Critical Midterm + Final

Chapter 1: Foundations of Arguments
This chapter will cover
• The structure of an argument

• The three parts of an argument:
• Issues
• Conclusions
• Reasons
• An approach to making decisions
Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Foundations of Arguments
Metaphors for Argument
• Your claims are indefensible.
• I demolished her argument.

• Critical thinkers use the word “argument” to
refer to a “group of statements, one or more of
which, the reason, support or provide evidence
for another, the conclusion”
• An argument aims at demonstrating the truth or

falsity of a particular claim by presenting
evidence (reasons)
• If a person has a conclusion but offers no
reasons to explain how he has arrived at such
a conclusion, then he has made only a
statement, not an argument
‘Argument’
• Referring to a conclusion (claim);
• Supported by reasons(evidences/justifications);
• About a particular issue (question or

controversy)

The Issue
What we are arguing about
Make it a question:
• Should the attendance be enforced?
• Should energy drinks be regulated?
• Should smoking be banned in public
places?

Riddle
When is an issue not an issue?
When it is a Topic
• Topics are ideas or subjects

• Topics become issues when a
question or controversy is introduced.

Issues
Should cell
Do cell phones phones be
have too many allowed at
applications? school?
Cell
Phones
Are cell phones Can cell phones
a danger to our detract from
health? Should cell our safety?
phones be
allowed in the
classrooms
The Issue
Topic
Issue(question).
Reasons(support/evidence)
Conclusion/claim

The Issue
Issue detection:
• Ask a question or
• Use the following statement:
The issue is whether……there is
too much violence on tv.

Skill
Understand the issue, make sure everyone is
discussing the same issue, and bring the
discussion back on target when necessary.

Kinds of issues
3 Kinds
value issue - prescriptive
factual issue - descriptive or definitional
policy issue - action

Factual Issue
Descriptive:
Definition
Is it true or false?
Does it fit into a certain
Are speed control category?
devices effective in
preventing accidents? Is a cyber addiction a
disease?

Value Issue
Prescriptive value
good or bad right or wrong
• Is there too much • Are salaries of executives

violence on television? of major corporations too
high?

Policy Issue
Action
Policy Issues involve an
action step:
May emerge from facts and values
• Speed –control devices prevent accidents

•Support policies for these devices.

Name that issue
Quiz
Is there too much violence on television?
•
Are seatbelts effective in preventing injury?

•
Is a dolphin a mammal?
•
Will installing smog control devices prevent pollution?

Conclusion
Also called position, claim
• The stand you take on the issue.

• The position taken about an issue.
• The thesis statement will express the
conclusion of the author.

Conclusion
Locate conclusions in an argument:
1. Position of the writer or speaker

2. Look at beginning or ending.
3. Indicator words: therefore, so, thus, hence.
4. Indicator phrases: My point is, What I believe is..,
obviously, it is evident that.
5. Ask: What is being claimed?
6. Look at the title.
Reasons
Premises, evidence, support, justification
• Provide support for conclusions.

• Without reasons, you have no
argument.

Reasons
Locate reasons in an argument:
1. Apply the because trick.
2. Indicator words - Because, for, first, second, third, as

evidenced by, also, furthermore, in addition.
3. Support material - Examples, statistics, analogies,
reports of studies, and expert testimony

Remember
An Opinion is an Unsupported
Claim; An Argument is a
Supported Claim

Chapter 1: Foundations of Arguments
Checkup
• Difference between topic and issue

• Three parts of an argument
• How to locate reasons and conclusions

Chapter 2: Values and Ethics
• Value assumptions
• Conflicts between value assumptions
• Value priorities
• Ideal values versus real values
• Ethics in argumentation
• Ethical decision making
Values and Ethics
Assumptions
• Unstated (and often unconscious)

beliefs

Value Assumptions and Conflicts
Values
• Beliefs, ideals, or principles that are

considered worthy and held in high
regard.
• Truth
• Loyalty
• Freedom

Values Assumptions
Value assumptions:
Reality assumptions:
Beliefs about how the
world should be
Beliefs about how the
• What is more important world is
• Form the foundation of an Chapter 3

argument.

Value Assumptions and Conflicts
Value Conflict
• When two competing values cannot be

held to the same degree in a given
argument or situation:

Skill
Understand that different values form the basis
of many arguments and that conflicts are often
based on differing value priorities.

Value Conflicts
Issue: Conclusion:
When my roommate asks how she I’ll tell her its ugly and that she
looks in her new outfit, should I tell should never buy her own clothes
her that she has hideous taste in because she couldn’t dress a
clothes? scarecrow!
Reason:
She expects and deserves an honest answer.
Value Assumption?
Honesty

Ethics- A Dimension of Values
Ethics
• Standards of conduct that reflecting what we

consider to be right or wrong

Ethics- A Dimension of Values
Morals
• Principles that distinguish right from wrong

behavior

Example
• Should you take a job • If you arrive home
that pays more but and notice that a
has evening hours, cashier at a store
which you value for gave you too much
studying, or should change, should you
you take a job that go back to the store
pays less but gives and return the
you the hours that money?
you want? • → Reflects ethical
• → Reflects what you principles
value more Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Ethics
Why we have disagreements
• We hold many values in common,

but to different degrees…

Ethics
Some Common Ethics
• Libertarianism: promote individual liberty

• Utilitarianism: promote the greatest general
happiness/minimize unhappiness
• Egalitarianism: promote equality for all
• Religious: promote faith spirituality
• Prima facie values: universal ethical principles

Ideal Values and Real Values
Ideal Values
• Held by an individual in a
theoretical sense

Ideal Values and Real Values
Real Values
• Theoretical and practiced

Ethics
U.S. Declaration of Independence
"We hold these truths to be self - evident, that all [men] are
created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator
with certain unalienable rights*, that among these are
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."
* Natural (life and liberty) vs legal

Ethics in Argumentation
• Honesty in conclusions
• Do not omit or distort
• Thoroughly research claims made
• Listen respectfully to opposing viewpoints
• Be willing to revise position
• Credit secondary sources

Ethical Decision Making
How do we know what our

principles and standards are?
• Role Exchange Test

• The Universal Consequences Test
• The New Cases Test
• The Higher Principles Test

Common Rationalizations
Ethics in action
• If It’s Necessary, It’s Ethical

The False Necessity Trap
• If It’s Legal and Permissible, It’s Ethical
• I Was Just Doing It For You

Common Rationalizations
Ethics in action
• I’m Just Fighting Fire With Fire

• It Doesn’t Hurt Anyone, & Everyone’s Doing It
• It’s O.K. If I Don’t Gain Personally
• I’ve Got It Coming (I Deserve It)
• I can still be objective

Toulmin’s Model
A Method for Discovering Assumptions
Claims
Reasons
Warrants

Toulmin’s Model:
Claim
• A statement of an individual’s belief

or stand upon an issue

Toulmin’s Model
Warrant
• The unstated but necessary link

between reasons and claims

Toulmin’s Model
Claim:
We will have to Reason:
leave at 5 a.m. We will be
because
to make our driving in rush
flight hour traffic.
Warrant: ?
Rush hour traffic moves more slowly

than other traffic

Chapter 2: Values and Ethics
Checkup
• What are value conflicts

• Name some ethics to use in an argument
• Difference between ideal and real values
• What are some common rationalizations

Chapter 6 Reasoning Errors
• Fallacies (errors in reasoning)

• Fallacies that lead listeners away from the real issue
• Useful approaches for handling fallacies

Reasoning Errors
Fallacies - 2 kinds
• Inadequate Reasons
• Fallacies that Mislead

Fallacies
Inadequate Reasoning
• Sounds good
• Sounds logical
• However, does not provide adequate support
• Form but no substance

Inadequate Reasons
Faulty Analogies
• Significant differences between compared

items.
– Compare a product to an experience
– Compare current experience to past
– Advice for them will work for you
Inadequate Reasons
False Cause – Post Hoc
• Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: “After this,

therefore because of this
– First event causes second event without reason
– Superstitious reasoning
– Blame game
Inadequate Reasons
The Slippery Slope
• Consequences of potential action

predicted but not supported
– The domino effect
– Prediction based on speculation

Inadequate Reasons
The Straw Man
• Opponent’s argument distorted or

exaggerated and then easily attacked.
– Position argument at extreme

Inadequate Reasons
Hasty Conclusion
• Generalize with little information
– Jumping to conclusions
– Rushing to judgment
– Self-fulfilling prophecy

Inadequate Reasons
The False Dilemma
• Presenting only two extreme alternatives

– No possibilities in between
– Leads to simplistic solutions

Inadequate Reasons
Begging the Question
• Speaker assumes what needs to be proven

– Places the burden of proof on the listener
– Builds on an unproven assumption
– Uses a ‘loaded question’

Skill
Recognize when reasons given to justify a
conclusion are not sufficient.

