Basic Writing Skills Condensed (I) - 1

Arba Minch University
College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of English Language and Literature
Basic Writing Skills
Written by
Alemayehu Leta (MA in TEFL)
Guta Legese (MA in TEFL)
Edited by
Tesfaye Habtemariam (M.Ed ELT)
April, 2012
B asic w riti n g skills Page 5

Table of Contents
Table of Contents............................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................
Introduction...................................................................................................................................iii
To the Instructors...........................................................................................................................iii
Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences...........................................................................................1
1.1. Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences....................................................................1
1.2. Types of Clauses.......................................................................................................2
1.3. Sentence Types Based on Their Structure................................................................3
1.4. Sentence Types Based on Their Function.................................................................7
1.5.1. Subject Verb Agreement Errors.............................................................................8
1.5.2. Pronoun Reference Errors....................................................................................11
1.5.3. Sentence Fragments.............................................................................................13
1.5.4. Run-on Sentences.................................................................................................15
1.5.5. Dangling Modifiers..............................................................................................17
1.5.6. Misplaced Modifiers............................................................................................18
1.5.8. Unnecessary Shifts...............................................................................................21
1.6. Using Varied Sentence Types.................................................................................25
1.8. Conciseness in Writing Sentences..........................................................................28
1.9. Needless Repetition.................................................................................................28
1.10. Punctuation Marks in Writing Effective Sentences..............................................31
Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs......................................................................................34
2.1. Basic Structure of a Paragraph................................................................................35
2.2. Position of a Topic Sentence in a Paragraph...........................................................37
2.4. Writing an Effective Topic Sentence......................................................................41
2.5. Characteristics of Good Paragraph.........................................................................43
2.6. Paragraph Organization...........................................................................................50
2.7. Types of paragraphs................................................................................................56
Unit Three: Writing Effective Essays...........................................................................................80
3.1. Basic Characteristics of a Good Essay....................................................................80
3.3. The Structure of an Essay.......................................................................................81
3.4. Thesis Statement.....................................................................................................83
3.5. Writing a Strong Thesis Statement.........................................................................84
3.6. Steps in Writing an Essay.......................................................................................86
3.7. Outlining an Essay..................................................................................................86
3.8. Types of Essays.......................................................................................................88
References..................................................................................................................................175

Introduction
This module is meant for regular students who are fresh entry to Arba Minch University.
It focuses on developing the students’ basic writing skills which could help them in
writing academic essays, reports, assignments, projects, summaries and the like in their
subject specialization. Since it is a common course, it also helps the instructors to have
common material.
The module is organized into three units. The first unit is about writing effective
sentences. In this unit, students learn the types of clauses and recognize how these clauses
play significant role in writing effective sentences. Here the students are expected to
make themselves familiar with sentence types. They are also required to understand the
uses of different punctuation marks, learn to examine various sentence faults and correct
them into effective ones. The second unit deals with paragraph writing. It familiarizes the
students with the definition of a paragraph, the basic structure of a paragraph and the
characteristics of effective paragraph. It also helps the students to practice writing
appropriate topic sentence which could be developed into effectively unified, coherent
and well developed paragraph. Unit three is about an extended or essay writing. In this
unit, students will distinguish different types of essays and learn how to write coherent
and well-structured essays. They will also understand the purpose of essay outline and the
importance of writing effective thesis statement.
Each unit in the module is accompanied by different activities that give opportunity for
the students to practice their basic writing skill. All the activities are designed in an
integrated way. Special attention is given in integrating writing with reading which is
supposed to help the students improve their writing ability. The activities allow the
students to work together either in pair or in group and finally work with their teacher.
So, to achieve the objectives of the course, it is expected that both students and the course
instructors should work cooperatively.

Unit One: Writing Effective Sentences
Learning Objectives
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Understand how clauses are used to identify the types of sentences
based on their grammatical structure.
 Recognize the importance of clauses in writing effective sentences.
 Differentiate the various types of sentences based on their structure
and their function.
 Distinguish different types of sentence faults.
 Know ways of correcting a variety of faulty sentences.
 Improve the skill of writing correct sentences.
 Connect sentences using appropriate transitional words.
 Distinguish the uses of different kinds of punctuation marks.
1.1. Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences

Lead-in-Task
Answer the following questions individually and discuss your responses in threes.
1. What are clauses?
2. What are the types of clauses? Can you give examples for each?
3. What roles do they play in writing effective sentences?
In order to construct effective and grammatical sentences that give variety to your
writing, you need to know the necessary grammatical structure of sentences. To identify
sentence types based on their structure, it is also important to look at clauses because
sentences can be classified based on the number and kinds of clauses they contain.
Hence, this section briefly discusses about clauses that would help you in identifying the
types of sentences based on their grammatical structure.
A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. By learning about clauses,
you learn how to write effective sentences that clearly show the relationship between
your ideas.
For analysis, read the following short paragraph and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Because their literature and drama club proposed to raise money for the activities
this semester, the students planned to hold a talent show in the social science
college. (b) All the students in the club are naturally talented, but they don’t have
sufficient performing experiences and qualifications. (c) Nevertheless, they
thoroughly practiced for more than a month, and the show is certain to be useful
and entertaining.

1. What two ideas does sentence (a) present? Why did the students hold a talent
show?
2. What two ideas does sentence (b) present? What problem does this sentence
express?
3. What two ideas does sentence (c) present? How the students have solved their
problem?
In the given paragraph, you can recognize that each sentence presents two ideas, and each
idea is presented in a different clause. This shows that it is essential to learn how clauses
function and how they can be utilized to make your writing clear.
1.2. Types of Clauses

Clauses are primarily of two types: main clause (also called independent clause) and
subordinate clause (also called dependent clause). An independent clause has a subject
and a predicate and can stand by itself as a sentence. Example:
Most of the guests left the party at nine, but we stayed to help clean up. (‘Most
of the guests left the party at nine.’ and ‘We stayed to help clean up.’ are both
independent clauses and they can stand as independent sentences)
A dependent clause has a subject and a predicate, but it cannot stand by itself as an
independent clause but has to depend on another clause for the full meaning of the
sentence. Dependent clause usually begins with subordinate conjunction or relative
pronoun. Example:
Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 while he was growing some
cultures of common germs. (‘Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928’ is
an independent clause. ‘While he was growing some cultures of common germs.’ is
dependent clause.)
Task 1
Read the following sentences carefully and identify the dependent and the
independent clauses in each of them.
1. Although traditional Chinese medicine is an ancient science, many westerners are
unfamiliar with its principles.
2. Western medicine differs greatly from Chinese medicine which is rooted in
eastern culture and philosophy.
3. Although everyone wonders about the future, no one can predict it with complete
accuracy.
4. The player, who scored a hat trick, got a reward.
5. If people begin to live healthier, longer lives, they may choose to have several
different careers in one lifetime.
6. My friends spoke to the couple who lived in a little cottage.
7. Jabir and Martha went to the cafeteria after they had finished studying.
8. When Marie Curie was hired to teach physics and chemistry at the Sorbonne, she
became the first woman to teach there.
9. The singer could not go on to the stage last night because his voice was hoarse.

10. All persons present should stand respectfully at attention while the flag is being
raised.
1.3. Sentence Types Based on Their Structure

In order to write effective and meaningful sentences, you have to know the required
grammatical structures of sentences. If you are familiar with the patterns of construction
on which different types of sentences are based, you can feel confident of expressing
your ideas clearly to others. You can also vary the sentence types that you use in your
essays and reports to avoid monotonous series of sentence structures. This means, if you
consistently vary simple sentences with other, more complicated sentence structures, you
provide your readers with variety and maintain their interest. This section makes you
familiar with the four basic sentence types that may help you achieve this quality in your
writing.
1.3.1. Simple Sentence and Compound Sentence

A simple Sentence
A simple sentence can be described as a sentence structure that consists of only one
independent clause. In a simple sentence we may have a compound subject, a compound
predicate or both.
1. My brother reads magazines. (Simple sentence with a single subject)
2. Abebe and Gutema read fictions. (Simple sentence with compound subjects)
3. Dr. Kemal cleaned the patient’s teeth and examined them. (Simple sentence with
compound predicate)
4. Almaz and her brother listened carefully but missed the announcement. (Simple
sentence with compound subjects and compound predicate)
5. My father, mother and sister came to the school play, applauded the performers
and attended the party afterward. (Simple sentence with three subjects and three
predicates)
It is important to recognize that a simple sentence can be as short as one word such as
‘Devour!’, ‘Remember!’ and ‘Stop!’ However, a simple sentence is usually quite long
since adjectives, adverbs, prepositional phrases, appositives, verbal phrases and
complements are used to expand its subject and predicate. See these examples:
1. The boy devoured pasta.

2. The boy from North America with the funny earring in his left ear devoured a
dish of delicious Italian pasta.
3. Hawa remembered the story of a murderer.
4. Hawa remembered the story of a murderer watching a drama showing a murder
on the stage and confessing his guilt.
As you can see from these examples, you can easily understand that it is a mistake to tell
a simple sentence from a compound or complex sentence simply by looking at its length.
A Compound Sentence
A compound sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses that
are joined by coordinating conjunctions: and, but, nor, or, for or yet. In other words,

Compound sentences are formed by linking simple sentences. When forming compound
sentences, a comma is usually placed before coordinating conjunction.
A compound sentence is most effective when you use it to create a sense of balance or
contrast between two or more equally important pieces of information in your writing.
Examples:
1. Kansa rang the bell door several times, but no one answered.
2. She took dance classes, but she had no natural grace or sense of rhythm, so she
eventually gave up the idea of becoming a dancer.
3. The sun was setting over the mountains, and the shadows were growing long.
A compound sentence has also independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs such
as therefore, otherwise, nevertheless or semicolon.
Examples:
1. Nuclear accidents can happen; therefore, nuclear power plants should have strict
safety control.
2. Always go to other peoples funerals; otherwise, they won’t go to yours.
3. Sustainable development would require industry to reduce pollution output and
resource use; as a result, technical innovation will be stimulated.
4. All sentences in a paragraph must support the main point of the paragraph; all
paragraphs in an essay must support the thesis of the essay.
Task 2
Combine each of the following related sentences into one compound sentence. Use
the appropriate coordinating conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs and punctuations
1. Anthropologists discuss cultural materials with informants. Anthropologists

examine actions in cultural context.
2. In most societies, the family is the unit that regularly eats together. In some
societies, men and women eat separately.
3. Money can buy a bed. It cannot buy a good night's sleep.
4. In the 1960s, many young American men wore their hair long as a symbol of
opposition to authority. These days long hair is not a form of protest at all.
5. Newzealand lies in the Pacific Ocean, 1,600km to the east of Australia.
Newzealand consists of two large islands and a number of smaller ones.
6. Solar energy is clean and unlimited. We must turn to the sun to solve energy
needs.
7. Sun, wind and water are renewable energy sources. They do not cause pollution.
8. History is not merely a record of past events. History is an important connecting
link between the past and the present.
9. Many university students have some computer skills. They often lack the typing
skill and equipment needed to produce clean, professional-looking term papers.
10. Using chlorofluorocarbon as aerosol propellants has a devastating effect on the
environment. In 1978, the United States government banned the use of
chlorofluorocarbon as propellant.

1.3.2. Complex Sentence and Compound Complex Sentence
A complex Sentence
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses. A complex sentence often has a subordinator such as because, since, after,
although, or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which. Examples:
a. When he handed his homework, he forgot to give the teacher the last page.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent clause and one
dependent clause.
‘When he handed his homework,’ is dependent or subordinate clause.
‘He forgot to give the teacher the last page.’ Independent or main clause
b. The story that was told us by a little boy and that seemed almost unbelievable
turned out to be true on enquiry.
This is a complex sentence because it is constituted from one independent clause and two
dependent clauses.
‘The story turned out to be true’ is independent or the main clause.
‘That was told us by a little boy’ is dependent or subordinate. It is an adjective
clause qualifying the noun ‘story’ in the main clause.
‘That seemed almost unbelievable’ is also dependent or subordinate. It is an
adjective clause qualifying the noun ‘story’ in the main clause. It is coordinate
to the subordinate clause ‘that was told us by a little boy.’
A compound Complex Sentence
A compound complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses.
a. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found
anyone to go with.
This is a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two independent

clauses and one dependent clause.
I haven't had the time to go lately. (Independent clause)
I haven't found anyone to go with. (Independent or main clause)
"Although I like to go camping... ". (Dependent or subordinate clause)
b. Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, he chooses to use chopsticks in
Chinese restaurants; however, they aren't easy to use.
This is also a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two independent
clauses and one dependent clause.
He chooses to use chopsticks in Chinese restaurants (Independent or main
clause)
They aren't easy to use. (Independent or main clause)
Even though my friend prefers to eat with a fork, (Dependent or subordinate
clause)

C. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch
scary movies, thought that we were wrong.
We decided that the movie was too violent (independent clause)

our children thought that we were wrong (independent clause)
who like to watch scary movies (dependent clause)
Task 3
Write whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or compound
complex sentences. Give reasons for your answers.
1. Headaches, fever, exhaustion, loss of weight, bad cough and spitting blood are
symptoms of tuberculosis.
2. Although Africa is economically backward, African scientists have become
widely known all over the world.
3. Unless pollution is controlled, skies will become smoggy, and cities will be
dirtier.
4. If tourists from Addis wish to visit Omo National Park, they may have to travel by
car, but the trip may last more than a day.
5. Energy sources have been classified as renewable or non-renewable; a renewable
energy sources can never be depleted.
6. The demand for energy in America has been doubling nearly every twenty years.
7. Unless you practice speaking as much as possible, you will not develop
confidence in your oral skills.
8. Some scientists and environmentalists oppose the use of nuclear power.
9. The car ran off the road, but fortunately no one was hurt.
10. Dr. Daniel Hale Williams, the first successful heart surgeon, practiced medicine in
the nineteen century
11. After the storm was over, we decided to go home, but the snow had blocked the
drive away.
12. If someone wants to be effective public speaker, he/she is advised to have things
carefully planned and organized.
13. Patrick Henry stirred the colonists to revolt, Winston Churchill bolstered the
spirits of the British during World War II, and Martin Luther King demanded
equality for all.
14. Though Moges prefers watching horror films, he rented the latest spy thriller, and
he enjoyed it very much.
15. Scientists and environmentalists are studying global warming and reporting on its
impact.
16. We submitted our calculations, and we included several drawings even though
both types of information were not required.
17. Because Mr. Adugna was a talented instructor, he was voted teacher of the year,
and his students prospered.
1.4. Sentence Types Based on Their Function

In the preceding section you have seen how sentences are classified according to the
number and kinds of the clauses they contain. In addition to thinking about their clause
structures, it is also very useful to know the function sentences perform. Broadly

speaking, it is possible to classify sentences as fitting into one of the four categories:
declarative, interrogative, imperatives and exclamation.
1.4.1. Declarative Sentence
A declarative sentence is used to make a statement. It always ends with a period.

