DIGITAL NOTES

IN GENERAL

CHEMISTRY
Angelica Kayte P. Montalbo
12-STEM 2A
 Laws of
Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Third Law of Thermodynamics

 First Law of
Thermodynamics

The first law of

thermodynamics is a
Energy can neither

statement of the law of

created nor

conservation of energy destroyed. In other

words, the energy

of the universe is

The excess has

constant
been given off

Heat is a form of energy, and

(energy) as
as what all other forms of

thermal energy, or
energy is subject to, it

heat, which is
follows the law of

conservation of energy
kinetic
energy transferred
Heat energy also cannot be

created nor destroyed and

to the

can only be transferred to

surroundings one place to another

 Second Law of
Thermodynamics

Clasius
Kelvin-Planck
Statement
Statement
It is impossible for any

system in such a way that

It is impossible for any

sole result would be and

system to operate in a

energy transfer by heat

thermodynamic cycle and

from a cooler to a hoter

deliver a net amount of

body energy by work to its

surrounding while receiving

energy by heat transfer from

"High to Low" a single reservoir

For any process a

natural flow will

Entropy
always be from

higher energy value

to lower energy
It is impossible for

value
any system to

operate in a way

"Perfect is impossible"
For every real world process

that entropy is

there will always be losses destroyed

 Third Law of
Thermodynamics

As temperature

the substance with the lowest

decreases the
possible
internal energy
entropy level is a perfect

crystal
decreases at zero Kelvin. The entropy

level of this
substance at this temperature

is zero.

"When a pure crystal is

cooled approaching

absolute zero, it

becomes highly

organized/ entropy

approaches to zero."
 TROPY
N The driving force for a spontaneous process is an

E
increase in the entropy of the universe

ree E ne
F r gy
The term "free energy"
can be understood as

comes from the fact that

a function
the usable energy

released from a reaction

that deals with the
defined by the

can spontaneity of a
enthalpy of the
be acquired for nothing

if it is spontaneous; the
reaction reaction minus the

energy from a spontaneous

based on temperature quantity of the

reaction is free.
temperature in
kelvin multiplied by

the
entropy

ONTAN EI
SP TY
maybe fast or slow

process

determined by comparing the

chemical potential energy of the system before Thermodynamics

the reaction with the free energy of the system

predicts whether a

after the reaction If the system after the rxn has

process will
less potential energy than before the rxn, the rxn
proceed under the

is thermodynamically favorable.
given conditions

-the condition of being spontaneous;

spontaneous behavior or action.
 Acid and

Base
CID
-The word acid comes from a Latin word ‘acere’ which
Acids are

means ‘sour’. known to

turn blue
An acid is any hydrogen-containing substance that is
litmus

capable of donating a proton (hydrogen ion) to another

red.
substance.
An acid is basically a molecule which can donate an H+

ion and can remain energetically favourable after a

loss of H+.

BAS E
A base is a molecule or ion able toaccept a

hydrogen ion from an acid.

Bases

are A base that can be dissolved in water is

known to

referred to as an alkali. When these

turn red

litmus

substances chemically
blue. react with acids, they yield salts.
 IESO F E
ERT A C S
P I D AN D B A
RO
P

-Acids are corrosive in nature.

-They are good conductors of electricity.
-Their pH values are always less than 7.
-When reacted with metals, these substances

produce hydrogen gas.

-Acids are sour-tastingsubstances.

-They are found to have a soapy texture when

touched.
-In their aqueous solutions, bases act as good

conductors of electricity.
-The pH values corresponding to bases are

always greater than 7.

-Bases are bitter-tasting substances which

have the ability to turn red litmus paper blue.

The concept of pH

plays an important
role in the body.

The pH of human

blood is about

7.35

BUFFERS
If by reason of illness the pH of the
blood falls below 7 or rises above
7.8, the hemoglobin of the red

blood
cells loses its ability to transport
oxygen to the tissues, and death
usually follows.
 S o l u t i o n
e r
f f
u
BIt is one that contains a weak acid and its

conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate

acid. It has the remarkable property of

maintaining an almost constant pH

even though a
strong acid or base is
added to the
solution.

Neutral
iza
ti
The reactions between an acid and a base
on
to form a neutral solution. To produce a

neutral solution, the acid and the base

should have comparable strengths.

Equivalence point- a reaction, the point where the

acid or base has been added in an

amount equivalent to the other.
 Acidic Buffer
-A weak acid together with a

salt of the same acid with a

strong base.
-When the pH of the blood is

lower than 7.35, the condition is

known as acidosis. This can

occur when a patient

a. has untreated diabetes

mellitus;
b. undergoes fasting,

starvation, or has a low

carbohydrates diet
c. underbreathes.
 Basic Buffer
-A weak base and its salt

with a strong acid.

-When the blood pH is higher than 7.45,

the person is said to suffer from

alkalosis. It is not as common as

acidosis. Alkalosis can result from

a. prolonged vomiting where a person

loses a large amount of gastric juice;

b. excessive use of antacid

preparations;
c. over breathing which can be due to a

disorder in the central nervous system,

neurotic disorder, or
high altitude.
 ox Reacti
ed on
ROxidation and Reduction
of Oxygen:
ms
Oxidation:
r
In te

Gain of oxygen in a species

Reduction:
Loss of oxygen in a species

In terms of H
yd
Oxidation:

rog
Loss of hydrogen in a species

en:
Reduction:
Gain of hydrogen in a species

f Eletrons:
s o
Oxidation:
m
In ter

Loss of electrons in a species

Reduction:
Gain of electrons in a species
 Oxidizing
Reducing

Agent Agent
-chemical species
-is a chemical species

that causes the other

that causes the other

reactant in a redox
reactant in a redox

reaction to be
reaction to be

oxidized, and it is
reduced, and it is

always reduced in the

always oxidized in the

process. process.
-substance that takes
-substance that

electron in a redox
donates electron in a

reaction. redox reaction.

idation is: Reduction is:

Ox
-the loss of electron -the gain of electron
-an increase in oxidation
-an decrease in oxidation

state state
-the addition of oxygen -the loss of oxygen
-the loss of hydrogen -the laddition of hydrogen
Oxidation Number:
-is a positive or negative number assigned to an

atom to indicate its degree of oxidation or

reduction.

General Rule:
A bound atom's oxidation

number is the charge that

it would have if the

electrons in the bond were

assigned to the atom of

the more electronegative

element.