Fallacies
Fallacies that mislead
• Reasons that lead the listener away

from the primary issue.

Fallacies That Mislead
The Red Herring
• Distract your attention

• Put on the defensive with another issue.
– Get that stick out of here
• It’s not a stick. It’s a laser beam

Ad Hominem: Attacking the person
• Attack personal qualities instead of the

issue
– Thomas Jefferson called “anti-American”
– John Adams was accused of being a ‘fool’
– Used to discredit someone

Two Wrongs Make a Right
• One person's/group's action is justified

because some other person's/group's
action is just as bad or worse .
• Making excuses for our wrongful actions by
pointing out the wrongful actions of others.

Ad Populum:
• Jumping on the bandwagon

• If everyone is doing it, then it is okay
– Keeping up with the Jones
– The in-crowd
– Why we buy products

Appeal to Traditions
• Conform to tradition
• “We’ve always done it this way”
• Reasons are not relevant to the claim
– All the men in our family have been lawyers

Appeal to Pity
• Follow a course of action due to compassion

• May be true but is irrelevant to the claim
– You should go out with me or I will be upset

Equivocation
• The same word

- two different meanings

Chapter 6 Reasoning Errors
Checkup
• Fallacies that mislead versus fallacies with

insufficient support
• What makes an analogy faulty?

Ch-6
Reasoning Errors/
1-Fallacies - 2 kinds:
- Inadequate Reasons:
•Sounds good
•Sounds logical
•However, does not provide adequate support
•Form but no substance
- Fallacies that Mislead:
2- Faulty Analogies: Significant differences between compared items.
–Compare a product to an experience

–Compare current experience to past
–Advice for them will work for you
3- False Cause – Post Hoc: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: “After this, therefore
because of this:
– First event causes second event without reason

– Superstitious reasoning
– Blame game
4- The Slippery Slope: Consequences of potential action predicted but not

supported
– The domino effect
– Prediction based on speculation
5- The Straw Man: Opponent’s argument distorted or exaggerated and then

easily attacked.
– Position argument at extreme
6- Hasty Conclusion: Generalize with little information .

– Jumping to conclusions
– Rushing to judgment
– Self-fulfilling prophecy
7- The False Dilemma: Presenting only two extreme alternatives
–No possibilities in between

–Leads to simplistic solutions
8- Begging the Question: Speaker assumes what needs to be proven.
– Places the burden of proof on the listener

– Builds on an unproven assumption
– Uses a ‘loaded question’
9- Fallacies that mislead:Reasons that lead the listener away from

the primary issue.
10- The Red Herring: Distract your attention

• Put on the defensive with another issue.
• Get that stick out of here

• It’s not a stick. It’s a laser beam
11- Ad Hominem: Attacking the person: Attack personal qualities

instead of the issue
– Thomas Jefferson called “anti-American”
– John Adams was accused of being a ‘fool’
– Used to discredit someone
12- Ad Populum: Jumping on the bandwagon,If everyone is doing it, then it

is okay.
– Keeping up with the Jones
– The in-crowd
– Why we buy products
13- Appeal to Traditions:

• Conform to tradition
• “We’ve always done it this way”
• Reasons are not relevant to the claim
– All the men in our family have been lawyers

14- Appeal to Pity: Follow a course of action due to compassion
• May be true but is irrelevant to the claim
• You should go out with me or I will be upset
15- Equivocation:
• The same word

• two different meanings

Ch-1
1-Metaphors for Argument:

1-Your claims are indefensible.
2- I demolished her argument.
2- Critical thinkers use the word “argument” to refer to a “group of

statements, one or more of which, the reason, support or provide
evidence for another, the conclusion”
3-An argument aims at demonstrating the truth or falsity of a particular

claim by presenting evidence (reasons)
4-If a person has a conclusion but offers no reasons to explain how he

has arrived at such a conclusion, then he has made only a statement,
not an argument
5- Argument’:
Referring to a conclusion (claim)
Supported by reasons(evidences/justifications)
About a particular issue (question or controversy)
6- What we are arguing about?

Should the attendance be enforced?
Should energy drinks be regulated?
Should smoking be banned in public places?
7- Riddle:When it is a Topic:
Topics are ideas or subjects

Topics become issues when a question or controversy is introduced.
8- Topic—Issue(question)— Reasons(support/evidence)—Conclusion/claim
9- 3 Kinds of issues:
value issue - prescriptive
good or bad and right or wrong
factual issue - descriptive or definitional
- Descriptive: Is it true or false?
- Definition: Does it fit into a certain category?

policy issue - action
May emerge from facts and values/ Speed & Support
10- LOCATE CONCLUSIONS IN AN ARGUMENT:

• Position of the writer or speaker
• Look at beginning or ending.
• Indicator words: therefore, so, thus, hence.
• Indicator phrases: My point is, What I believe is..,
obviously, it is evident that.
• Ask: What is being claimed?
• Look at the title.
11- Premises, evidence, support, justification: Provide support for

conclusions.
12- Without reasons, you have no argument:
Indicator words - Because, for, first, second, third, as evidenced by, also,
furthermore, in addition.
Support material - Examples, statistics, analogies, reports of studies, and

expert testimony
OPINION IS AN UNSUPPORTED CLAIM
ARGUMENT IS A SUPPORTED CLAIM

 
Ch-2
1- Assumptions: Unstated (and often unconscious) beliefs.
2- Values: Beliefs, ideals, or principles that are considered worthy and held in high regard.
• Truth
• Loyalty
• Freedom
3-Value assumptions: Beliefs about how the world should be:
• What is more important

• Form the foundation of an
argument.
4-Reality assumptions: Beliefs about how the world is.
5- Value Conflict: When two competing values cannot be held to the same
degree in a given argument or situation
Ex/Should you take a job that pays more but has evening hours, which you value for studying, or
should you take a job that pays less but gives you the hours that you want?
6- Ethics: Standards of conduct that reflecting what we consider to be right

or wrong.
ex/ If you arrive home and notice that a cashier at a store gave you too
much change, should you go back to the store and return the money?
Common ethics:
• Libertarianism: promote individual liberty
• Utilitarianism: promote the greatest general happiness/minimize unhappiness
• Egalitarianism: promote equality for all
• Religious: promote faith spirituality
• Prima facie values: universal ethical principles
7- Morals: Principles that distinguish right from wrong behavior.
8- Ideal values:Held by an individual in a theoretical sense

9- real values:Theoretical and practiced
10- ethics in argumentation:

• Honesty in conclusions
• Do not omit or distort
• Thoroughly research claims made
• Listen respectfully to opposing viewpoints
• Be willing to revise position
• Credit secondary sources
11-Ethical Decision Making:

• Role Exchange Test
• The Universal Consequences Test
• The New Cases Test
• The Higher Principles Test
12- Ethics in action:
• I’m Just Fighting Fire With Fire

• It Doesn’t Hurt Anyone, & Everyone’s Doing It
• It’s O.K. If I Don’t Gain Personally
• I’ve Got It Coming (I Deserve It)
• I can still be objective
13- Toulmin’s Model : A Method for Discovering Assumptions:

Claims: A statement of an individual’s belief or stand upon an issue
ex/ We will have to leave at 5 a.m. to make our flight
Reasons:ex/ We will be driving in rush hour traffic.
Warrants: The unstated but necessary link between reasons and
claims.
ex/ Rush hour traffic moves more slowly than other traffic
Ch-3
Reality Assumptions: Beliefs about what is true and factual about the world, based on unique
experience of individual.
Toulmin’s Model:
Issue: Should we use the SAT or ACT scores to predict success in college?
Claim - Students should not apply to colleges at which SAT scores are 200
points higher than theirs.
Reason -Students will not likely succeed.