Examples:
a. The lab samples will be ready on Wednesday.
b. The western style of education has gained popularity all over the world.
c. The calf and its mother lifted their heads and bellowed.
1.4.2. Interrogative Sentence
An interrogative sentence is used to ask questions. It always ends with question mark.
Examples:
a. What is the primary purpose of a research?
b. When do you finish writing your assignment?
1.4.3. Imperative Sentence
An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction,

or instruction. If the command or the request is mild, the sentence ends with period. If the
command or the request is strong the sentence ends with the exclamation mark.
Examples:
a. Stop right there!
b. Submit the revised specifications of your plan by Friday.
c. Please turn out the lights.
d. After separating them from the yolks, beat the whites until they are light and
fluffy.
Notice that imperative sentences begin with a verb. The subject ‘you’ is implied. Notice
too that imperative sentences are used when describing steps in a set of instructions.
1.4.4. Exclamatory Sentence
An exclamatory sentence is used to express strong feeling. It often begins with the
modifier ‘what’ or ‘how’. An exclamatory sentence always ends with exclamation mark.
Examples:
a. What a wonderful day!
b. How beautiful is it!
c. Here comes the parade!
Notice that scientific and technical writers should avoid this type of sentence for the most
part because it violates a preference for dispassionate logic.
Task 4
Label each of the following sentences as Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, or
Exclamatory. Put the correct punctuation mark at the end of each sentence.
1. Aren’t you sorry that you didn’t go for a field trip
2. What a miserable day for a recreation
3. Slowly and cautiously, the rabbit emerged from its hiding place

4. How happy you look
5. The Magna Charta was signed in 1215, and it is considered the most important
document in the history of England
6. Return all the books that you have borrowed from the library, please
1.5. Faulty Sentences
1.5.1. Subject Verb Agreement Errors
When the agreement between the subject and a verb, a pronoun and its antecedent and a
number of the subject and a verb is not maintained it results in faulty agreement.
Examples:
a. Every scrap of soil and photo scan were analyzed for signs of past life on Mars.
(Faulty)
b. Every scrap of soil and photo scan was analyzed for signs of past life on Mars.
(Correct)
a. Almaz and her cousin has been studying mechanical engineering. (Faulty)
b. Almaz and her cousin have been studying mechanical engineering. (Correct)
In order to write correct and effective sentences, you are therefore expected to make your
subjects agree with the verbs. This section may help you to write sentences free from
agreement errors.
1.5.1.1. Singular and Plural Nouns and Pronouns
If a noun or personal pronoun in your sentence refers to one person, place, thing or idea,
it is singular in number and takes a singular verb. If a noun or personal pronoun refers to
more than one person, place or thing, or idea, it is plural in number and takes plural verb.
Examples:
a. He teaches technical report writing. (The singular pronoun ‘He’ and the singular
verb ‘teaches’ agree in number)
b. Children need frequent changes of activity. They need activities which are
exciting and stimulating their curiosity. (The plural noun ‘children’ or the plural
pronoun ‘They’ and the plural verb ‘need’ agree in number)
1.5.1.2. Words of Amount and Time as Subjects
If the plural subject denotes a definite amount or quality taken as a whole, the verb is
usually singular. Examples:
a. Ten dollars is too much to pay for dues. (Ten dollars is considered one amount of
money)
b. Three months is needed to complete the assignment. (Three months, in this
sentence, is one period of time.)
c. One hundred thousand light years is an extremely long time. (One hundred
thousand light years, in this sentence, is one period of time.)
Note that when such subjects refer to a number of individual units, they are plural.
a. Ten dollars were tucked in the mattress. (In this sentence, ten dollars is
considered to be ten individual dollars and not a single unit)
b. Three months have passed since the assignment. (In this example, three months
is considered to be three individual months and not one period of time)

If we want to write fraction or percent we need to make the verb agree with the preceding
noun. Examples:
a. One-third of this article is taken up with statistical analysis.
b. One-third of the students have graduate degrees.
c. Fifty percent of the job is routine.
d. Fifty percent of those children have psychological problems.
e. Three fourths of his salary goes to taxes.
f. Three fourths of the juniors are going to the dance.
1.5.1.3. Titles and Names as Subjects
The title of a book, story, play, movie, television program, musical composition, or
magazine refers to one work. Even if a noun within the title is plural, a title is always
singular and takes a singular verb. Examples:
a. The three Musketeers is an exciting novel by Alexandre Dumas.

b. Arsenic and Old Lace was performed last year by both the local community
theater and the high school’s drama club.
c. Problematical Recreations is a collection of mathematical puzzles.
1.5.1.4. Many a, Every, and Each with Compound Subjects
When many a, every, and each precedes a compound subject, the subject is considered
singular.
a. Many a writer, painter and musician knows disappointment.
b. Every child and adult enjoys the performances of the entertainers.
c. Each dolphin and its trainer is in the pool.
1.5.1.5. Indefinite Pronouns as Subjects
In English, some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be
either singular or plural, depending upon the noun they refer to. In order to make your
sentences effective and meaningful, you are therefore required to determine whether the
indefinite pronoun is singular or plural, and make the verb agree.
Indefinite pronouns
Singular or plural
Always singular Always plural
each everyone nobody several Some most
anything either everybody a few More plenty
nothing someone neither few All
everything anyone somebody many none
one no one anybody Enough
something
a. Examples:
Everyone in the class wants to read Romeo and Juliet. No one wants to read
King Lear.
Either is an appropriate answer.
Everybody was hoping for a victory.

b. Examples:
Few are expected for refreshment.
Both were good choices.
c. Examples:
Some of the meat was overcooked.
Some of the students were absent from the class.
All of her relatives are coming from California.
All of the sugar has been used.
1.5.1.6. Compound subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’
when or or nor( either…or or neither…nor) connects a compound subject made up of a

singular subject and a plural subject, use a verb form that agrees in number with the
subject that is closer to the verb in the sentence.
1. A calculator or an adding machine is needed for this job.
2. Neither the students nor their college dean was represented at the assembly.
(The singular noun dean is closer to the verb and it agrees with it)
3. Either my sister or her classmates are making public speaking. (The plural
subject classmates is closer to the verb and it agrees with it)
Although these sentences are grammatically correct, they sound awkward and may make
the readers have trouble in understanding the meaning clearly. Thus, you are advised to
rewrite such sentences to eliminate the awkwardness as follows:
1. The students were not represented at the assembly, nor was their college
dean.
2. Either my sister is making public speaking, or her classmates are.
1.5.1.7. Intervening Expressions
The number of a subject is not affected by phrases or expressions such as together with,
as well as, accompanied by, in addition to, plus, with and along with. Although
expressions such as these have a meaning that is similar to that of the conjunction ‘and’
they do not create a compound subject. However, if one of the two subjects happens to be
plural, the verb agrees with the former of the two. Examples:
1. The department head, with his children, has been attending the graduation
ceremony.
2. The children, with their father, have been attending the graduation ceremony.
3. Hanna’s job, in addition to her school work, takes her spare time.
4. The processing unit, together with all of its types of memory, forms the heart of
the machine.
1.5.1.8. Intervening Prepositional Phrases
When the prepositional phrase that modifies the subject usually comes between the
subject and the predicate, make sure that the verb agrees with the actual subject of the
sentence and not with the object of the preposition. That means you should not mistake a
word in a prepositional phrase for the subject of the sentence. Examples:

1. The bowl of raw vegetables looks appetizing. (The singular noun, bowl, is the
subject. The plural noun, vegetables, is the object of the preposition, of. The
verb, looks, agrees with the subject of the sentence, not with the object of the
preposition.)
2. The books on that shelf are biographies. (The plural noun, books, is the
subject. The singular noun, shelf, is the object of the preposition, on. The
verb, are, agrees with the subject of the sentence, not with the object of the
preposition.)
Task 5
Write the verb in parenthesis that agrees in number with the subject of each of the
following sentences.
1. Beams of coloured light (has, have) passed through the prism without creating a
rainbow pattern.
2. A term paper with many mistakes (does, do) not make a good impression.
3. Neither the directions on the package nor the brochure (explain, explains) how to
play.
4. Most people know when a computer system or program (work, works) properly,
and they can usually do minor repairs themselves.
5. Two hundred miles (is, are) a long ways to go on a bicycle
6. The bark of some trees (have, has) been used for years by herbalists to treat
certain diseases.
7. Many readers of Shakespeare believe that King Lear (is, are) his best play.
8. Every man, woman and child (remember, remembers) that cold winter.
9. Meron, together with her teammates, (present, presents) a formidable opponent on
the basketball court.
10. Three months sometimes (seem, seems) like three years.
11. Twenty-five years (is/are) the length of time during which Gilbert and Sullivan
collaborated on their operas.
12. France, as well as other European countries, (has, have) a tip-included policy.
1.5.2. Pronoun Reference Errors

A pronoun should refer clearly to one, clear, unmistakable noun coming before the
pronoun. When a pronoun lacks a clear and explicit antecedent, it results in pronoun
reference error.
1.5.2.1. Vague Pronoun Reference
You are advised never to use the pronouns this, that, which and it without a clearly stated
antecedent. When you use them, be sure that you have clearly expressed the object or the
idea that you mean these words to stand for.
a. Our school football team won, which was its reward for much hard work. (Vague
because the pronoun ‘which’ has no clear antecedent)
b. Our school football team won the championship trophy, which was its reward for
much hard work. (Effective because a clear antecedent is add for the pronoun)

a. Many people enjoy the talent of Whoopi Goldberg, and this is obvious from the
great number of people who go to see her films. (Vague because the pronoun
‘this’ has no clear antecedent)
b. Many people enjoy the talent of Whoopi Goldberg, and her popularity is obvious
from the great number of people who go to see her films. (Effective because a
clear antecedent is add for the pronoun)
1.5.2.2. Ambiguous Pronoun Reference
When a pronoun seems to refer to more than one antecedent, reword the sentence to make
the antecedent clear, or eliminate the pronoun.
a. Carlos told Jefferson that he had been elected the chairperson of the school.
(Vague: Who had been elected – Carlos or Jefferson?)
Carlos told Jefferson that Jefferson had been elected the chairperson of the
school. (Effective)
Carlos said to Jefferson, “you had been elected the chairperson of the
school.”(Effective)
Carlos said, “Jefferson, you had been elected the chairperson of the
school.”(Effective)
b. If you leave the book in your backpack, you will forget it. (Vague: what is the
antecedent of ‘it’- the book or the backpack?)
You will forget the book if you leave it in your backpack. (Effective because
there is clear antecedent)
If you leave the book in your backpack, you will forget the book. (Effective: the
pronoun ‘it’ is eliminated)
Left in your backpack, the book will be forgotten. (Effective: the pronoun ‘it’ is
eliminated)
1.5.2.3. Indefinite Use of Pronouns
Do not use ‘you’ or ‘they’ as indefinite pronouns. Instead, name the person or group to
which you are referring. You may also be able to reword the sentence in such a way that
you do not name the person or group and you do not use a pronoun. Usually you would
use the passive voice to accomplish this kind of revision.
a. To increase fitness, you have to exercise regularly. (Indefinite)
b. To increase fitness, an individual has to exercise regularly. (Effective because
the sentence is rewritten by substituting the noun for pronoun)
a. As part of basketball team, they must learn to work together. (Indefinite)
b. As part of basketball team, the players must learn to work together.
(Effective because the sentence is rewritten by substituting the noun for pronoun)
a. They said at the bank that my account was overdrawn. (Indefinite)
b. The teller at the bank said that my account was overdrawn. (Effective because a
noun is substituted for the pronoun)
Task 6
Rewrite the following sentences by making sure that all the pronouns are clearly
stated.
1. After interviewing several nurses, I realized that it was not the career for me.
2. In the army you must follow orders.

