packing the steel slag at ogun state Testing the UCS Sample

36
Compacting The CBR Sample

37