Warrant -(Reality Assumption): Scores are accurate predictions of how
well a student is prepared.
Inductive Reasoning: the process of finding truth by making

observations, they can be formed as a statstical polling, experiments,
examples.
• Gives us Probabilities
•
Deductive reasoning: the process of inferring a conclusion by putting
true in valid format.
• Aims for Certainty
• All men are mortal. (major premise)

• Socrates is a man. (minor premise)
• Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)
Deductive reasoning can:
• Uncover Reality Assumptions

• Discover Truth and Make Decisions
• Combat Prejudice and Stereotyping
Deductive Argument: argument that follows formal patterns of

reasoning.
Valid argument: an argument structured in a correct deductive format.
Validity:
• Correct form makes an argument valid (logical).

• Accurate content makes it true.
• When the form is valid and the content is true, the argument is sound argument.
Enthymeme:Key part is implied rather than directly stated.
Modus ponens: a valid conditional hypothetical syllogism in which the antecedent is affirmed.
A critical thinker uses reasoning to discover truth and prevent stereotyping

Ch -4
Inductive Reasoning: Evidence offers strong support ‘beyond a reasonable doubt.
• Likely to be true
• Evidence is strong support but it is not 100% certain.

• Evidence gives weight but not certainty.
- Using evidence: The strength of a conclusion is based on the quality of evidence used to
support the conclusion.
- Induction: Drawing generalizations from known facts – research, statistical evidence

• Ex/ If you charge more on your credit card than you can afford, you will get yourself into debt.
• Finding truth by making observations
-Statistical Evidence: leads to the form of inductive reasoning.
—Why we use statistics?
• Control over the unknown

• To make predictions and decisions
• To anticipate accurate information
• Connect patterns in our lives
How Research is Done?
1. What do I want to find out? Characteristic of interest

2. Whom do I want to know about? Target population
3. Whom can I study to get accurate answers? Sample
Sample:Members of the target population.
• Must be large enough

• Must be random
• Must be representative
—Analyze the quality of statistical evidence by noting the size, representation, and randomness
of the sample.
Reliability:
1. Sample size 1,000 randomly selected individuals
2. Representative: If not it is biased
3. Significant characteristics: Sometimes difficult to know
4. Biased questions: Loaded or leading
• Eliminate difficulties

Causal Generalizations:
• Prevent future problems

• Human curiosity
Considerations: Correlation is not causation.”

A “third-variable” could be the source of the relationshi
Technical Causation:
• Necessary condition- condition must be present if the effect is present