3. Bereket and Ayana are good friends, which began when they were in elementary
class.
4. Although the motorcycle hit the house, it was not damaged.
5. By watching the birds, Wilbur realized that in order to fly successfully, you must
operate an airplane on three separate axes.
6. When a person comes to class, you should have your homework ready.
7. The Wright brothers flew successfully, which occurred on December 17, 1903.
8. Although Mary Jane has studied French for a number of years, she has never
visited there.
1.5.3. Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not contain a subject or a verb or both.
This indicates that a fragment is an incomplete sentence. Hence, you need to avoid
sentence fragments when you write.
Examples:
a. Last Monday, walked to the class in the rain. (Subject is missing)
Revised: Last Monday, my dorm mate walked to the class in the rain. (Subject is
added)
b. Our instructor on techniques of paragraph development. (The verb is missing)
Revised: Our instructor lectured on techniques of paragraph development. (Verb is
added)
A common kind of sentence fragment is a phrase. It is separated sentence part that does
not express a complete thought. In other words, it is usually an additional idea that has
been incorrectly cut off from the sentence to which it belongs. This kind of fragment is
often corrected by including the phrase in a related sentence. Examples:
a. I saw the two friends. Running along the main road. (Fragment)
Revised: I saw the two friends running along the main road.
b. Arba Minch University offers many majors in Engineering. Such as Electrical,
Mechanical, and Civil Engineering. (Fragment)
Revised: Arba Minch University offers many majors in engineering such as
Electrical, Mechanical, and Civil Engineering.
Another common type of sentence fragment is the subordinate clause. This kind of
fragment can be fixed by combing the clause with a related sentence. Examples:
a. John wants to visit Australia. Because his ancestors came from there.
(Fragment)
Revised: John wants to visit Australia because his ancestors came from there.
b. Although Henson received little formal education. He wrote a book about his
adventure. (Fragment)
Revised: Although Henson received little formal education, he wrote a book
about his adventure.
Task 7
Rewrite the following items, correcting all the sentence fragments. Supply suitable
subjects and predicates where they are needed
1. There is our new windmill. Which provides part of the electricity for the house.
2. The tiger lily is a tall garden flower. That originally grew in Asia.

3. Was born in Hawasa but grew up in Arba Minch.
4. The equator is an imaginary line. That divides the earth into the northern and
southern hemisphere.
5. With great distinction from the department of management.
6. If you want to improve your confidence in making effective public speech. You
need to focus on the meaning you want to express.
7. While reading the book yesterday evening after dinner.
8. Although it happened several years ago. One news story stays in my mind.
9. Where did you camp last night? We found a place on an island in the middle of the
lake. Where there was a prepared camping spot.
10. Who talked to you in the corridor.
11. The band began to play some lively music. Which everyone enjoyed.
12. Although Jack did not study. He passed the course.
Task 8
Rewrite the following paragraphs to eliminate sentence fragments. Add or delete
words wherever necessary and be sure to check your revised version for correct
capitalization and punctuation.
Ellis Island sits. In New York City’s harbor with one of the most spectacular views in the
United States. Visitors can see the statue of liberty and the New York skyline. Which is a
popular attraction.
The island has had an interesting past. History records show. That the Dutch originally
named it Oyster Island. The government used the island to store weapons in the nineteen
century. It became well known. As one of the major gateways for immigrants to America.
People came to America from many places. Which include Africa, Asia and Latin
America. Arriving between 1892 and 1943 .Sixteen to seventeen million immigrants first
set foot on American soil at Ellis Island.
Many immigrants were unable. To speak English when they arrived. They had just taken
a long and sometimes hazardous sea voyage. They had very little money. In their pockets.
What they did have was a sense of adventure, a strong desire to make a new life for
themselves and their families. These bold people spread out. Across the country. Some
sought communities made up of their former compatriots. Others established new towns.
Throughout the country.
1.5.4. Run-on Sentences

A run on sentence has two or more complete sentences that are written as though they
were one sentence. A run on sentence lacks correct punctuations, so it can be confusing
to readers as it does not show where one idea ends and the next idea begins.
Run on sentences are of two types. They are fused sentences and comma splice. A fused
sentence consists of two or more complete sentences that are not separated by correct
punctuation at all. Examples:
a. Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center are broken already
this proves my point about American computer manufacturers.
b. The physicist Marie Curie discovered radium she won two Nobel prizes.

The second type of run on sentence is a comma splice. The comma splice consists of two
independent clauses that are separated by only comma, but without coordination.
a. Copper is far more malleable than steel, it can easily be shaped by hammering or
pressing.
b. There are different kinds of radio telescopes, all of them have antennas and
receivers.
You have seen how run-on sentences hamper the clarity of meaning in your writing.
Thus, you need to fix them to be able to express your thoughts effectively. To do so, here
you have some important ways of correcting run-on sentences.
1.5.4.1. Using a period/full stop (.)
The simplest way to correct a run-on sentence is to separate the improperly joined
sentences by using a period.
Run-on: My friend from chemistry department visited me yesterday we talked until
midnight.
Revised: My friend from chemistry department visited me yesterday. We talked
until midnight.
1.5.4.2. Using a semicolon (;)
If you want to encapsulate your two ideas in one sentence rather than two, you had better
use a semicolon rather than a period. A semicolon is probably the most important remedy
when there is the logical connection between the two independent clauses is already clear
and when the idea represented in the two clauses are very closely related.
a. Run- on: The great white shark supposedly eats humans research shows that
most white sharks spit them out after the first bite.
Revised: The great white shark supposedly eats humans; research shows that
most white sharks spit them out after the first bite.
b. Run-on: He got up late this morning he didn’t have time for breakfast.
Revised: He got up late this morning; he didn’t have time for breakfast.
1.5.4.3. Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction
Join the independent clauses with a comma and coordinating conjunction. Like the semi
colon, a conjunction allows you to combine your two ideas in a single sentence, but it has
the added advantage of allowing you to indicate the logical relationship between the two
ideas.
a. Run on: In western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, in much of Asia,
white is worn at times of death and mourning.
Revised: In western cultures, black is the colour of mourning, but in much of
Asia, white is worn at times of death and mourning.
b. Run on: Every living creature gives off a weak electrical charge in the water
special pores on the shark’s skin can detect these signals.
Revised: Every living creature gives off a weak electrical charge in the water,
and special pores on the shark’s skin can detect these signals.
1.5.4.4. Using subordinating conjunctions

Change one of the independent clauses to a subordinate clause, adding a subordinating
conjunction.
a. Run on: I have never been comfortable with public speaking in my life, I decided
to take some advanced speech courses.
Revised: Because I have never been comfortable with public speaking in my life,
I decided to take some advanced speech courses.
b. Run on: The rain stopped, we went for a walk along the beach.
Revised: When the rain stopped, we went for a walk along the beach.
1.5.4.5. Using conjunctive adverbs
Join the two independent clauses with a semicolon followed by a conjunctive adverb and
a comma.
a. Run on: A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols a
totemic animal may represent the clan.
Revised: A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols;
for example, a totemic animal may represent the clan.
b. Run on: He is a very weak president, most people support him.
Revised: He is a very weak president; nevertheless, most people support him.
Notice that it is also possible to correct those sentences in the following way:
 A social group such as a clan may be represented by different symbols. For
example, a totemic animal may represent the clan.
 He is a very weak president. Nevertheless, most people support him.
Task 9
Read the following run-on sentences carefully and rewrite them so that you make
them into good sentences
1. The annual football banquet of our University will take place on Saturday, all
plans are now complete, Kasa, the star player of the 2011championship team, is
coming from Hawassa and he will give the main address.
2. At the next meeting of the Dramatic Club, six new students will be initiated into
the organization, four of them are seniors and two are juniors so the total
membership in the club will be increased to twenty.
3. Two new sports have been added to the school athletic program, they are tennis
and golf, great interest is being shown and it is hoped that the next year there can
be an intramural tournament in each of these sports.
4. Albert Einstein is one of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century he changed
the way people view the universe.
5. Buying or leasing a car is a matter of individual preference, however, it’s wise to
consider several points before making a decision.
Task 10
The following text contains both fragments and run-on sentences. Rewrite the text
by eliminating sentence fragments and correcting the run-on sentences
The large, hollow organs of the digestive tract contain a layer of muscle. That enables
their walls to move. The movement of organ walls can propel food and liquid through the
system food moves from one organ to the next through muscle action called peristalsis.
Peristalsis looks like an ocean. Wave traveling through the muscle. The muscle of the
organ contracts to create a narrowing and then propels the narrowed portion slowly down

the length of the organ these waves of narrowing push the food and fluid in front of them
through each hollow organ.
The first major muscle movement occurs. When food or liquid is swallowed. Swallowed
food is pushed into the esophagus. Which connects the throat above with the stomach
below. At the junction of the esophagus and stomach, there is a ring like muscle, called
the lower esophageal sphincter as food approaches the closed sphincter, the sphincter
relaxes and allows the food to pass through to the stomach.
The stomach has three mechanical tasks, first, it stores the swallowed food and liquid. To
do this, the muscle of the upper part of the stomach relaxes. To accept large volumes of
swallowed material. The second job is to mix up the food, liquid, and digestive juice.
Produced by the stomach. The lower part of the stomach mixes these materials by its
muscle action the third task of the stomach is to empty its contents slowly into the small
intestine. Several factors affect emptying of the stomach. Carbohydrates, for example,
spend the least amount of time in the stomach. While protein stays in the stomach longer,
and fats the longest. As the food dissolves into the juices from the pancreas, liver, and
intestine, the contents of the intestine are mixed and pushed forward to allow further
digestion.
1.5.5. Dangling Modifiers
To modify means to qualify or limit the meaning of a word, phrase, or a clause. Thus in
grammar, a modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that qualifies or limits other words,
phrases, or clauses. When the modifier occurs at the beginning of the sentence, readers
usually expect it to modify the subject of the sentence. When it doesn’t logically do that,
the modifier is said to dangle. A dangling modifier, a specific case of which is the
dangling participle, can change the intended meaning of the sentence dramatically, which
makes readers have to slow down in order to sort-out the meaning.
Examples:
a. While driving on greenwood avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall
toward Almaz’s car. (It sounds like the tree was driving.)
Revised: While Almaz was driving on greenwood avenue yesterday afternoon, a
tree began to fall toward her car.
b. Rolling around in the slop, kumsa watched the stone. (Rolling modifies ‘Kumsa’
not ‘stone’)
Revised: Kumsa watched the stone that was rolling around in the slop.
c. Having arrived late for practice, a written excuse was needed. (The logical doer
of the action is left out from the main clause)
Revised: Having arrived late for practice, the captain of the team needed a
written excuse.
Task 11
The modifiers in the following sentence are dangling. Read the sentences carefully
and write their correct versions
1. Listening carefully, still could not understand what the instructor was saying.
2. Walking through the cemetery, many new graves were found.
3. After studying so hard, the final examination seemed easy.

4. Driving fifty miles over the speed limit, the dog was hit by the car.
5. Reading Faulkner’s short story “A rose for Emily,” the ending surprised us.
6. Driving on the NechSar National Park Road at dusk, the beautiful zebras were
foraging for food.
7. After reading the original research, the findings remain unconvincing.
8. Walking down the main street, a snake startled him.
9. Having been thrown into the air, the dog caught the ball.
10. Climbing up the ladder carefully, the frightened cat was brought down from the
tree.
1.5.6. Misplaced Modifiers
Misplace modifiers are different from dangling modifiers in that nothing has been left out
from the sentence. However, the modifiers are simply in the wrong place modifying the
wrong word or group of words. In order to produce coherent and meaningful writing, you
are therefore required to use modifying words, phrases or clauses in a sentence where
they clearly describe what they are intended to describe. Examples:
a. Our instructor could not drive to home in his small new car with a broken leg.
(Misplaced)
Revised: With a broken leg, our instructor could not drive to home in his small
new car.
b. My brother nearly studies for five hours every day. (Misplaced)
Revised: My brother studies nearly for five hours every day.
c. My friend’s mother held the ticket tightly in her hand that I gave her.
(Misplaced)
Revised: My friend’s mother held the ticket that I gave her tightly in her hand.
d. Only capacitors and inductors become good conductors when a frequency
reaches a certain level. (Misplaced)
Revised: Capacitors and inductors become good conductors only when a
frequency reaches a certain level.
Task 12
The following sentences have misplaced modifiers. Rewrite them correctly
1. I placed the television in the corner of the room that I had recently purchased.
2. Malaria is common in marshy areas which is a serious health problem.
3. My brother managed to play without any training the guitar.
4. The lady whom we greeted last Monday in front of the registrar office from
Germany offers Introduction to Basic Electronics.
5. Henry Rose Perot ran for the United States presidency in 1992 an American
business executive.
6. I experienced after jogging ten miles in the afternoon sun extreme fatigue.
7. A woman passed by leading a Springer spaniel in a long black dress.
8. When a sound system is working properly, the speaker nearly produces the same
vibrations that the microphone originally recorded and encoded on the tape or
CD.
9. Professor Wangari Maathai won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 who was known
for establishing Green Belt Movement.

1.5.7. Faulty Parallelism
Parallel construction or structure is the use of similar structure in a pair or series of
successive expressions in a sentence. Parallelism helps the flow of a sentence and
emphasizes the relationships of the ideas in parallel elements. This means, it keeps a
sentence balanced by making these elements grammatically equal: nouns are paired with
nouns, verbs with verbs, and the like.
Faulty parallelism occurs when two or more parts of a sentence are parallel in meaning,
but not parallel in form.
1.5.7.1. With lists after a colon or lists in series
When listing a series of things, ideas, or actions, make sure that all the elements in a list
have the same grammatical structure.
a. The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings and looking up irregular verbs.(Non- parallel)
Revised: The dictionary can be used for these purposes: to find word meanings,
pronunciations, correct spellings and irregular verbs.
b. The faculty dean went to the hairdresser’s, visited the butcher shop, and stopped
off at the movie theater. (Non-parallel)
Revised: The faculty dean went to the hairdresser’s, to the butcher shop, and to
the movie theater.
c. The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clearly and logically.
(Non-parallel)
Revised: The students want to learn how to write with simplicity, clarity and
logic.
1.5.7.2. With coordinating conjunctions
When joining two words or word groups by the coordinating conjunctions, each word or
word group must have the same grammatical functions.
a. He enjoys playing football and to read different fictions. (Non-parallel)
Revised: He enjoys playing football and reading different fictions.
b. My friend blocked well, but tackles unskillfully. (Non- parallel)
Revised: My friend blocked well, but tackled unskillfully. Or My friend blocks
well, but tackles unskillfully.
c. His mother kept the store clean and she made it conveniently arranged. (Non-
parallel)
Revised: His mother kept the store clean and conveniently arranged.
1.5.7.3. With correlative conjunctions
These includes: either…or, neither…nor, not only….but also, both…. and, need to
have the same or balanced patterns both before and after the half of the pair.
Examples:
a. This book is not only broader, but also the most difficult one. (Non- parallel)
Revised: This book is not only broader, but also more difficult. Or
This book is not only the broadest, but also the most difficult one.
b. That man is either a thief or robbing the bank. (Non- parallel)
Revised: That man is either a thief or a robber.

c. Either you must grant his request or incur his ill will. (Non- parallel)
Revised: You must either grant his request or incur his ill will.
1.5.7.4. Comparison with ‘than’ or ‘as’
When comparing people or things using ‘than’ or ‘as’, you have to make parallel
comparison.
a. The girls in Ontario are prettier than California.(Non- parallel)
Revised: The girls in Ontario are prettier than the girls in California.
b. Joan does not like basketball as much as she seemed to like football.(Non-
parallel)
Revised: Joan does not like basketball as much as she likes football.
Task 13
The following sentences have errors in parallelism. Identify their problems and
write their correct version
1. Her new friend enjoys working hard, getting paid well, and to achieve a sense of
satisfaction.
2. My little brother hates to get up early in the morning, to brush his teeth and
combing his hair.
3. The computer system has multiple functions such as correcting spelling mistakes,
checking for grammatical errors, and can check paragraph structure.
4. The drummer kept the beat, the guitarist played the melody and the singing was
done by the piano player.
5. Martha likes walking, mountaineering, swimming and she likes reading.
6. My instructor warned me to revise my essay and that I should pay close attention
to parallel structures.
7. The committee members attended the meeting, reflected their views and they
were going back to their hometown.
8. As soon as I entered the dorm, I greeted my friends, placed my exercise books in
the locker, and I was running quickly to the cafeteria.
9. The movie we saw was not only too long but was also extremely violent.
10. He wanted three things out of college: to learn skill, to make good friends, and
learning about life.
Task 14
Read the following paragraph carefully and revise any underlined sections for
parallel grammatical structure.
Many college courses require students to write essays as part of the class curriculum. An
academic essay for a college course should contain a thesis, body, and to conclude. It is
important for students to perform some type of pre-writing or to cluster before they start
typing on the computer. Pre-writing will usually help students to find and expand new
ideas for the paper. After pre-writing, students should type a rough draft using their
previous cluster. Students are always nervous in writing the rough draft and started the
paper. It is better for students to write to the end of the rough draft than stopping every
few sentences to check the grammar. If students do not expand their rough draft, the
essay will not only be short but will be also disorganized. Revising the essay for a strong
thesis, organization, and proper supporting is the most important part of the writing
process. This is what separates the strong writers from the weak writers. The final step in

writing a college paper is editing. This is where students will check the paper for
grammatical errors, proper punctuating, and spelling errors. A strong writing process
will allow students to write a proper college essay.
1.5.8. Unnecessary Shifts

A shift in a sentence can be described as an abrupt, unneeded change in subject, voice,
tense, mood, person, number or direct or indirect discourse. These unnecessary shifts can
confuse readers and make it difficult for them to follow what you write. Hence, you are
intended to use consistent verb tense (past or present), person (second or third), voice
(active or passive), and mood (statements or commands) so that you can convey your
messages effectively.
1.5.8.1. Shifts in subject
A shift in subject is a grammatical error in which the writer starts a sentence, paragraph,
or section of a paper using one particular type of subject and then suddenly shifts to
another. This often confuses the reader. Examples:
a. Most people expect major improvements in the future, but some hardships are
also anticipated. (The subject shifts from people to hardships and the voice from
active to passive)
Revised: Most people expect major improvements in the future, but they also
anticipate some hardships. or
Most people expect major improvements in the future, but also anticipate some
hardships.
b. I am studying chemistry, although laboratory work does not especially appeal to
me. (The subject shifts from I to laboratory work)
Revised: I am studying chemistry, although I do not especially like laboratory
work.
1.5.8.2. Shifts in voice.
Shifts in voice occur when a writer makes unnecessary shifts between the active voice
and the passive voice. Mistakes like these often happen when combining two thoughts
within a sentence and it ends up making the whole passage sound awkward.
Examples:
a. Our university president will speak for about an hour today; then questions from
the audience will be answered. (Shift from active voice to passive voice)
Revised: Our university president will speak for about an hour today; then he
will answer questions from the audience.
b. The first draft of my research paper was completed, and then I started the second
draft. (Shift from passive to active)
Revised: I completed the first draft of my research paper, and then I started the
second draft.
1.5.8.3. Shifts in tense.
A shift in tense occurs when a sentence begins in one tense and shifts without warning
and for no reason to another. Unless it is required by the events you are telling in the

piece of writing, you should never shift between past, present and future tenses.
Unnecessary shifts in tense more commonly occur within a paragraph rather than within
an individual sentence. Examples:
a. In history, Harriet Tubman was a pioneer for the freedom of slaves. She is an
awesome woman. (Shift from past to present tense)
Revised: In history, Harriet Tubman was a pioneer for the freedom of slaves.
She was an awesome woman.
b. John F. Kennedy arrived in Dallas, Texas, at around 11:35 a.m. From the airport,
his car will be traveling toward downtown Dallas. As the cars turned toward the
Dallas Book Depository, shots rang out. (Shift from past to future continuous
tense)
Revised: John F. Kennedy arrived in Dallas, Texas, at around 11:35 a.m. From the
airport, his car traveled toward downtown Dallas. As the cars turned toward the
Dallas Book Depository, shots rang out.
Note: Of course a shift in tense is necessary whenever there is a change in time.
Therefore, you may shift from present to past tense or from past to present only when you
need to indicate a change in time as in the following examples:
a. Usually, my dorm mates and I study several days before a test, but this time we
studied the night before.
b. Our instructor wrote an interesting lab manual, which is still used today in our
department.
Task 15
Revise the following sentences to avoid unnecessary shifts in subject, tense and voice
1. He studied computer science in Addis Ababa University and obtains a bachelor
degree with great distinction.
2. If students really learn how to study efficiently, much better grades will be made
on exams.
3. Questions are asked by the students when they do not understand the instructor.
4. Ethiopian farmers have learned how to grow cereal crops and their traditional
knowledge and practices have been passed on from generation to generation.
5. I asked my friend what sort of music he liked, and he tells me that he had always
likes spiritual music. I asked him if he had ever listened to a pop music and he
tells me that he had never listened to it.
6. A campaign to clean up movies in the United States began in the 1920s as civic
and religious groups try to ban sex and violence from the screen.
7. The university is attempting to revise its curriculum and the students were asked
to submit suggestions.
8. Some people like bananas, but strawberries are preferred by others.
1.5.8.4. Shifts in mood.
Mood indicates whether a sentence is a statement or a question (indicative mood), a

command or request (imperative mood), or a conditional or other than a real statement
(subjunctive mood).Shift in mood occurs when the writer starts a sentence using one
particular type of mood and then suddenly shifts to another. Examples:

a. Read the instructions carefully and you must assemble the equipment completely
before beginning the procedure. (Shift from imperative mood to indicative
mood)
Revised: Read the instructions carefully and assemble the equipment completely
before beginning the procedure. (Imperative mood is used consistently)
Revised: You must read the instructions carefully and assemble the equipment
completely before beginning the procedure. (Indicative mood is used consistently)
b. If he were in difficulty and was unable to overcome it, would you not help him?
(Shift from subjunctive mood to indicative mood)
Revised: If he were in difficulty and were unable to overcome it, would you not
help him?
c. Hold the rifle firmly against your shoulder, and then you should take careful aim.
(The verb shifts from imperative to indicative mood)
Revised: Hold the rifle firmly against your shoulder and then take careful aim.
1.5.8.5. Shifts in person.
A shift in person occurs when a writer shifts back and forth among the first, second and
third persons.
Examples:
If our students really study hard and learn how to work effectively, you can
succeed in their lifetime. (Shift from third person plural to second person)
Revised:
a. If our students really study hard and learn how to work effectively, they can
succeed in their lifetime.
b. If you really study hard and learn how to work effectively, you can succeed in
your lifetime.
1.5.8.6. Shifts in number.
A shift in number occurs when a plural pronoun is used to refer back to a singular
antecedent or vice versa. Example:
When an employee is treated with respect, they are more motivated to do a good
job. (Shift from third person singular to third person plural)
Revised:
a. When employees are treated with respect, they are more motivated to do a good
job.
b. An employee who is treated with respect is more motivated to do a good job.
c. Employees who are treated with respect are more motivated to do a good job.
1.5.8.7. Shifts from direct to indirect discourse.
In writing, you are required to avoid shifts between indirect discourse and direct
discourse. It is incorrect to write direct discourse and omit the quotation marks. It is also
incorrect to write sentences that mix indirect and direct discourse. Such shift errors
confuse readers who can’t tell what was said and what was merely being reported.
A critic said that board members were acting as censors and what you are doing is
unconstitutional. (Said that sets up indirect discourse, but what you are doing is
unconstitutional is direct discourse; it also lacks quotation marks and the changes in
language that distinguish spoken words from reported words.)

Revised:
a. A critic said that board members were acting as censors and that what they were
doing is unconstitutional. (Indirect discourse is used consistently)
b. A critic, in stating that board members were acting as censors, added “What you
are doing is unconstitutional.” (This revision uses discourse correctly, with
quotation marks and other changes in language to distinguish spoken words from
reported words.)
Task 16
Revise the following sentences to avoid unnecessary shifts in mood, person, number,
and direct to indirect discourse.
1. People feel productive, so when the job is unsatisfying, you usually become
depressed.
2. A high school or a primary teacher is very lucky because they get the summer off.
3. A university lecturer has an interesting job because their students are always so
different.
4. Before you can plan ways of improving your English, they want to know exactly
what they do well and what needs improvement.
5. Meron and Fenet both think they will win first prize in the poetry contest that will
be held by English language and literature department, but she will not be the
winner this year.
6. Look at the sky, and you will tell me its color.
7. I am very eager to continue my studies by studying a master’s program in computer
science so that he can specialize in artificial intelligence.
8. The production Code included two guidelines on violence: do not show the details
of brutal killings, and movies should not be explicit about how to commit crimes.
9. Before you begin to criticize others, we should consider what those people might
have been through.
10. Come to the main campus tomorrow, and then you should call me in the morning.
Task 17
Revise the following paragraph to eliminate unnecessary shifts in person, number,
tense, mood, and voice.
Driving in snow need not be dangerous if you practice a few rules. First, one should
avoid fast starts, which prevent the wheels from gaining traction and may result in the
car's getting stuck. Second, drive more slowly than usual, and you should pay attention to
the feel of the car: if the steering seemed unusually loose or the wheels did not seem to be
grabbing the road, slow down. Third, avoid fast stops, which lead to skids. One should be
alert for other cars and intersections that may necessitate that the brakes be applied
suddenly. If you need to slow down, the car's momentum can be reduced by downshifting
as well as by applying the brakes. When braking, press the pedal to the floor only if you
have antilock brakes; otherwise, the pedal should be pumped in short bursts. If you feel
the car skidding, the brakes should be released and the wheel should be turned into the
direction of the skid, and then the brakes should be pressed or pumped again. If one
repeated these motions, the skid would be stopped and the speed of the car would be
reduced.

1.6. Using Varied Sentence Types
In addition to being familiar with sentences according to their grammatical forms, you
should learn how to vary sentence length and how to use special literary sentence types.
Sentence variety establishes rhythm, contributes to meaning and keeps the reader’s
interest. This section provides you with the ways of varying sentences in your writing.
Too many simple or compound sentences beginning with the subject followed by the
verb can create a monotonous effect. More importantly, such writing may lack coherence
and needed emphasis. In order to improve coherence and add emphasis to your writing,
consider beginning your sentences differently. Look at some of the following examples:
1.6.1. Begin with adverbial modifier
You can easily begin with an adverbial modifier in front of the sentence subject, if such
construction is needed to achieve emphasis and coherence. The modifiers can be single
word, phrases, or clauses.
Examples:
Original: The workers in the factory were in their rooms for seven days, where they
were deprived of sleep, overwhelmed by works, and driven to distraction with
worry.
Revised for variety: For seven days, the workers in the factory were deprived of
sleep, overwhelmed by works, and driven to distraction with worry.
Original: The ornithologist cautiously approached the eagle’s nest.
Revised for variety: Cautiously, the ornithologist approached the eagle’s nest.
1.6.2. Begin with prepositional phrase
Original: Today was the first day in my English class, and I couldn't believe that
we had an assignment already.
Revised for variety: In my English class today, we already have an assignment.
Original: There were two kinds of engineers before the Industrial Revolution.
Revised for variety: Before the Industrial Revolution, there were two kinds of
engineers.
1.6.3. Begin with Participial phrases
Original: I keep thinking of the lazy days of summer, and I wish September had
never arrived.
Revised for variety: Thinking of the lazy days of summer, I wish September had
never arrived.
Original: The molecules of a gas at high temperature move within a closed space,
constantly colliding with walls and other molecules.
Revised for variety: Constantly colliding with walls and other molecules, the
molecules of a gas at high temperature move within a closed space.
1.6.4. Begin with infinitive phrase
Original: My brother used to study hard to perform well on matriculation.
Revised for variety: To perform well on matriculation, my brother used to study
hard.