• Sufficient condition- if condition is present, effect will definitely occur.
John Stuart Mill:
• Canons
• Foundational to controlled studies
Sample questions
1. Control is
a. The design of a controlled research study
b. The process of weeding out extraneous factors that could affect the outcome of a study
between two groups of subjects, in which one group us exposed to a variable and the
other is not
2. Reification
a. Occurs when words themselves become more powerful and influential than objective
reality
b. Refers to all the images ,positive or negative, that are associated with any given
denotation
3. Denotation is
a. The specific object or action that the word points to
b. A problem that arises with the use of nonspecific or abstract words
4. Doublespeak; including weasel words is a language used to lie or mislead while pretending to
tell the truth
a. True
b. False
5. Televised suggestion include
a. The selection of issues, the use of time, the selection and treatment of guest and panel
members, what is included or excluded on a set, the nonverbal element of clothing, the
use of camera angles and cuts, the use of language and, the camera distance and
framing
b. The use of headlines, the use of leads or openings to a news story, the balance in
reporting an issue, fairness in editorial essays and letters, photo composition
6. A cogent argument is an inductive argument based on strong, credible evidence
a. True
b. False
7. Experimental group is
a. A group of subjects from the sample who are exposed to a special treatment called the
independent variable
b. People or animals studied to get information about the target population
8. Reasoning by analogy is
a. The reasons that seems logical but doesn’t necessarily support the conclusion, or
statements that distract the listener from the issue
b. Comparing one idea or plan to another for the purpose of supporting a conclusion; we
assume that since an idea, process, policy, or event is similar in one way to another
idea, process, policy or event that it is also similar in another significant way
9. Sensationalism is
a. A method used to attract viewers by presenting morning exciting stories over less
exciting ones
b. Presenting ideas or images in such a way as to reveal certain aspects or qualities and to
conceal others
10. Target population is
a. The group about which a researcher wishes to generalize
b. A quality of a research sample in which the sample has the same significant
characteristics in the same proportion as the target population
11. Romancing the product is a technique used by advertisers in which consumers are asked to
associate a product with something bigger or better
a. True
b. False
12. Euphemism is
a. The vague or inflated language used to confuse or overwhel, those who hear it
b. The use of a less direct but softer or more acceptable term to describe an event person
or object
13. Mail-in surveys are not seen as reliable as other measures, those who respond may all
share a bias or they answer what they think they should say
a. True
b. False
14. Inductive reasoning is
a. The process of finding truth by making observations, inferring general laws, and truths
from specific instances
b. Distorting and exaggerating an opponent’s argument so they are more easily attacked
15. Method of difference is
a. A theory of causation postulating that the cause of an effect is found by noting that the
only difference between the event or effect (called y) happening or not happening is
whether one element x is present
b. A theory of causation postulating that the cause of an effect is found by noting that x is
the only factor always present when y (the problem ir the good effect) occurs, therefore,
x causes y
16. Sufficient condition is
a. A condition (state of affairs, thing, process) that automatically leads to the production of
another event. If the condition is present, then the effect will definitely occur
b. A condition (state of affairs, thing, process) that must be present if a particular effect is
present
17. Subliminal persuasion is
a. 1. The reflection of issues
2. The use of time
3. The selection and treatment of guest and panel members
4. What is included or excluded on a set
5. The nonverbal element of clothing
b. Information meant to affect people on an unconscious level, some of which can be
detected with training and some of which cannot be detected with the conscious mind,
regardless of training
18. Power media suggestions
a. Fuzzy words, logical fallacies, stylized images, and sound, celebrity associations and
endorsements, product placement…
b. The selection of issues, the use of time, the selection and treatment of guests and panel
members, what is included or excluded on a set, and the nonverbal element of clothing
19. Spin is
a. Use of language, to create a biased, positive connotation for ideas, events, or policies
that one favors, and a biased negative impression about ideas, events, or policies that
one dislikes
b. Belief about how the world should be; they reflect an individual’s viewpoint about which
values are most important to consider in relation to a particular issue
20. Connotation is
a. A process by which words become less powerful
b. Include words emotional meanings
21. A hypothesis is a speculation about what will be discovered from the research
a. True
b. False
22. Question is
a. The characteristic of interest concerning a targeted population
b. Speculation about what will be discovered from a research study
23. Print suggestions include
a. The use of headlines, the use of leads or openings to a news story, the balance in
b. Fuzzy words, logical fallacies, stylized images, and sound, celebrity associations and
endorsements, product placement, use of opinion leaders to influence the market…
24. Eye tracking is
a. The presentation of ideas or images in such a way as to reveal certain ideas or qualities
and to conceal others
b. Using photogenic technology to record exactly where a person is looking as he or she is
interacting with some kind of visual display in order to create ads and websites that
attract a target audience
25. Biased sample is
a. Members of the target population who are studies by the researcher
b. A sample that does not provide adequate evidence to support a conclusion
26. Neuromarketing is a technique used for
a. Measuring brain activity to learn how consumers feel and remind to different brands and
products in order to plan effective marketing strategies
b. Measuring how persuasion works by influencing the unconscious mind
27. Data is
a. The observations made and information collected by the research
b. A pill or other treatment that has no medical value or effect
28. Technical causation
a. Include a necessary condition and a sufficient condition
b. Is difficult to determine evidence beyond a reasonable doubt in this case
29. Gallup poll/ harris poll
a. A poll that reflects how people will vote and who will be elected into office
b. Data collected by polling and research studies
30. Gobbledygook
a. The vague or inflated language used to confuse or overwhelm those who hear it
b. Specialized language sometimes used to exclude or impress people who don’t
understand terminology
31. Hume’s condition is
a. 1. X (cause), precedes y (effect), in time 2.
X and y are in contact in time and place 3.
There is a regular tendency of 1 and 2
b. 1. X (cause), precedes y (effect), in time
2. X and y are in contact in time and place
3. X is the only factor, always present when y occurs
32. Necessary condition is
a. A condition that must be present if the effect is
b. A condition automatically leads to the production of another event
33. Induction is
a. Polarizing a situation by presenting only two alternatives/extremes
b. The process of drawing generalizations from known facts or research to give strength
and support to conclusions
34. Independent variable is
b. The special treatment that is given to the experimental group in a research study
35. Characteristic of interest is
a. When a speaker or writer assumes what needs to be proven
b. The specific question that a researcher seeks to answer concerning a given population
36. Product placement is
a. A policy that the broadcasters must allow equal air time for all sides of an issue
b. A practice of integrating or embedding products in films, tv programs, and other media in
order to reach the consumer
37. Statistical evidence is data collected by polling and research studies
a. True
b. False
38. Sound bite is
a. A short piece of a speech or interview used in video production; can distort the message
b. Deliberate or unconscious use of the camera shots to influence the audience
39. Opinion leader is
a. A person who is well informed, often through the media, about specific information and
issues
b. An individual who has an education, significant experience, or both in a given area. The
testimony of experts is used to support conclusions in arguments
40. The conclusion is the researcher’s interpretation of the meaning and significance of the
data, specifically in terms of the effect of the independent variable on the experimental group.
As well the researcher will consider the implications of the study in terms of future research
a. True
b. False
41. Two-step flow is the phenomenon of consulting friends or acquaintances who have
expertise in a given area before making decisions. The friends, called opinion leaders, first
(Step 1) get their information from the media and then (Step 2) pass this information on to
others
a. True
b. False
42. Control group is
b. A group of subjects from the sample who get no treatment or placebo and are thus a test
benchmark
43. Causal generalizations is used to elevate current difficulties, prevent future problems and to
promote curiosity
a. True
b. False
44. Jargon is
a. Specialized language sometimes used to exclude or impress people who don’t
understand the terminology
b. Used in politics and public relations, to create a biased, positive connotation for ideas,
events, or policies that one favor and a biased negative impression about ideas
45. Fairness doctrine is a
a. A former U.S. policy by which broadcasters must allow equal airtime for all sides of an
issue
b. The use of a number of techniques by journalists and broadcasters to create a particular
impression of reality
46. Fuzzy words are
a. The words that create an appealing claim or impression without definite concrete
meaning for words and phrases
b. The words, introduction sentence, or paragraph that gives the reader the general
meeting of the story
47. Statistical generalizations are
a. Inferences drawn from statistical evidence that is used to give strength to inductive
argument
b. Comparing one situation or idea to another without considering significant differences
that make the comparison invalid
48. Blind studies
a. The studies in which subjects are not told whether they belong to the control group or
the experimental group
b. The studies in which neither the experimenter not the subjects know which is the control
group and which is the experimental group
49. Representative sample is
a. A quality of a research sample in which the sample has the same characteristics in the
same proportion as the target population
b. A condition that allows every member of a target population to have an equal chance of
being chosen as part of the sample
50. Gestalt principle: a principle that states that our minds strive toward congruence and
completion of information. If a message strikes us an incomplete, we will fill in the missing
details ourselves
a. True
b. False
51. Professionals use the power of suggestion to create impressions about products, ideas, and
candidates.
a. True
b. False
52. For news programs and talk shows, beware of...
use of camera angles and cuts, the use of language, and, camera distance and framing.
b. The use of headlines, the use of "leads" or openings to a news story, the balance in
reporting an issue, fairness in editorial essays and letters, photo composition.
53. Vagueness is a
a. A problem that arises with the use of nonspecific or abstract words.
b. Language used to lie or mislead while pretending to tell the truth
54. Suggestion and subliminal persuasion involve information meant to affect people on an
unconscious level. Suggestive messages of this kind can be detected with training.
a. True
b. False
55. Denotative meaning should be used when writing objectively. In truth, a word’s denotative is
very limiting and restrictive for authors; thus, they typically rely on connotative meanings when
writing in all subjective and creative forms—just as we do in everyday speech.
a. True
b. False
56. Ambiguity is
a. A process by which words become more powerful and real than objective reality
b. Having two or more possible meanings. Occurs when the meaning of words is unclear or
uncertain, can lead to confusion and misunderstanding
57. Print Suggestions include
a.
1. the reflection of issues
2. the use of time
3. the selection and treatment of guest and panel members
4. what is included or excluded on a set
5. the nonverbal element of clothing
b.
1. the use of headlines
2. the use of "leads" or openings to a news story
3. the balance in reporting an issue
4. fairness in editorial essays and letters
5. photo composition
58. Jargon can be used in a wide variety of situations and varies from profession to profession.
a. True
b. False
59. The woman closed the door behind her, hung up her bag, and sat in a kitchen chair, where
she made herself a well-deserved cup of coffee; the sentence uses words with a positive
connotation.
a. True
b. False
60. The dress is considered an aspect of non-verbal communication and has social significance
for the audience.
a. True
b. False
61. When reading web-based or traditional journalism...
a. the use of headlines, the use of "leads" or openings to a news story, the balance in
b. fuzzy words, logical fallacies, stylized images, and sound, celebrity associations and
endorsements, product placement, use of opinion leaders to influence the market, use of
social media to build customer loyalty, eye-tracking, and neuromarketing and the Gestalt
principle.
62. Advertisers and marketing experts use a number of persuasive techniques
endorsements, product placement, the Gestalt principle, use of opinion leaders to
influence the market, use of social media to build customers loyalty, eye-tracking, and
neuromarketing
b. the selection of issues, the use of time, the selection and treatment of guests and panel
members, what is included or excluded on a set, and the nonverbal element of clothing.
63. Jargon is
a. A language that you learn over time, as you learn about the profession.
64. Sensationalism is used because it helps bring larger numbers and ratings for media
companies
a. True
b. False
1. When conducting deductive research, you always start with a theory (the result of inductive research).
Reasoning deductively means testing these theories. If there is no theory yet, you cannot conduct deductive
research.

True

False

2. Identify whether the intended causality in the following statements is a necessary condition, a sufficient
condition, or both a necessary and a sufficient condition.

On a 100-point grading scale, where a score of 90–100 points earns an “A” grade, scoring 92 for a course earns an
“A” grade.

Sufficient condition.