Original: A thorough understanding of thermodynamics is required to design a heat
sink, an air conditioning system, or an internal combustion engine.
Revised for variety: To design a heat sink, an air conditioning system, or an
internal combustion engine, a thorough understanding of thermodynamics is
required.
1.6.5. Begin with subordinate clause
Subordinate clauses at the beginnings of sentences usually serve as adverbs. Begin a

sentence with a subordinate or dependent clause to achieve variety that results in a
complex sentence.
Original: Today was the first day in my English class, and I couldn't believe that we
had an assignment already.
Revised for variety: Since today was the first day in my English class, I found it
hard to believe that we already had homework.
Original: Most nocturnal birds have very large eyes, but the New Zealand Kiwi’s
eyes are tiny.
Revised for variety: Although most nocturnal birds have very large eyes, the New
Zealand Kiwi’s eyes are tiny.
Task 18
Rewrite each sentence so that it begins with an introductory word, phrase, or clause
modifier. One example is done for you.
Example:
 The new city hall, an excellent example of modern architecture, is a favorite
tourist site.
 An excellent example of modern architecture, the new city hall is a favorite tourist
site.
1. Archaeologists have discovered many facts about the life and times of ancient
Pompeii city to add to our knowledge of bygone days.
2. Wealthy Romans, attracted by the beauty of the location and healthfulness of the
climate, built many villas in Pompeii.
3. Americans in 1776 held a mock funeral for the British King, marking the “death”
of tyranny.
4. He looked through the program to find what songs Chita Rivera would sing.
5. Someone usually played a piano in the theater to accompany the action in the
film.
6. The metric system, tested and refined, has been in use in Europe and most of the
rest of the world since the early nineteenth century.
1.7. Choppy Sentences
If you overload your writing with sentences of the same length or choppy sentences, it
becomes monotonous. To avoid this monotony, use a variety of sentence structures in
your writing. You may make choppy sentences effective by combining some simple
sentences into compound or complex sentences; by varying sentence beginnings or by
combining some short sentences in to longer ones.
Examples:

Choppy: A car spring will extend and release the energy. It absorbs this energy
when it hits a bump. When the bump occurs, the spring extends and releases the
energy at an uncontrolled rate. This can be prevented by a shock absorber. The
shock absorber provides a dampening structure.
Effective: Unless a dampening structure provided by a shock absorber is present, a
car spring will extend and release the energy that it absorbs from a bump at an
uncontrolled rate.
Choppy: The spring will continue to bounce. It will bounce at its natural frequency.
It will do this until all of the energy is used up. This is energy that was originally
put into it.
Effective: The spring will continue to bounce at its natural frequency until all of the
energy originally put into it is used up.
Task 19
The following items contain choppy sentences that result in poor style of academic
writing. Rewrite them by making the choppy sentences more effective
1. We must find new sources of energy. Natural sources of energy are decreasing.
Solar energy is a promising new source of energy. Solar energy is energy from
sun.
2. My grandmother was a gregarious woman. She had many friends. She often
invited them to her home in the country.
3. She was our biology teacher. We were in high school. She was tiny. She was a
birdlike woman. She was swarthy. She had dark eyes. Her eyes were sparkling.
Her hair was graying.
4. Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also unlimited energy source.
Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are
relatively new.
5. He must clean all the silver. He must put it away. He must look it up. He must
bring me the key of the box. These were my orders to him.
6. Atticus Finch is a lawyer. He lives in a small Alabama town called Maycomb. He
has two children. He raises them alone because he is a widower. He is an honest
man. He lives among poor, prejudiced people. He faces trouble when he defends a
black man in a trial.
7. My friend was restless. He walked out of his house. He walked down the block.
He turned left at the corner. He went to the grocery. He walked into the grocery.
He bought some stale cheese. He walked home and ate the stale cheese.
1.8. Conciseness in Writing Sentences

Some believe that conciseness can be achieved by writing the sentences with strong and
few words. However, a sentence is short does not necessarily mean that it is concise, or
that a sentence is long means it is not necessarily wordy. To write concisely means to
make your writing clear and understandable by stating your ideas directly and briefly.
Which of the followings are concise? Which ones are wordy? Why? What strategies
can you use to eliminate this wordiness?

a. The river moves more slowly on level land, and so it spreads out over a wide area,
and it traces a curve called a “meander.”
b. The river moves more slowly on level land. It spreads out over a wide area and it
traces a curve called a “meander.”
a. Over the course of the year, Jerry Brothers Inc. increased their profits by only three
percent, which was disappointing, but they were able to reduce their overhead by
more than fifty percent, so the overall profits for the company nearly tripled during
the course of the year.
b. Over the course of the year, Jerry Brothers Inc. increased their profits by only three
percent, which was disappointing. On the other hand, they were able to reduce their
overhead by more than fifty percent. Consequently, the overall profits for the
company nearly tripled during the course of the year.
As you can see from the above example, one important strategy to eliminate wordiness is
to make sure that you have not joined too many ideas in one sentence by overusing
coordinating words. Revise sentences with too many ideas by dividing them into two or
more sentences, by using compound subjects and compound predicates, and by putting
some ideas in subordinate clause. Here are also some more important strategies to avoid
needless wordiness
1.9. Needless Repetition

In order to keep the interest of the readers and to emphasize significant ideas, it is usually
important and even necessary, to repeat main ideas and points in your writing. Repetition
is also essential in connecting a sentence with the one that precedes it for cohesion.
However, unnecessary repetition wastes readers’ time and energy, causes writing to be
needlessly wordy, and can irritate rather than aid readers. When the repetition of a word
or phrase is clearly not needed, revise the sentence. Examples:
Wordy: When Markos saw the advertisement in the newspaper for the executive
accountant position, he decided to apply for the position. Markos had worked for
his current firm for five years, but Markos was ready for a new position with a
different firm. Markos was confident that he would be offered the position if he
applied for the position.
Concise: When Markos saw the advertisement in the newspaper for the executive
accountant position, he decided to apply for the job. The young man had worked for
his current firm for five years, but he was ready for a new role with a different
company. Markos was confident that he would be offered the position if he applied
for it.
1.9.1 Avoid Empty Words and Phrases
Avoid using empty words and phrases, such as using ‘there are’ or ‘it is’ at the beginning
of a sentence instead of starting with the subject of the sentence. When possible, reword
the sentence so that the subject comes at the beginning. Other examples of empty words
and phrases are using hedge words such as ‘I believe’, ‘in my opinion’, ‘it appears’, and
so forth. It is generally best to simply leave out these phrases, as readers assume that you
are sharing your own beliefs, opinions, and the like when you write. Examples:

Wordy: There are more than thirty people living in this apartment building. In my
opinion, the best thing that they can do is start over.
Concise: More than thirty people live in this apartment building. The best thing
they can do is start over.
Wordy: There is a snow-capped mountain that appears on the left, and there are
storm clouds that are gathering in the background.
Concise: A snow-capped mountain appears on the left, and storm clouds are
gathering in the background.
Wordy: I think that George's wife is unhappy because George ignores her.
Concise: George's wife is unhappy because George ignores her.
1.9.2. Avoid Wordy Phrases and Sentences
So as to make the sentence to be more direct and powerful, in many cases, you need to
strengthen sentences by replacing wordy verb phrases with the verb alone.Examples:
Wordy: When you need to make repairs to your appliance, carefully consult the
owner’s manual.
Concise: When you need to repair your appliance, carefully consult the owner’s
manual.
Wordy: Before performing the test on the patients, the doctor made sure to obtain
their permission.
Concise: Before testing the patients, the doctor obtained their permission.
Nominalizations are another example of writing that is often overly wordy. A
nominalization is a noun that is made from a word that is normally used as a verb, such as
preservation from preserve and reliance from rely. Such words are often followed by a
form of to be or a prepositional phrase or both, as in the phrase “the decision of the board
is to….” Such constructions are needlessly long.
Examples:
Wordy: They refused to make alterations to the plans in order to be compliant with
the building code.
Concise: They refused to alter the plans in order to be compliant with the building
code.
Concise: His management of the business was excellent.
Concise: He managed the business excellently.
1.9.3. Avoid Unnecessary Passive Voice
Sentences that use the passive voice are generally less direct and wordier than those that
use active voice for the subject position is occupied not by the person or thing doing the
action. For this reason, you are intended to use active voice when possible and
appropriate. Examples:
Wordy: The meeting was initiated by our college dean.
Concise: Our college dean initiated the meeting.
Wordy: Yesterday, an emergency evacuation was mandated by the mayor.
Concise: Yesterday, the mayor mandated an emergency evacuation.
However, there are times when the passive voice is preferred. For instance, when writers
want to focus on the action rather than the actor or when the actor is unimportant or
unknown, passive constructions are generally best. Examples:
Last week two escaped convicts were captured.

We heard that thirty employees will be laid off next week.
1.9.4. Make the Right Diction
In order to write your sentences concisely and effectively, you have to make careful word
choice. Use precise, descriptive, and interesting words. For example, try to avoid vague
nouns such as type, thing, kind, and situation; vague adjectives such as nice, good, bad,
and a lot; and vague adverbs such as really, very, and totally. Keep a good dictionary and
thesaurus at hand for easy reference so that you can find the words that best express your
meaning.
Examples:
Wordy: That is exactly the type of thing that is very good for our company.
Concise: Finding solid companies with which to merge has proven to be an
excellent way to expand our market share and increase profits.
Wordy: This situation has turned out to be really bad.
Concise: Unfortunately, the stockholders’ meeting was a dismal failure.
1.9.5. Avoid Redundancy
Redundancy in your writing means using words that could be left out without changing or
losing any meaning. Saying that it is 67 degrees in temperature, for example, is
redundant because we already know that when we use degrees we are talking about
temperature. When you find redundant wording in your writing, revise it. Examples:
Wordy: Many uneducated citizens who have never attended school continue to
vote for better schools.
Concise: Many uneducated citizens continue to vote for better schools.
Wordy: The teacher demonstrated some of the various ways and methods for
cutting words from my essay that I had written for class.
Concise: The teacher demonstrated methods for cutting words from my essay.
Task 20
Revise these sentences to state their meaning in concise words. Use two or more
sentences if necessary
1. In my opinion, I was convinced that the building we live in could be repaired.
2. The inspector had no clear idea in his mind as to the identity of who the jewel thief
was.
3. Above all things my younger brother likes mystery stories best.
4. The airplane was invented in 1903, and so travel within North America became
fast and convenient, and air travel soon connected the continent with the rest of the
world.
5. A campus rally was attended by more than a thousand students. Five students were
arrested by campus police for disorderly conduct, while several others are charged
by campus administrators with organizing a public meeting without being issued a
permit to do so.
Task 21
The sentences in the following paragraph are wordy. Rewrite the paragraph to
make these sentences more concise

Canada has a small population for its size, and so it has only a few large cities, and
Toronto is the largest city. It is in the province of Ontario. Banking and industry are
important activities in Toronto, and the busy stock exchange there leads the whole world
in buying and selling mining shares in mines. Montreal is the second largest city, and it is
in the province of Quebec. By the 1980s Vancouver, in the province of British Columbia,
had become the third largest city, and so it is next after Toronto and Montreal. All three
cities are close to the continental United States. However, all three cities are far in
distance from the northern part of Canada.
1.10. Punctuation Marks in Writing Effective Sentences
Punctuation marks can make or mar the meaning of a sentence. They are a set of
symbols, and are an integral part of written language. There are specific rules for the
usage of each. Punctuation marks help put spoken words into writing. Thus, it is said that
punctuation is the art of dividing written discourses into sections by means of points, for
the purpose of showing the grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the
sense more obvious.
The most important punctuation marks are: the full stop or period, the question mark, the
exclamation mark, the comma, the semicolon, the colon,the dash, the hyphen, the bracket
or parenthesis, the quotation mark and the apostrophe.
Punctuation marks with some relevant examples
Punctuation Marks Examples
Full stop or period (.)

Put a full stop or period to end a statement Flowers are beautiful in the spring.
or a command. Water the flowers.
Use a full stop or a period after an B.Sc., Ph.D., Mr., Mrs.
abbreviation or shortened word
Put a question mark at the end of a question How long have been in Arba Minch?
Use an exclamation mark to show strong
feeling Well, I am not a gardener! What an awful sight!
Comma(,) mark for the shortest pause is used:

To separate items in a series I am taking English, Spanish, physics, and
economics.
To separate the day of the month from the Americans declared their independence from
year, and after the year. England on July 4, 1776, in Philadelphia.
Americans declared their independence from
Note: if no day is given, no commas are England in 1776 in Philadelphia.
necessary. The office of the famous fictional detective
To separate the parts of an address in a Sherlock Holmes was located at 221b Baker
sentence. Street, London, England.
Walking home, my sister decided to change her
To set off an introductory phrase from the major.
rest of the sentence. To keep fit, people should try to exercise
regularly.
I have visited only one country, Canada, outside
To set off an appositive—a word or word the United States.
group that identifies, renames, or describes Mr. John, our head master, is out.
a noun or a pronoun. A really gifted artist, he is also a wonderful
father.
The mayor, who was recently elected, has no
To separate a non-defining clause. political experience.
The boy, who stood first, got a prize.
Before a coordinating conjunction in a We don’t need to bring umbrellas, for the sun is
compound sentence. shining brightly.
After a dependent adverbial clause that is Because kora is an outstanding student, he
followed by an independent clause in a always gets the first rank from the class.
complex sentence.
Semicolon (;) mark for a little longer pause than the coma is used:
Between independent clauses that are not My battery is dead; my car won’t start.
connected by a coordinating conjunction in My battery is dead; therefore, my car won’t
a compound sentence. start.
Come in time; delay may spoil your chance.
Colon (: ) a longer pause than semicolon is used:
To introduce a direct quotation. Our family motto is a simple one: “Accept no
substitutes.”
To introduce an explanation, a clarification, Only one thing kept him from climbing Mt.
or an example. Everest: fear of heights.
To introduce a list. I left my job for four reasons: boring work, poor
working conditions, low pay, and a terrible
supervisor.
The dash (—), the hyphen(-), and the bracket ( )
Use dashes to set off important information. She parked her car—a red Firebird—in front of
the president office.
Use hyphen to form a compound word. Pick-pocket, hot water-bottle

Use bracket or parentheses to enclose The weather in Portland (a city in Oregon) was
material that is relatively unimportant. overcast.
Quotation marks (“ ”) are used:
Around the words of direct quotation She said, “I’ll miss you.”
“I’ll write you every day,” she promised.
“I’ll think about you every day,” she continued,
“and I’ll dream about you every night.”
Apostrophe ( ’ ) is used:
To combine two words. The apostrophe I didn’t =did not, It’s =it is not, I am= I’m
takes the place of omitted letters.
To show ownership. Nouns and indefinite The strike’s outcome (the outcome of the strike)
pronouns do not have special possessive was uncertain.
forms. Instead, they use apostrophes to Whether it would succeed was anyone’s guess
indicate ownership. (the guess of anyone).
To form the possessive of plural nouns The two drugs’ side effects (the side effects of
ending in -s (including names), add just an the two drugs) were quite different.
apostrophe (not an apostrophe plus an s). The Johnsons’ front door (the front door of the
[
Johnsons) is red.
Task 22
Read the following two paragraphs carefully and add the correct punctuations
where necessary. Consider Capitalization in your correction.
1.Mark loves to travel but Merry doesn’t so they often argue about where to spend their
vacation time one summer they decided to try something different Mark went to Thailand
but Merry stayed home Marks brother Alex and sister-in-law Jennifer went with him they
knew that they could only spend one week in Thailand so they had to decide what to do
they could all go scuba diving in Southern Thailand or Mark could go by himself on an
elephant trek in Northern Thailand and Alex and Jennifer could meet him later in
Bangkok Mark chose the elephant trek and he had an exciting time Merry was also
having a good time back home sometimes she went out with her friends at night and
sometimes her mother would visit her during the day she also liked to spend time by
herself practicing her piano Mark and Merry learned that they could spent their vacations
separately yet they both could have a good time
2.Although new technology creates new kinds of jobs new technology also usually makes
many existing jobs disappear for example when trains started to be used as a primary
form of transportation many jobs that depended on horses and oxen started to disappear
later automobiles became the major form of transportation as a result railroad companies
could no longer keep as many people employed another new kind of technology that is
leading to job loss is the digital camera companies that make film are laying off workers
because so many consumers are switching from cameras that use film to cameras that
take digital photographs in the same way cell phones make public pay phones less
profitable so telephone companies no longer need to employ as many technicians to
install and maintain pay phones while it is true that technological change can produce
new wealth and new jobs new inventions also tend to lead to the loss of jobs

Unit Two: Writing Effective Paragraphs
Learning Objectives
 Understand about a paragraph.
 Recognize the basic structure of a paragraph.
 Differentiate various types of paragraphs.
 Understand the difference between a topic and topic sentence.
 Learn producing effective topic sentences from the given topics.
 Know the characteristics of a good paragraph.
 Learn different types of paragraph organization.
 Apply different techniques of paragraph development.
 Practice using various transitional words and transitional phrases in
writing a paragraph.
 Develop the skill of writing well developed paragraphs.
Lead-in-Task
Answer the following questions individually and discuss your responses in threes.
1. What is a paragraph?
2. What is a topic sentence and where is its position in a paragraph?
3. What are the supporting sentences? What are their functions in a paragraph?
4. What relations do the supporting sentences have with the topic sentence?
What about the concluding sentence?
It is considered that writing a paragraph is the most basic structure in any writing.
Understanding how to write effective and intriguing paragraphs can improve your
writing greatly. Thus, before you will practice writing paragraphs, this section is
devoted to provide you with the definition of a paragraph and its basic structure.
A paragraph is a combination of sentences that deal with a distinct unit developing one
major idea or a topic sentence. A paragraph can be written for any of several purposes,
but all paragraphs have one thing in common: each sentence logically relates to the
same topic. In other words, a group of unrelated sentences is not a paragraph. A good
paragraph is well organized, properly linked and adequately developed. From the
definition you can generally understand that a paragraph:
 Is a group of sentences;
 The sentences are logically related;
 All sentences deal with the single main idea or topic sentence giving
detailed and relevant information.
In other words, this is to mean that an effective paragraph has unity, coherence, and
adequate development or completeness. These will be discussed in detail under the
topic the basic characteristics of an effective paragraph.

2.1. Basic Structure of a Paragraph
Most of the paragraphs have three basic structures: the introduction, the body, and
the conclusion. That means most paragraphs are made up of a topic sentence, a series
of detailed or supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence.
2.1.1. The Introduction
The introduction is the first section of a paragraph which includes a topic sentence.
The topic sentence is used to express the central or controlling idea of a paragraph. It
is called so because it is that idea or topic alone which is developed and explained in
the rest of the paragraph.
2.1.2. The body
The body of a paragraph is the section that follows the introduction and contains the
detailed or supporting sentences. The body is the main part of a paragraph which is
developed sequentially. The detailed or supporting sentences in the body explain or
discuss the controlling idea stated in the topic sentence by providing enough and specific
supporting details, using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
They should be strong convincing points on which the topic sentence can rely upon and
be clear evidence that what the topic sentence says is trustworthy.
2.1.3. The conclusion
The conclusion is the final section which summarizes the connections between the
information discussed in the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea
through the concluding sentence. The concluding sentence reminds the readers of what
they have to value by summing up what the topic sentence and the supporting details talk
about.
Sample paragraph
Arba Minch is famous for several amazing natural features. For example, it is noted for
Chamo and Abaya lakes which are spectacular sights in the rift valley. Between the two
lakes, there is a thick forest where people trek to view monkeys, beautiful birds and other
wild animals. The forty springs that are found nowhere else in Ethiopia are also found in
Arba Minch. Immediately to the east of Arba Minch, is the NechSar National Park. The
Park is fortunate in possessing a number of rivers and streams such as Kulfo and Sarmele
which are reasons for the rich wildlife resources of the area. The landscapes with
breathtaking views, where one can plan a vacation to the areas that promise many
fabulous photo opportunities, are also found there. Moreover, the crocodile breeding area
is a wonderful natural feature that attracts many of the tourists. All in all these natural
features are truly interesting and make Arba Minch a famous place to visit.

If you have carefully read the given model paragraph, you can immediately notice its
structure as follows:
Introduction (topic sentence): Arba Minch is famous for several amazing natural
features.
Body (supporting sentences): For example, it is noted for Chamo and Abaya lakes
which are very wide and attractive. Between the two lakes, there is a thick forest where
people trek to view monkeys, beautiful birds and other wild animals. The forty springs
that are found nowhere else in Ethiopia are also found in Arba Minch. Immediately to the
east of Arba Minch, is the NechSar National Park. The Park is fortunate in possessing a
number of rivers and streams such as Kulfo and Sarmele which are reasons for the rich
wildlife resources of the area. The landscapes with breathtaking views, where one can
plan a vacation to the areas that promise many fabulous photo opportunities, are also
found there. Moreover, the crocodile breeding area is a wonderful natural feature that
attracts many of the tourists.
Conclusion (concluding sentence): All in all these natural features are truly interesting
and make Arba Minch a famous place to visit.
Task 1
Read the paragraphs carefully and identify their structure (the introduction/ topic
sentence, the body/supporting sentences and Conclusion/concluding sentence).
Over the past thirty years, research in the health arena has attracted psychologists and
sociologists. The focus of psychological research in this area is concerned with individual
motives, attitudes and beliefs in relation to both health and illness. Anthropological
studies, however, are concerned with culture and health care. Such studies concentrate on
a conception of disease as a cultural product and on the way social and cultural life in the
past affect beliefs about health and illness. In sociological studies the emphasis is similar,
but focused more on social relations within a particular social structure with respect to
medical care. It is rare that an individual study takes all three perspectives although this
may yield the most beneficial results.
Introduction/ topic sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________________
Body/supporting sentences:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion/concluding sentence:
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

The ability to write well organized concise paragraphs is essential to a student’s success
in almost all university courses. For instance, in preparing student presents his findings
in a logical order and clear language in order to receive a favorable evaluation of his
work. Likewise, to write successful answers to essay questions on history or sociology
examination, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some
accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly, when a student writes a book
report for English or critique for political studies or a term paper for sociology, style
and organization are often as important as content to inform and persuade his readers.
Generally, skill in expository writing is crucial to succeed in most university subjects.
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Butterflies are one of the most beautiful and interesting creatures on earth. Their
attractive, brilliant colors catch interest immediately. They have wings of varying shapes
and sizes, and some even appear to have "eyes" on them! Some butterflies are cleverly
camouflaged with colors that assist them in blending with the plant life in their
environments. The delicate physical structure of the butterfly, along with hair-like legs
and antennae, adds to its gentle beauty. Some of these curious insects vary distinctly in
size, with the largest-known wing span at four inches, and the smallest measured from
wing tip to tip at one-half inch. Without these glorious, artful creations darting about in
the world, our lives would indeed be much more drab and boring.

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.2. Position of a Topic Sentence in a Paragraph

A topic sentence can be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end in a
paragraph. However, it is always better to use the topic sentence at the beginning of a
paragraph for it is a very useful guide to both the writer and the reader. When the topic
sentence is placed at the beginning of a paragraph, it helps a writer to see what
information to include and what information to exclude in a paragraph. The readers also
understand what is going to come in that particular paragraph once they find the topic
sentence at the beginning.

Now, read the following sample paragraphs and study how it is possible to place
topic sentence at the beginning, in the middle and at the end. The topic sentence is
underlined in each paragraph.
Sample 1
There are a number of steps to take if you are stung by a bee or a hornet. The first thing to
do is remove the stinger. A stinger contains venom. It will continue to release venom as
long as it is contact with skin. When the stinger is removed, put ice on the wound. This
will reduce the swelling. Then, apply a small amount of baking soda. It contains enzymes
that will weaken the venom. Finally, look for signs of an allergic reaction such as
difficulty in breathing. People have died from strong allergic reactions to stings. When
such a reaction occurs, the victim should be taken to the hospital for treatment.
Sample 2
Science is not an impersonal construction. It is no less and no more personal than any
other form of communicated thought. This book is not less scientific because my manner
is personal, and I make no apology for it. Science searches the common experience of
people, and it is made by people and it has their style. The style of a great man marks not
only his own work, but through it, the work of others for generations. The style of
Newton’s work as much as the content, dominated science for two centuries and in that
time shaped its manner and its matter. But style is not monopoly of the great, nor is its
appreciation a vintage reserved for experts. The school boy who can tell a neat proof
from a dull one knows the style and takes pleasure in it. Indeed he finds it easier to
appreciate the style of science than the style of Shakespeare.
Sample 3
The true problem of city planning and rebuilding in a free society is how to cultivate
more city districts that are free, lively and fertile places for the differing plans of
thousands of individuals, not planners. Nothing could be farther from the aims of
planners today. They have been trained to think of people as interchangeable statistics to
be pushed around, to think of city vitality and mixture as a mess. Planners are the
enemies of cities because they offer us only the poisonous promise of making every place
in a city more like dull and standardized morning side heights. They have failed to pursue
the main point: to study the success and failure of the real life of the cities. With their
eyes on simple minded panaceas, they destroy success and health. Planners will become
helpful only when they abandon what they have learned about ‘ought’ to be good for
cities.
Important Note:
It is important to notice that in some paragraphs, it is hardly possible to get the
right position of the topic sentence because it may be implied in the details given.
For example, narrative and descriptive paragraphs sometimes do not state a topic
sentence directly.

Task 2
Read the following paragraphs carefully. Then, identify the position of the topic
sentence in each paragraph.
Paragraph 1
There are three qualities that I need to see in a good friend. First, a good friend shouldn't
tell lies. I need to trust him so that I can talk to him. Second, a good friend should be
there when I needed him. I should be able to find him near me when I am in a bad mood
or when I have a problem. Finally, when necessary, he should criticize me so that I can
change my undesirable behavior or see where I am wrong. I think, these three qualities
are the basic properties in a good friend.
Paragraph 2
My girlfriend, Sally Jenkins, lives at the end of a long and winding and narrow dirt road
that takes me forever to travel. There are so many potholes and tree roots that I have to
creep along at under ten miles per hour so I don’t break an axle. It is even worse after a
hard rain when the puddles hide the potholes and force me to inch along the shoulder of
the dirt road, or else my truck and I are in danger of drowning. When the weather is dry, I
have to be careful that my truck’s tires don’t lose traction in the loose sand and get stuck.
The worst time is at night when I’m in danger of getting lost because I have trouble
picking out the landmarks that tell me where I am, and there is no street sign for the dirt
lane that feeds into her driveway. Picking up my girlfriend for a date is a real challenge!
Paragraph 3
When a camera flash is used in a low-light environment, the subject's eyes may appear
red in the finished photograph. What is known as "red-eye" is the result of light from the
flash reflecting off the pupils of the eyes. The phenomenon of red-eye can be lessened by
using the red-eye reduction feature found on many single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras. This
feature activates a lamp which shines a small light directly into the subject's eyes. When
this happens, the diameter of the pupil is reduced, thus tightening the opening in the iris.
Since a smaller pupil means a smaller host for the reflection, the chances of red-eye
occurring are greatly reduced.