3. Target population (universe)

The entire group of people or objects to which the researcher wishes to generalize the study findings
the portion of the population to which the researcher has reasonable access; maybe a subset of the target
population

May be limited to region, state, city, county, or institution

4. Inductive reasoning is often used to create a hypothesis rather than apply them to different scenarios. With
inductive reasoning, the accuracy of the outcome is probable, but not always true, even if each of the first two
statements is accurate.

True

False

5. The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims at developing a
theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.

True

False

6. The results of experiments are used to confirm (support) or disconfirm (refute) a hypothesis.

True

False

7. Is attending class regularly and punctually a necessary or sufficient condition for being successful in class?

For most people attending class regularly and punctually is a necessary condition for being successful in class.

For most people attending class regularly and punctually is a sufficent condition for being successful in class.

8. If there is a general statement in the premises, the argument will always be inductive.
TRUE

9. Arguments that have a time sequence in the premises (A happened, B happened) and a causal statement in the
conclusion (A caused B) will always be inductive.

True

False

10. Inductive reasoning is the opposite of deductive reasoning. In this process, you would gather generalized
information from specific scenarios to come to a conclusion, rather than taking specific assumptions from
generalized scenarios.

True

False
11. All M are P
All S are M
No S are P
Invalid

12. Sampling is the process of selecting a group of people,events,behaivor,or other elements with which to
conduct a study
true

13. When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive research because
there is no theory to test.

True

False

14. I don’t understand why the military can’t get along without more money. We’re all tightening our belts, and
the military is no different from any other organization on a budget. The military has to purchase and maintain
equipment, just like my manufacturing plant has to do. The military has to make payroll, just like my
manufacturing plant has to do. Since my manufacturing plant just had to reduce its budget by 20%, the military
should reduce its budget by 20%, too.

The military (Y) has to purchase and maintain equipment, just like my manufacturing plant has to do (X); both X
and Y have to make payroll; X just had to reduce its budget by 20%, so (Y) should reduce its budget by 20%, too.
15. My boss said the person with the highest sales would get a promotion at the end of the year. I generated the
highest sales, so I am looking forward to a promotion.

=
Deductive Reasoning

You are eligible to graduate from college if, and only if, you have paid all your school fees and completed the
required units for your general education and your degree program.

-

Joint sufficient and necessary condition.

17. Start with an existing theory

All biological life depends on water to exist
Formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory
All land mammals depend on water to exist
Collect data to test the hypothesis
Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water
Analyze the results: does the data reject or support the hypothesis?
All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis

Deductive research approach

18. For arguments with conclusions that involve a prediction about the future, we can never be certain about such
conclusions no matter how much evidence is presented in the premises.

True
False

19. The most effective way to achieve representativeness is through randomization; random selection or random
assignment

True

False

20. If the conclusion of an argument is a generalization (all) from evidence in the premises (some), the argument
will be inductive.

True
False

21. Sample

population

22. Determine whether a sufficient condition exists in the following statement.
If I have exactly 100 pennies, then I have at least the equivalent of $1.

Not a sufficient condition.

23. Sufficient Conditions

If we say that "x is a sufficient condition for y," then we mean that if we have x, we know that y must follow. In
other words, x guarantees y.

24. Determine which of Mill’s methods matches the description that follows:

If two or more instances in which an event occurs have only one thing in common, while the two or more instances
in which it does not occur all have the absence of that thing, then the item in which the two sets of instances differ
is causally connected to the event

The joint method of agreement and difference

25. If a team wins 10 games, then they play in the finals. If a team plays in the finals, then they travel to Boston.
The Ravens won 10 games.
Conclusion: The Ravens will travel to Boston.

Example of deductive reasoning

Example of inductive reasoning
26. Representativeness

The sample reflects the characteristics of the population, so those sample findings can be generalized to the
population

each individual in the population has an equal opportunity to be selected for the sample

the accuracy with which the population parameters have been estimated

27. critical thinking

uses analysis and evidence to make an informed decision. It’s used daily to make decisions and to analyze decisions
in science, literature, etc.

looks at the end result and considers the different decisions that lead to that conclusion. It’s used by artificial
intelligence to win games.

is when you take a set of observations and use a theory to explain them. This is very similar to how doctors work
on patients by taking symptoms to make a diagnosis.

28. is having the flu virus in your blood a necessary or sufficient condition for being sick?

Having a flu virus is sufficient for being sick, but not necessary

29. The first lipstick I pulled from my bag is red. All lipsticks in my bag are red. Therefore, the second lipstick I pull
from my bag will be red, too.

Deductive Reasoning

30. My state requires all lawyers to pass the bar to practice. If I do not pass the bar, then I will not be able to
represent someone legally.

Deductive reasoning

If this is the month of June, then this month has exactly 30 days.
. Sufficient condition.

32. Is completing all the requirements of your degree program a necessary or sufficient condition for earning your
degree?
Completing all of your requirements is both a necessary and sufficient condition for earning your degree. Without
completing all requirements, it is impossible to earn a degree, and completing all requirements guarantees earning
a degree.

33. Is the following argument best classified as deductive or inductive?

Based on a survey of 2200 randomly selected likely voters, 56.2% indicate that they will vote for the incumbent in
the upcoming election. Therefore, approximately 56% of the votes in the upcoming election will be for the
incumbent.
. Inductive.

34. One of the most common types of is a syllogism Syllogism refers to statements -major and a minor statement
to form a logical conclusion . The two accurate statements mean that the statement will likely be true for a
additional premises of that category

Diductive reasoning

35. My mother is Irish. Everyone from Ireland has blond hair. Therefore, my mother has blond hair.

Deductive reasoning

36. The new Batman movie is exceeding all expectations of box office earnings. The last box office smash won the
Oscar for best picture. So, the new Batman movie is going to win the Oscar for Best Picture.
The new Batman movie (Y) has made a lot of money, as did the last box office smash (X). X won the Oscar for Best
Picture, so Y will also win the Oscar for Best Picture.

37. My phone isn't an Apple, and it's not a Galaxy III, and those are the only phones that have state-of-the- art
voice recognition personal assistant programs. So I can't just ask my phone to find stuff for me.
I cant just ask ^My phone to find stuff for

1.Ruby used the new OxyPro vitamin supplement and had more energy and lost weight. Makana also took it and had
more energy and lost weight. Same with Robert and Kanoe. So, OxyPro will work for you and probably all people in
gaining energy and losing weight.

Invalid deductive argument.

Weak Inductive argument

2. Correlation is not sufficient for making a causal claim.

True✅

False

3. I must have 40 credits to graduate this spring. Because I only have 38 credits, I will not be graduating this spring.

Deductive reasoning✅

Inductive reasoning

Inductive generalization

4. Identify whether the intended causality in the following statements is a necessary condition, a sufficient condition,
or both a necessary and a sufficient condition.

Dropping a crystal vase on a cement floor from five feet will cause the vase to break.

Sufficient condition.✅

Necessary condition.


5. Some inductive arguments have overwhelming evidence provided for their conclusions and hence can be classified
as reliable beliefs, even though we do not have certainty for the conclusion.

True✅

False

6. Learning to apply existing deductive reasoning skills during the decision-making process will help you make better-
informed choices in the workplace. You may use deductive reasoning when finding and acquiring a job, hiring
employees, managing employees, working with customers, and making a variety of business or career decisions.

True✅

False

7. Is earning a final grade of C a necessary or sufficient condition for passing the course?

Earning a final grade of C is a sufficient condition for passing this course because earning a C guarantees passing it. It
is not a necessary condition because there are other ways to pass the course other than earning a final grade of C.✅

Earning a final grade of C is a necessary condition for passing this course because earning a C guarantees passing it. It
is not a sufficient condition because there are other ways to pass the course other than earning a final grade of C.