2.3. Narrowing a Subject into Topics
Subject refers to a general area of interest. Topic is a subject that has been narrowed
down. Your instructors usually give you a subject to write about. It is you who should
decide how to change the subject into a good topic. You should narrow the subject in
such a way as to be able to cover it within the limits assigned by your instructor.
Look at the examples below which show how each subject has been narrowed into a few
topics.
Subject Topic
Sports Soccer ,Basketball
Tennis
Mineral oils
Oils Vegetable oils
Animal oils
Mars, Earth
Planets Jupiter
The narrowed topics from the given subjects are still broad and it is possible to narrow
down these topics too. Suppose that you have chosen one topic for each of the above
subjects. For example, you have chosen soccer as the topic from the sports subject, Mars
from the planets subject, and vegetable oils from the oils subject. You can now further
narrow each of these topics. This can make your paragraphs even more interesting to the
readers because narrow topic forces you to be more specific.
Topic Specific Topic

Soccer How soccer affects politics
Great soccer teams of the world
The World Cup
The process of getting oil from vegetables
Vegetable oils Different types of vegetable oils
Medical value of vegetable oils
The possibility of life on Mars
Mars Mars compared to Earth
Space travel to Mar
Task 3
A. Write at least three topics for each of these subjects.
1. Population growth 6. Begging
2. Agriculture 7.Tourisim in Ethiopia
3. Marriage in Ethiopia 8. Space travel
4. Computers 9. Street children
5. Global warming 10. Education
B. Now, write three or more specific topics for each of the topics you have written

2.4. Writing an Effective Topic Sentence
You have already learnt the difference between subject and topic. A topic is defined to be
a subject that has been narrowed down. What you need to learn now is that for every
topic several paragraphs can be written. Each of these paragraphs will have a topic
sentence.
The next important step is to state or write your topic clearly in sentence form. This is an
important step toward an effective paragraph because the topic sentence controls the
direction and scope of the body. A topic sentence should have a clear controlling idea and
should be a complete sentence. You can think of the topic sentence as having two parts, a
topic and a controlling idea. In other words, you need to limit your topic by placing key
words or phrases (controlling words or phrases) in the topic sentence. If not you may not
produce an effective paragraph.
There are many ways to limit a topic. The most common types of controlling ideas used
to limit a topic are those that limit the topic in terms of geographical location, time or
period of time, certain aspects, types, kinds, phases, steps, stages, effects, causes, reasons
and the like. Take, for example, the topic the effects of air pollution and see how the
writer decided how to write about the effects of air pollution:
1. The effects of air pollution are now major problems in some European countries.
2. The effects of air pollution have become important issues within the last five years.
3. The effects of air pollution and that of water pollution have a great deal in
common.
4. The effects of air pollution are more dangerous than the effects of water pollution.
5. The effects of air pollution are serious for several reasons.
In all of the above topic sentences, the effects of air pollution, is the topic. However, the
limiting or controlling ideas used in each topic sentence are different. In the first
sentence, for example, the topic had been limited in terms of geographical location. In the
second sentence, the topic has been limited in terms of time (or time period). In the third
sentence the controlling idea focuses on the similarities between the effects of air
pollution and water pollution, whereas in the fourth sentence it draws on their
differences. Finally, in the last sentence, the topic has been limited in terms of causes.
Task 4
Narrow each of the following subjects to appropriate topics. Then write a good topic
sentence for each topic. Underline the controlling ideas that you have used in your
topic sentences.
1. Politics 8. Electricity
2. Culture 9. Agriculture
3. Money 10. Crime
4. Liberty 11. Forest
5. Revolution 12. Science
6. Sports 13. Education
7. Poverty 14. Technology

Task 5
Read the details carefully and write appropriate topic sentence for each of the
following paragraphs. Then write a topic for each. Write your answers on your
exercise book or on separate paper.
Topic: ________________________________
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….………………. Usually college students live on their own, in the dormitory or in
an apartment. This means they are free to come and go as they like. Their parents can’t
tell them when to get up, when to go to school, and when to come home. It also means
that they are free to wear what they want. There are no parents to comment about their
hair styles or their dirty jeans. Finally, they are free to listen to their favorite music
without interference from parents.
Topic: __________________________________
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………….It makes them feel bad about themselves and envy other
people. My friend, for instance, lives with her family and has to share a room with her
sister, who is very cute and intelligent. This girl wishes she could have her own room and
have a lot of stuff, but she can’t have these things because her family doesn’t have much
money. Her family’s income is pretty low because her father is old and doesn’t go to
work. Her sister is the only one who works. Because her family can’t buy her the things
she wants, she feels a lot of stress and gets angry sometimes. Once, she wanted a
beautiful dress to wear to a sweetheart dance. She asked her sister for some money to buy
the dress. She was disappointed because her sister didn’t have money to give her. She sat
in silence for a little while and then started yelling out loud. She said her friends got
anything they wanted but she didn’t. Then she felt sorry for herself and asked why she
was born into a poor family. Not having money has caused this girl to think negatively
about herself and her family. It has caused a lot of stress in her life.
Topic: ___________________________________
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………… First, the innermost part located in the center of the flower, is the
female reproductive structure, or pistil. The pistil consists of three parts: the stigma, the
style, and the ovary. The next part consists of the male reproductive structures, several or
many stamens arranged around the pistil. A stamen consists of a filament and an anther.
Petals, the next part, surround the stamens. Many petals have bright colors. Finally, the
sepals, the outermost part, together are called the calyx. In the flower bud, the sepals
tightly enclose and protect the petals, stamens, and pistil from rain or insects. The sepals
unfurl as the flower opens and often resemble small green leaves at the flower’s base. In
some flowers, the sepals are colorful and work with the petals to attract pollinators.
Topic: __________________________________
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………..One reason is that English has become an
international language. It is now used by most international companies, including the

company where I work, for business communication. Another reason why I want to learn
English is so that I can travel to English-speaking countries. The United States, England,
Australia and many other countries all use English as their primary language. Finally, I
want to learn English because I plan to move to the United States in the future. I will
become a manager for my company soon. For all these reasons, I am very excited about
learning English.
2.5. Characteristics of Good Paragraph

Writing good paragraphs will help you as a writer stay on track during your drafting
and revision stages. Good paragraphing also greatly assists your readers in following a
piece of writing. You can have fantastic ideas, but if those ideas are not presented in a
well unified, coherent, and adequately developed manner, you will lose your readers’
interest and fail to achieve your goals in writing. Hence, this section discusses the
basic characteristics of an effective paragraph: unity, coherence, and adequate
development or completeness.
2.5.1. Unity
You have seen that a topic sentence is used to express the central or controlling idea of a
paragraph. It states the main idea of a paragraph. When all of the detailed or supporting
sentences in a paragraph are directly related to the main idea that is stated in the topic
sentence, the paragraph has unity. Thus, Unity is the quality of sticking to one idea from
start to finish, with every sentence contributing to the central purpose and main idea of
that paragraph.
Read carefully and notice how the detailed or the supporting sentences in the following
unified paragraph develop the main idea.
All insects have three main body parts. These are the head, the thorax, and the
abdomen. The head has a pair of antennae, and a pair of compound eyes. The
thorax is the middle region of the body, and it bears the legs and wings. The
abdomen contains many body organs, such as the heart, respiratory system,
digestive system and reproductive system. Even though there are many
different sizes, shapes, and colors of insects, they all have the same body.
In this model paragraph, all of the detailed or supporting sentences discuss the topic
sentence which is the three main body parts of insects and thus form a unit of thought-
oneness of ideas in the paragraph. In order to write a unified paragraph, you are thus
required to consider the following points:
 Make sure that your paragraph focuses on a single controlling idea and state that
idea in your topic sentence.
 Check whether you have put your topic sentence effectively within your paragraph
or not.
 Stick to one idea from start to finish by making your paragraph's evidences. Avoid
any sentence that does not support or develop the idea stated in your topic
sentence.
 Check whether the purpose of your paragraph and the natures of your supporting
evidence guide you or not.

 Explain the relationship between your evidence and your idea clearly and
effectively.
2.5.2. Completeness or Adequate Development
Completeness or adequate development is another important element in paragraph
writing. If every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately explained and
supported through evidence and details that work together to explain the paragraph’s
controlling idea, we can say a paragraph is Well-developed or adequately developed.
Task 6
Each of the following paragraphs contains sentence(s) that is/are irrelevant to the
main point of the paragraph. Read through each of the paragraphs and identify the
irrelevant sentence(s) that violet unity
1. Despite its being relatively recent, AIDS has developed very fast. It was first identified in
1981 in New York and California. New York and California are known for their beautiful
buildings and other infrastructures. Shortly after its detection in the United States,
evidence of AIDS epidemics grew in sub-Saharan Africa. It, then, quickly developed
into a worldwide epidemic, affecting virtually every nation. By 2000, 34.7 million adults
and 1.4 million children were living with AIDS all over the world. The World Health
Organization (WHO) estimates that from 1981 to the end of 2000 about 21.8 million
people died as a result of AIDS. The nurses and other hospital staff can give the
terminally ill patient only minimum care. More than 4.3 million of those who died were
children under the age of 15. For example, Jakob Nuna’s eighteen-year old child with
AIDS lived in a nursing home in coma for many years. In 2002 the Chinese government
reported that China had 850,000 HIV-positive people in a population of more than 1
billion. AIDS will continue to develop a life-threat unless scientists can develop a vaccine
for it. In the state of São Paolo, Brazil, AIDS has been the leading cause of death among
women aged 20 to 34 since 1992. Preventive measures will certainly control the spread
of AIDS.
2. The planet Jupiter has several interesting features. First of all, it has thirteen or fourteen
satellites, four of which are as large as our own moon. The moon does not have its own
light. It reflects the light that it receives from the sun. Jupiter is also the biggest and the
fastest moving planet in the solar system. Its volume is thirteen hundred times greater
than that of earth, yet Jupiter requires fewer than ten hours to rotate. Another unusual
feature of Jupiter is that it is the only planet known to radiate its own heat. The planet
Jupiter is one of the nine planets in the solar system. One of Jupiter’s most fascinating
features, however, is its Great Red Spot. For decades scientists were puzzled by the
tremendous size of the spot, by its changing shape and colour, and by its habit of rotating
more slowly than the rest of the planet. Then, in 1974, photographs taken during a space
probe revealed that the Great Red Spot is, in fact, an enormous drifting storm.
3. America’s national parks are havens of supreme beauty. Thousands of miles of roads and
trails serve over 125 million people annually. Semite Falls, America’s loftiest plunge
2500 feet with such force that the earth trembles and thunder fills the valley. In Sequoia
Park the four Guardsmen finger the sky, members of coast redwoods that achieve girths
of 44 feet and heights over 360 feet. Preparing the parks to accommodate their visitors

has cost the government a billion dollars. From the rim of the Grand Canyon one looks
down 1500 feet into the Colorado River grove cut from primordial rock a billion and a
half years old. Back from the rim is the canyon village complex, built at a cost of eight
million dollars, to provide lodgings, food, and services. Inspiring awe are such flowers as
the beavertail cactus in California’s Death Valley, asters on Mt.Rainnier, and yellow
lady’s-slipper and deep-pink mountain laurel on the slopes of the great Smokies. In the
presence of such beauty it is a shame that thoughtless, careless tourists pollute the roads,
streams, and picnic areas with paper cups and plates, and old beer cans!
2.5.3. Coherence
Lead-in-Task
In groups of threes or fours answer the following questions.
1. What is coherence in paragraph writing?
2. Do you think that a unified paragraph is coherent? Why?
3. Can lack of coherence affect the quality of a paragraph? How?
4. How can you achieve coherence in your paragraph?
You have discussed that unity is an important element in developing a paragraph.
However, a unified paragraph can be incoherent when the continuity of thought in it is
not maintained. In order to make your paragraph coherent, you should arrange your
sentences in a logical manner and in a way that follow a definite plan for development.
You can achieve this through the following ways.
A. Using transitional words or phrases

Skill in using transitional words or phrases is vital to coherent writing. Transitional words
or phrases are words and phrases that point out the exact relation between one idea and
another, one sentence and another. Words like therefore, however, for example, and
finally are signals that guide the reader from sentence to sentence. Without them, even
orderly and well-written paragraphs can be confusing and hard to follow.
If you read the following paragraph carefully, you will recognize that all the supporting
sentences talk about the main idea stated in the topic sentence. This means the paragraph
has unity. However, the paragraph is incoherent because the appropriate linking words or
phrases are not used.
Everybody catches cold. Cold causes a lot of inconvenience to the sufferers. Some people
may see a doctor with the complaint. Some persons may take inhalation. Some brave
persons may ignore it. They would put up with a running nose. They must keep in their
person two handkerchiefs. They should not blow their nose noisily in a group. They must
use the handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. They must use the handkerchiefs to collect
the phlegm. The phlegm is infectious. Other may catch cold with your phlegm.
Now, read carefully and check how the above incoherent paragraph is improved to
achieve coherence.
Everybody catches cold. Thereupon, it causes a lot of inconvenience to them. As a result,
some may see a doctor with the complaint. And a few may take inhalation. And yet, a
Small number of brave ones may ignore it completely. Consequently, they would put up
with a running nose. However, such persons must keep with themselves two

handkerchiefs. Next, they should not blow their nose noisily in a group. Furthermore,
they must use the handkerchiefs to collect the phlegm. They must use the handkerchiefs
to collect the phlegm. Incidentally, is infectious. Other may catch cold with your phlegm.
Task 7
1. Read the following paragraph and write out the words linking the sentences.
Discuss with your partner any other words that could replace the linking words
you have written.
Man has been able to spread across the earth so widely for four main reasons. First, he is
a terrestrial animal, not restricted to the forest. Secondly, he can cross any natural
barriers, such as deserts, oceans and mountains. Moreover, he can live off a very wide
variety of food. Most important of all, he has developed culture; he has learned to make
clothes and build fires which allow him to live in climates where he would otherwise
perish. To a large extent, he shares some of these advantages with the monkeys. They,
too, can move over unforested land. They, too, can cross some natural barriers, as they
have the ability to swim. And they, too, can digest many kinds of food. Thus, a single
species of baboon has spread across Africa from Dakar in the west to Ethiopia in the east,
and south all the way to the Cape of Good Hope. Similarly, Macaques have done at least
as well. One species, the rhesus macaque, is equally at home in forest, in open cultivated
fields, and inside heavily populated cities.
2. The following paragraph describes about the good and the bad spellers. Read it
carefully and write the transitional words that make it coherent from the given
list. Then, discuss with your partner any other words that could replace the
linking words you have written.
Finally Also First Consequently

Furthermore Then However Next
The good spellers usually have a photographic memory which provides their
subconscious mind with a clear mental image of a word. They ____________ usually
have good ears and know how to pronounce the words. The bad spellers, ___________,
do not have this photographic memory, and thus do not have that mental image of the
word. _______________, they often do not have good ears and may hear two different
sounds as the same sound. ______________, they have to work much harder if they are
to improve their spelling. _______________, they can try to learn some of the more
common rules of spelling and improve their pronunciation of words. _______________,
they still have to look up all the new words in the dictionary. ______________, they have
to consciously memorize both the meaning and the spelling. ______________, they have
to proof read their own work carefully, checking on the spelling of each word.
3. This paragraph needs more connection. Revise it using appropriate connectors.
Then, share your version with other classmates.