8. I normally leave work after 6 p.m. and I am usually able to avoid traffic. As long as I leave work after 6 p.m., I will
always miss the traffic.

inductive reasoning:

deductive reasoning:

9. All of the managers at my office have college degrees. Therefore, you must have a college degree to become a
manager.

inductive reasoning✅

deductive reasoning

deductive generalization.

10. All of our snowstorms come from the north. It's starting to snow. Therefore, the storm is coming from the north.

Deductive Reasoning✅

Inductive Reasoning

Abductive Reasoning

11. Despite their protestations to the contrary, faculty are not superior to their students. They do not pay attention
during meetings, just as students do not pay attention in class. They do not complete their administrative paperwork,
such as grades, on time, just as students do not turn in assignments on time. Finally, students always ask for
extensions after they miss their deadlines, and faculty do, too.

Faculty (X) and students (Y) do not pay attention in, respectively, meetings and class; both X and Y do not complete,
respectively, administrative paperwork and assignments on time; both X and Y ask for extensions after they miss their
deadlines. So, X are no better than Y.✅

deadlines.

12. My boss is lenient and does not care when I am late. I am late to the office every day. Therefore, I will never be
reprimanded for being late to work.


All dogs have fleas
All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas
Test all dogs in the building for fleas
10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject the hypothesis

Deductive research approach✅

Inductive research approach


The presence of oxygen in the room caused the match to ignite.

Necessary condition

15. There are five criteria that need to be considered to fully appreciate the complexity of causality: (1) There should
be a correlation between the cause and the effect. (2) The cause should precede the effect. (3) The cause should be in
the proximity of the effect. (4) A set of necessary and sufficient conditions should exist. (5) Alternative explanations
should be ruled out.

True

False

16. Observation
Elephants depend on water to exist
Observe a pattern
All observed animals depend on water to exist Develop a theory

1. you should really go out and buy that new cell phone, everybody, I know have it
a- appeal to force
b- ad populum
c- appeal to pity
2. For example, you have been asked to make a decision involving a highly controversial topic:
the use of animals to test new drugs. Like many others, you do not believe in cruelty to animals,
so this is a difficult decision.
To use................., you might ask yourself how you would feel if the new drug could save your life
or the life of a family member. After considering that hypothetical case, you might reverse your
principles and beliefs regarding the use of animals for testing new drugs.
a- the higher principles test
b- the new-cases test
c- the role-exchange test
3. ................. are the statement that provide support for the conclusion. Without ................ you
have no argument; you simply have an assertion, a statement of someone’s opinion.
a- Reasons, reason
b- Issues, issues
c- Claims, claims
4. what are the ideal values?

a- a value considered to be right and good in theoretical form.
b- a value considered to be right and good that is acted upon in one’s life.
c-people say you have integrity.
5. the slippery slope fallacy means:

a- the two things being compared are similar Niall significant aspects.
b- distorting and then attacking an opponent’s argument.
c- if one event occurs, then others will follow, the domino effect.
6. a test that asks you to consider whether your action is consistent with other actions in the
same category.
a- role exchange test
b- new cases test
c- universal consequences test
7. A deductively valid argument cannot have...

a- true premises and a false conclusion
b- false premises and a true conclusion
c- true premises and a true conclusion
8. Data collected by polling and research studies are

a- disconnected pattern in our lives
b- inferences from statistical evidence
c- target population
9. The ............... is what we are arguing about; it is the question that is being addressed or is
under discussion
a- reason
b- issue
c- claim
10. The first step in investigating possible implicit premises is to...

a- search for a credible premise that would make the argument as strong as possible
b- rewrite the argument
c- search for a credible premise that would make the argument valid
11. Hypothetical syllogism modus ponens means

a- the way of affirmation: the antecedent leads to the consequences
b- denying the consequent
c-the key part is implied rather than directly stated
12. An argument structured in a correct deductive format; in such a way that if its premises are
true, then its conclusion must be true, is a (an)
a- valid argument
b-invalid argument
c-sound argument
13. The highest ethical value in Egalitarianism is

a- liberty
b-happiness
c-equality
14. The approach often leads to ends-justify-the-means reasoning and treating non-ethical tasks
or goals are moral imperatives.
a- its just part of the job
b- if its necessary, it’s ethical
c- if its legal and permissible, its proper
15. Enthymeme means

a- the key part is not directly stated
b- the key part is not implied rather than indirectly stated
c- the key part is implied rather than directly stated
16. A valid deductive argument whose premises are true, example: all multiples of 10 are
multiples of five, is a (an)
a- valid argument
b- invalid argument
c- sound argument
17.persons who feel they are overworked or underpaid rationalize that minor perks are nothing
more than fair compensation for services rendered is the common rationalization
a- i have got to coming
b- it cant be wrong, everyone is doing it
c- it doesn’t hurt anyone
18. Which of the following is a fallacy (or error in reasoning)?

a- bandwagon appeal
b- value assumption
c- reality assumption
19. Hypothetical syllogism modus trolleys means

a- the way of affirmation: the antecedent leads to the consequent
c- the key part is implied rather than directly stated
20. ........................ is the process of interfering a conclusion by putting forth true premises in a
valid format.
a- inductive reasoning
b- deductive reasoning
c- errors reasoning
21. For example, you are working on a team project here some team members are not doing
their share of the work. You realize that the professor will not know who has contributed to the
project and that you may receive the same grade whether or not you contributed to the team.
You consider allowing other team members to do your share of the work, as well as their own.
However, you value a strong work ethic and academic honesty. You decide to continue working
on the project and you plan a team meeting to discuss the importance of involvement by the
whole team, you are using
a- the higher principles test

b- the universal consequences test
c- the role exchange test
22. An inductive argument that succeeds in providing probable, but not conclusive, logical
support for its conclusion is said to be.
a-Inductive
b-Weak
c-Strong
23. What are the 3 parts of an Argument?

a. Ethics, Values, Morals
b. Issue, Conclusion, Reason
c. Issue, Claim, Warrant
24. An argument in Critical Thinking is

a. An angry exchange of different opinions.
b. An idea based on my own knowledge.
c. Reasons given in support of an idea, action or theory.
25. Deductive reasoning means:

a. To begin with a general assumption and arrive at a specific conclusion.
b. Causations based on general assumptions.
c. Drawing conclusions from two different arguments.
26. Bob told me that we should go back to school stil why should we listen to Bob he's really fat
and has no friends
a. Attacking the person
b. Red herring
c. Ad Populum
27. Whether or not to ban smoking in public to protect the health of nonsmokers..................and
.............. and value are conflicting in this issue.
a.Uslitarianism and libertarianism
b. Utitarianism and egalitarianism
c. Libertarianism and egalitarianism
28. I really think you should give me that I've been studying every single day since the exam and
I lost a lot of sleep time also me and my boyfriend just broke up and I can't think straight
anymore.
a. Straw man
b. Appeal to force
c. Appeal to pity
29. Inductive reasoning
a. The process of inferring a conclusion by putting fourth true premises in a valid format.
b. The process of finding truth by making observations these observations may be from
statistical polling, controlled experiments or relevant examples and analogies.
c. An argument that follows formal patterns of reasoning and is aimed at establishing the
certainty of a conclusion.
30. What are Fallacies?

a. logical reasons.
b. real issues,
c. errors in reasoning.
31. An argument intended to provide logically conclusive support for its conclusion is
a. Inductive
b. Valid
c. Deductive
32. are sometimes called factual assumptions or descriptive assumptions; they are based on the
unique experience of an individual.
a. Reality assumptions
b. Value assumptions
c. Ethics
33. A test that asks you to empathize with the people who will be affected by any action you
take
a. role exchange test

b. new case test
c. universal consequences test
34. Under this test, if you find it unacceptable for everyone in a similar situation to take this
action, then you would reject the
a. role exchange test

b. new cases test.
c. universal consequences test
35. Libertarianism promotes

a. honesty and respect for others.
b. equal distribution of opportunities.
c. individual liberty
36. Based on the false assumption that lying, promise-breaking, etc, are justified if they are the
same sort engaged in by those you are dealing with is the common rationalization
a. I’m just fighting fire with fire
b. I’m just doing it for you
c. I can still be objective
37. All Dolphins are mammals

All mammals have kidneys
Therefore all dolphins have kidneys
is a(an)
a. Deductive reasoning
b. Inductive reasoning
c. Inductive argument.
38.
Hasty Conclusion
a. Generalize with little information

b. Present only two extreme alternatives
c. Opponent's argument distorted or exaggerated and then easily attacked.
39. An ............ is an unsupported claim; an argument is a supported claim

a. Issue
b. opinion
c. statement
40. The Red Herring
a. Speaker assumes what needs to be proven b. Consequences of potential action predicted but
not supported
c. Distract your attention, put on the defensive with another issue.
41. Inductive reasoning means:

a. To draw conclusions from general assumptions to specific observations.
b. To begin with a specific argument and arrive at a general conclusion.
42. Someone who uses specific criteria to evaluate reasoning, form positions, and make
decisions critical thinking
• true
• False
43. People should be more careful about what they eat. clearly, we should stop eating
everything because everything is bad for us.
a. Straw man
b. Appeal to force
c. Appeal to pity
44. The people are telling the government to cut back on taxes sadly this just means that people
don't want to fix that burned down school anymore.
a. Missing the point
b. Red herring
c. Attacking the person
45. What are Ethics?
a. Errors in Reasoning.
b. Standards of conduct reflecting what is considered to be right or wrong behavior.
c. Beliefs, usually taken for granted.

46. When we say yes or no to the issues presented, we are stating our point of view.
a. True
b. False
47. The random sample reflects, representative population.
a. True
b. False
48. This rationalization is used to excuse misconduct when violating ethical principles so long as
no clear and immediate harm is perceived. It treats ethical obligations a simply factors to be
considered in decision - making rather than as ground rules
a. It doesn't hurt anyone
b. Everyone's doing it
c. It’s OK ii don't gain personally
49. The straw man is a fallacy in which opponent's argument is distorted or exaggerated and
then more easily attacked.
a. True
b. False
50. Randomness is a condition that allows every member of a target population te have an equal
chance of being chosen as part of the sample.
a. True
b. False
51. A critical thinker examines the reality assumptions of self and others that form the
foundations of arguments.
a. True
b. False
51. Religious values are based on faith and spiritual truth.

a. True
b. False
52. Hypothetical syllogism modus tollens means
a- the way of affirmation: the antecedent leads to the consequences
c-the key part is implied rather than directly stated
54.Tony helped ben to get his job. Ben has just found out that both of them are being
considered for an important promotion. This is a great opportunity and, although Ben knows
that Tony could use the salary raise to pay off his school loans, Ben could also use the money.
Since they are the only candidates for the position, Ben knows that if he refuses the position,
Tony will get the job. How would Ben use ethical decision- making tests to decide whether he
should accept or reject the promotion?
Using………….. Ben looks at the situation from Tony's point of view. If Ben takes the job, Tony
loses the opportunity for advancement and additional income. This could hurt Tony and
jeopardize a friendship that Ben values.
a. the role exchange test

b. the universal-consequences test
c. the new-cases test
55. Modus ponens has this argument pattern…
a. If p, then q. q. Therefore, p.
b. If p, then q. If q, then r. Therefore, if p, then r.
c. Either p or q. Not p. Therefore, q.(modus tollent)
56. Tony helped Ben to get his job. In fact, Tony has been there longer than Ben. Ben has just
found out that both of them are being considered for an important promotion. This is a great
opportunity and, although Ben knows that Tony could use the salary raise to pay off his school
leans, Ben could also use the money. Since they are the only candidates for the position. Ben
knows that if he refuses the position, Tony will get the job. How would Ben use ethical decision-
making tests to decide whether he should accept or reject the promotion?
Using …………………. Ben looks at the general consequences of a potential decision, to determine
if it would be acceptable to him others in the same situation were to make the same decision
a. role-exchange test
b. the universal-consequences
c. test the new-cases test
57. Tony helped Ben to get his job. in fact, Tony has been there longer than Ben. Ben has just
found out that both of them are being considered for an important promotion. This is great
opportunity and, although Ben knows that Tony could use the salary raise to pay off his school
loans, Ben could also use the money Since they are the only candidates for the position, Ben
knows that if he refuses the position, Tony will get the job. How would Ben use ethical decision
making tests to decide whether he should accept or reject the promotion?
Using………….. Ben imagines a more difficult case, to measure against his current situation. He
decides that the hardest case would be to put his brother in Tony's place. How would he feel if
his brother would be given the promotion if Ben didn't take it?
a. the role exchange test

b. the universal-consequences
c. test the new-cases test
Sample questions
1. Control is
other is not
2. Reification
reality
denotation
3. Denotation is
tell the truth
a. True
b. False
framing
a. True
b. False
exciting ones
conceal others
a. True
b. False
12. Euphemism is
or object
a. True
b. False
x causes y
present
2. The use of time
19. Spin is
one dislikes
20. Connotation is
a. True
b. False
22. Question is
24. Eye tracking is
27. Data is
30. Gobbledygook
33. Induction is
a. True
b. False
38. Sound bite is
issues
a. True
b. False
others
a. True
b. False
benchmark
promote curiosity
a. True
b. False
44. Jargon is
issue
46. Fuzzy words are
argument
48. Blind studies
details ourselves
a. True
b. False
candidates.
a. True
b. False
53. Vagueness is a
a. True
b. False
a. True
b. False
56. Ambiguity is
a.
2. the use of time
b.
a. True
b. False
connotation.
a. True
b. False
for the audience.
a. True
b. False
principle.
neuromarketing
63. Jargon is
companies
a. True
b. False
research.

True

False


“A” grade.



population



True

False


True

False


True

False




TRUE


True

False


True

False
11. All M are P
All S are M
No S are P
Invalid

conduct a study
true


True

False



=
Deductive Reasoning


-






True
False

assignment

True

False

will be inductive.

True
False

21. Sample

population











population










Deductive Reasoning


Deductive reasoning


degree?
a degree.


incumbent.
. Inductive.


Diductive reasoning


Deductive reasoning







True✅

False



Inductive reasoning








True✅

False


True✅

False







manager.


deductive reasoning




Inductive Reasoning

Abductive Reasoning



deadlines.



All dogs have fleas





Necessary condition


True

False

16. Observation
Observe a pattern

Chapter 1
Foundations of argument
Metaphors for argument

- Your claims are indefinable
- I demolished her argument
Critical thinkers use the word “argument” to refer to a group of statements one or more of
which the reason support or provide evidence for another the conclusion
An argument aims to demonstrating the truth or falsity of a particular claim by presenting

evidence (reasons)
If a person has a conclusion but offers no reason to explain how he has arrived at such a
occlusion then he has made only a statement not an argument
Argument
- Referring to a conclusion (claim)
- Supported by reasons (evidence/justifications)
- About a particular issue (question or controversy)
What we are arguing about?
Make sure to make it as a question
- Should the attendance be enforced?
- Should energy drinks be regulated?
- Should smoking be banned in public places?
Riddle
When is an issue not an issue?
When it’s a topic
- Topics are ideas or subjects
- Topics become issues when question or controversy is introduced
The issues
It starts with a topic (question) -> reason (support/evidence) -> conclusion
Issue detection
- Ask a question or use the following statements:
The issue is whether…. There is to much violence on tv
• Understand the issue, make sure everyone is discussing the same issue, bring the
discussion back on target when necessary
Kinds of issues
- value issue – prescriptive
• good or bad?
Is there too much violence on tv?
• Right or wrong?
Are salaried of executives of major corporations too high?
- factual issue – descriptive or definitional
• descriptive: is it true or false?
Are speed control devices effective in preventing accidents?
• Definition
Does it fit into a certain category?
Is cyber addiction a disease?
- policy issue – action

• action
policy issues involve an action step:
may emerge from facts and values
speed – control devices prevent accidents
support policies for these devices
conclusion
also called position, claim
- stands you take on the issue
- the position taken about an issue
- the thesis statement will express the conclusion of the other
How to locate a conclusion in an argument:
1- position of the writer or speaker
2- look at the beginning or ending
3- indicator words: therefor, so, thus, hence
4- indicator phrases: my point is, what I believe is..., obviously, it is evident that
5- ask what is being claimed
6- look at the title
Reasons
Premises, evidence, support, justification.
- Provide support for conclusion
- Without reasons, you have no argument.
How to locate reasons in an argument:
1- Apply the because trick
2- Indicator words – because, for, first, second, third, as evidenced by, also, furthermore,
in addition
3- Support material – examples, statistics, analogies, reports of studies, and expect
testimony
An Opinion is an Unsupported Claim; An Argument is a Supported Claim

Chapter 2
Values and ethics
Assumptions
- Unstated (and often unconscious) beliefs
Values
- Beliefs, ideals, or principles that are considered worthy and held in high regard
• Truth
• Loyalty
• Freedom
Value assumptions:
Beliefs about how the world should be
• What is more important
• Form the foundation of an argument.
Reality assumptions:
Beliefs about how the world is
Value conflict:
When two competing values cannot be held to the same degree in a given argument or
situation:
Understand that different values form the basis of many arguments and that conflicts are often
based on differing value priorities.
Ethics
- Standards of conduct that reflecting what we consider to be right or wrong
Morals
- Principles that distinguish right from wrong behavior
Why we have disagreements
- We hold many values in common but to different degrees
Ideal values and real values
Ideal values
- Held by an individual in a theoretical sense
Real values
- Theoretical and practiced
Ethics in argumentation
- Honesty in conclusion
- Do not omit or distort
- Thoroughly research claims made
- Listen respectfully to opposing viewpoints
- Be willing to revise position
- Credit secondary sources
Ethical decision making

How do we know what our principles and standards are?
- Role exchange test
- The universal consequences test
- The new cases test
- The higher principles test
Common rationalization
Ethics in action:
- If it’s necessary, then it is ethical
The false necessity trap
- if it’s legal and permissible, it’s ethical
- I was just doing it for you
Toulmin’s model
Is A method for discovering assumptions
Claims
Reasons
Warrants
1- Claim: a statement of an individual’s belief or stand upon an issue
2- Warrants: the unstated but necessary link between reasons and claims
Chapter 6
Reasoning errors
Fallacies are 2 kinds
1- Inadequate reasons
2- Fallacies that mislead
Inadequate reasoning:
- Sounds good
- Sounds logical
- However, does not provide adequate support
- Form but no substance
-
1- Faulty analogies:
- Significant differences between compared items.
- Compare a product to an experience
- Compare current experience to past
- Advice for them will work for you
2- False cause – post hoc

- Post hoc ergo propter hoc: after this, there for, because of this
- First event causes second event without reasons
- Superstitious reasoning
- Blame game
3- The slippery slope

- Consequences of potential action predicted but not supported
- The domino effect
- Prediction based on speculation
4- The straw man

- Opponents argument distorted or exaggerated and then easily attacked
- Position argument at extreme
5- Hasty conclusion
- Generalize with little information giving them no other choice
- Jumping to conclusions
- Rushing to judgment
- Self-fulfilling prophecy
6- The false dilemma

- Presenting only two alternatives.
- No possibilities In between
- Leads to simplistic solutions
7- Begging the question
- Speaker assumes what needs to be proven
- Places the burden of proof on the listener
- Builds on an unproven assumption
- Uses a loaded question
Recognize when reasons given to justify a conclusion are not sufficient
Fallacies
- Reasons that mislead
- Reasons that lead the listener away from the primary issue.
1- The red herring

- Distract your attention
- Put on the defensive with another issue.
- Get that stick out of here
It’s not a stick it’s a laser beam
2- Ad hominem: attacking the person

- Attack personal qualities instead of the issue
3- Ad populum ‫ﻣﻊ اﻟﺧﯾل ﯾﺎﺷﻘرا‬

- Jumping on the bandwagon
- If everyone is doing it then it’s okay
4- Appeal to traditions
- Conform to tradition
- “We’ve always done it this way “
5- Appeal to pity
- Follow a course of action due to compassion
- May be true but is irrelevant to the claim
- “You should go with me or I would be upset”
6- Equivocation
- The same word – two different meanings
Sample questions
1. Control is
other is not
2. Reification
reality
denotation
3. Denotation is
tell the truth
a. True
b. False
framing
a. True
b. False
exciting ones
conceal others
a. True
b. False
12. Euphemism is
or object
a. True
b. False
x causes y
present
2. The use of time
19. Spin is
one dislikes
20. Connotation is
a. True
b. False
22. Question is
24. Eye tracking is
27. Data is
30. Gobbledygook
33. Induction is
a. True
b. False
38. Sound bite is
issues
a. True
b. False
others
a. True
b. False
benchmark
promote curiosity
a. True
b. False
44. Jargon is
issue
46. Fuzzy words are
argument
48. Blind studies
details ourselves
a. True
b. False
candidates.
a. True
b. False
53. Vagueness is a
a. True
b. False
a. True
b. False
56. Ambiguity is
a.
2. the use of time
b.
a. True
b. False
connotation.
a. True
b. False
for the audience.
a. True
b. False
principle.
neuromarketing
63. Jargon is
companies
a. True
b. False
research.

True

False


“A” grade.



population



True

False


True

False


True

False




TRUE


True

False


True

False
11. All M are P
All S are M
No S are P
Invalid

conduct a study
true


True

False



=
Deductive Reasoning


-






True
False

assignment

True

False

will be inductive.

True
False

21. Sample

population











population










Deductive Reasoning


Deductive reasoning


degree?
a degree.


incumbent.
. Inductive.


Diductive reasoning


Deductive reasoning







True✅

False



Inductive reasoning








True✅

False


True✅

False







manager.


deductive reasoning




Inductive Reasoning

Abductive Reasoning



deadlines.



All dogs have fleas





Necessary condition


True

False

16. Observation
Observe a pattern

Critical Midterm + Final

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Chapter 1: Foundations of Arguments

This chapter will cover

• The structure of an argument

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Metaphors for Argument

• Your claims are indefensible.

• I demolished her argument.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• An argument aims at demonstrating the truth or

• Referring to a conclusion (claim);

• About a particular issue (question or

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

What we are arguing about

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

When is an issue not an issue?

• Topics are ideas or subjects

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

value issue - prescriptive

factual issue - descriptive or definitional

policy issue - action

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

good or bad right or wrong

• Is there too much • Are salaries of executives

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

May emerge from facts and values

• Speed –control devices prevent accidents

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Are seatbelts effective in preventing injury?

Will installing smog control devices prevent pollution?

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Also called position, claim

• The stand you take on the issue.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Locate conclusions in an argument:

1. Position of the writer or speaker

Premises, evidence, support, justification

• Provide support for conclusions.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Locate reasons in an argument:

1. Apply the because trick.

2. Indicator words - Because, for, first, second, third, as

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Difference between topic and issue

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Unstated (and often unconscious)

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Beliefs, ideals, or principles that are

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Form the foundation of an Chapter 3

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• When two competing values cannot be

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Standards of conduct that reflecting what we

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

• Principles that distinguish right from wrong

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Why we have disagreements