Ho Chi Mnih City, in Vietnam, is a fascinating destination for travelers to Southeast
Asia. It is located on the Mekong River. It was once an important trading center for the
French in Southeast Asia. The influence of French culture can still be felt. Many people,
especially the older generation, learned French in school and still can speak it very well.
Some cafes serve French- style bread and pastries in Ho Chi Mnih City. Expensive hotels
and restaurants serve French food. Many of the buildings in the city are built in French
style. The Vietnamese and the French fought. The French eventually left the country.
There are museums and monuments documenting the countries long – and often bloody –
history. If you are looking for a unique city to visit in Southeast Asia, Ho Chi Mnih City
is an attractive choice.
B. Constructing Successive sentences in parallel form
By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer and easier to read. See
the following example paragraph in which successive sentences are constructed in
parallel form.
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First,
Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical
services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students
are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.
Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many
parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.
Task 8
The following jumbled sentences would give one effective paragraph if correctly
ordered and combined. Correct the order and rewrite the paragraph.
1. Achieving personal power is helpful for someone who pretends to be more
confident than he really is.
2. One reason people lie is to achieve personal power.
3. He asked me to come to his party and bring a date.
4. For example, one of my friends threw a party at his house last month.
5. Although this lie helped me at the time, since then it has made me look down on
myself.
6. One of my other friends, who had a date to go to the party with, asked me about my
date.
7. I said I could easily find a date even better than his if I wanted to.
8. However, I didn’t have a girlfriend.
9. I didn’t want to be embarrassed, so I claimed that I had a lot of work to do.
10. I achieved power to help me feel confident; however, I embarrassed my friend and
his date.
11. I also told him that his date was ugly.
C. Repeating key words in several sentences

Repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive sentences helps your reader see the
connections between ideas as in the following example.

Friendships are very important. Most people want and need good friends. Traditionally,
good friends care for each other and they do not want to hurt each other. But friendships
do not just happen. It takes a lot of time and a lot of hard work to build a good friendship;
when you have a friendship with someone, do not lost it. It will be hard to find another
one.
As you can see in the given example, repeating key words, friend ships, in a paragraph
provides continuity of readers by keeping ideas constantly before them. The reader is
made aware of the controlling sense of friendship in the paragraph without being
overwhelmed by the repetition of the word.
D.Using pronouns effectively
Read the following paragraph carefully and identify how a pronoun ‘they’ is used to
refer to the noun phrase ‘my parents’ to achieve coherence.
I think that my parents are very different from each other. They never agree on a point.
They always have different opinions, even on very simple issues. They argue all the time
and I think this is their secret formula for staying married for such a long time. Arguing is
a way of talking to each other and talking enables couples to know and understand each
other. As a result, my parents are still together although they have more differences than
similarities.
Task 9
1. For each of the underlined pronouns in the following paragraph, identify the
noun or noun phrase to which it refers. Write your answers on your exercise
book.
Montreal, one of Canada’s largest cities, is a popular tourist destination for several
reasons. First, the city has a beautiful location. It sits on island in the middle of the St.
Lawrence River. In addition, Montreal is both modern and historic. There are many
luxury hotels. It has a clear and efficient subway system, and visitors can find a wide
variety of shops and restaurants, especially downtown. The oldest area of the town, the
Vienx Montreal, is very beautiful because many of its oldest buildings were protected as
areas of the city were rebuilt or developed. The most interesting thing about Montreal
may be its French quality. Approximately two-thirds of the people living in or near
Montreal are of French origin, and they speak French as well as English. In addition to
the strong French influence, there are large groups of people from Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Italy, the West Indies, and china living there. All of this makes Montreal a great
place to visit.
2. Rewrite the following paragraph by avoiding repetition of nouns. Substitute the

nouns with pronouns.
Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological
species to which we human beings belong. Anthropology is the study of how our species
evolved from more primitive organisms; Anthropology is also the study of how our
species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social life
known as culture. Anthropology is the study of how culture evolved and diversified. And
finally, Anthropology is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever
human beings are found.

3. Rewrite the following paragraph, adding an appropriate pronoun in the blank
space to achieve coherence. Then underline the antecedent of that pronoun.
Many students decided to send ______________ university applications to state
universities. Instructors and guidance counselors offered _____________ assistance. One
student, Tamirat, had ________________ application returned because it was considered
incomplete. Another student, Mamo, wants to explore all _____________ options before
sending in any applications. The deadline for submitting the applications to the university
office is October 12, and _______________ will not be extended.
Task 10: Free writing
As you do the following assignments, try to achieve paragraph coherence by using
repetition, pronouns, synonyms, and substitutions.
Paragraph 1
Discuss your favorite form of relaxation
Write what you like to do when you have free time. Do you like to get together with
friends? Do you like to go to a movie or to some sporting event? Or do you prefer to
spend your time alone, perhaps listening to music, reading, or going fishing? Whatever
your favorite free-time activity, name it in your topic sentence. Be sure to tell what makes
your activity relaxing. Then give your paragraph coherence by using pronouns and
synonyms.
Paragraph 2
Describe your ideal mate
Decide on three or four crucial qualities that your ideal husband, wife, or friend would
possess, and write a paragraph describing this extraordinary person. Use repetition,
pronouns, and word substitutions to give coherence to the paragraph. For example, My
ideal husband . . . he . . . my companion.
Summary
Building Coherence: Connecting Ideas
Connecting
strategies How it works
Direct  Refer to a noun or pronoun used earlier in the paragraph
References  Repeat a word used earlier
 Use a word or phrase that means the same thing as one used earlier
 Compare ideas (also, and, another, moreover, similarly, too, likewise, in
like manner, in the same way).
Transitional  Contrast ideas (although, but, however, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,
Expressions on the other hand, still, yet, despite).
 Show causes and effects (as a result, because, for this reason,
consequently, since, so that, therefore, thus).
 Show time or sequence (first, second, third, afterward, since, before,
whenever, until, as soon as, as long as, while, after, at last, at once, before,
eventually, finally, meanwhile, next, then, thereafter, when).
 Show place (above, across, around, before, beyond, down, here, in,
inside, into, next, over, there, to, under)
 Show importance (first, last, mainly, more importantly, then, to begin

with).
 To give examples (for example, for instance, specifically, namely, to illustrate,
that is, in particular, after all, even, indeed, in fact, of course, such as, the
following example).
 To generalize (in general, for the most part, as a general rule, on the whole,
usually, typically).
 To conclude or summarize ( in conclusion, to conclude, in summary, to
summarize, in short, in other words, therefore, thus, in reality, as a result, as has
been noted, a s I have said, as we have seen, as mentioned earlier, in any event ).
2.6. Paragraph Organization

Lead-in-Task
Think about the following questions individually and share your answers in threes
or fours.
1. What is paragraph organization?
2. Why paragraph organization is important?
3. What are the methods used to organize a paragraph?
One can develop more flexible sense of organization by looking at some patterns that are
more exclusively patterns or principles of organization. These principles have many
variations that they sometimes overlap with patterns of development and that good
writing sometimes combines different methods. Clear logical organization is the most
important part of effective writing. To obtain coherence in our paragraph, we also need to
organize it using the appropriate method of paragraph organization.
When we talk about effective writing, we often think first about elements like word
choice, grammar and mechanics, and content or evidence. But a really important part of
effective writing—and effective thinking, too—is clear, logical organization. Thus, this
section deals with the following methods of paragraph organization that help you achieve
coherence in your paragraphs.
A. Spatial Order
Spatial organization utilizes the concept of space. The information presented in the
paragraph, then, is organized from a start point to an end point, proceeding logically from
one to the other. Spatial organization is frequently used in descriptions where the writer
moves in an orderly manner form one feature to the next.
Model paragraph:
My room is a nice comfortable place. As you enter the room, you will see my desk on the
right. Next to my desk, there is a wide fireplace with a chimney on the top of it. As you
pass the fire place you will see my bed. Now you will have to make a left turn. As you
pass along my bed, on the wall you will notice a window that opens to a beautiful garden.
When you get to the foot of my bed, you will have to make another left turn; otherwise,
you will bang against the wall in front of you. After you have made the turn, you will see
my computer table in the corner in front of you. On this table you will find my computer
and all of its peripherals. Then you should make your last turn and move along the wall to
get to the door; one step further, and you will be in the hall.

Task 11
1. Read the given model paragraph again and complete the following note
My room is a nice comfortable place. As you enter the room, …………Next to my desk,
……As you pass the fire place,……..……………………………Now……………….As
you pass along my bed,…………………………………………………………………….
When you get to the foot of my bed, ………………………..; otherwise,…….. After you
have made the turn, ……………… On this table …………………. Then …………One
step further, ………………………………………
2. The following sentences would give effective paragraph if they are ordered by
using spatial order. Rewrite them into one effective paragraph
1. On the top shelf were a three week old carton of milk and a two week old jug of
mango juice.
2. Though there was food, none of it was edible.
3. To the right of the watermelon sat the remains of a macaroni and cheese dinner
that had been served a week earlier.
4. The inside of my friend’s refrigerator was horrifying.
5. Next to that there are slices of watermelon and pieces of bread that had started to
get moldy.
6. On the shelf below was a slice of cake from his sister's birthday party.
B. Chronological Order (Time Order)
Chronological order can suit different rhetorical modes or patterns of exposition. It
naturally fits in narration, because when we tell a story, we usually follow the order in
which events occur. Chronological order applies to process in the same way, because
when we describe or explain how something happens or works, we usually follow the
order in which the events occur.
Model paragraph:
Geologists divide much of the earth’s history into periods of time called Eons. The first
period, the pre-Archean period, includes the phase from the origin of the earth to 3.8
billion years ago. The second, the Archean Eon includes the period from 3.8 to 2.5 billion
years ago. It marks a time in which the structure of the earth underwent many changes
and the first life form appeared on the earth. During the Proterozoic Eon, the third period,
the earth was partially covered by shallow seas and ice sheets. This period refers to 2.5
billion to 570 million years ago. During this phase, life advanced from the most basic
organisms to plants and animals that looked like some of the species alive today. The
most recent eon of the earth is the Phanerozoic Eon which includes 570 million years ago
up to now. During this Eon, the earth and life on it gradually changed to their present
state.
In this model paragraph the general class, the life of earth, has been broken down into
specific time phases. Then, the oldest phase is described in the first set of supporting
sentences. The immediately following phase of earth's life has been discussed in the
second set of supporting sentences gradually moving from past into present through the
paragraph. An analysis of this model paragraph will read as follows:

General Class: The history of Earth
Class Members: First Eon: Origin of the earth to 3.8 billion years ago
Second Eon: 3.8 to 2.5 billion years ago
Third Eon: 2.5 billion to 570 million years ago
Fourth Eon: 570 million years ago up to now
When organizing a paragraph using a chronological order, notice that you have two
choices:
1. beginning from past and moving towards present, or
2. beginning from present and moving towards past.
There is no serious difference between these two methods. It is a matter of choice. Many
writers prefer to follow the course of events as they actually occurred in history. Some
writers, however, prefer to flash back. They go from present to past, or technically move
in the direction opposite to history.
The Phanerozoic Eon is divided into three distinct eras. The most recent era of this Eon is
the Cenozoic Era. It began 65 million years ago, and is still going on. The second era of
this Eon is called the Mesozoic Era. This era is older than the Cenozoic Era. It refers to
stretch of time which began 240 million years ago and ended 65 million years ago.
Finally, the oldest era is called the Paleozoic Era. It began 570 million years ago. The
Paleozoic Era ended 240 million years ago. An analysis of this model paragraph will read
as follows:
General Class: Eras of the Phanerozoic Eon

Class Members: Third era: 65 million years ago to present
Second era: 240 to 65 million years ago
First era: 570 to 240 million years ago
Task 12
1. Read the following paragraph carefully and complete the analysis that follows.
Write your answers on your exercise book.
Atomic bombs were the first nuclear weapons to be developed, tested, and used. In the
late 1930s physicists in Europe and the United States realized that the fission of uranium
could be used to create a weapon. In August 1939, Albert Einstein sent a letter to United
States president Franklin D. Roosevelt that described this discovery and warned of its
potential development by other nations. The United States government established the top
secret Manhattan Project in 1942 to develop an atomic device. The first atomic explosion
was conducted, as a test on July 16, 1945. On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped
the first atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. It followed with a second bomb
against the city of Nagasaki on August 9. As a result, Japan agreed to Allied terms of
surrender on August 14th.

The Events Time
2. Rewrite the paragraph using narrative simple present tense in your supporting
sentences. Use the information you completed in the table.
3. Below is a table describing some of the events from Wangari Maathai’s
biography. Using the information provided in the table, write a paragraph in
which you use chronology as your method of organization.
Year Events
1940 Born in Nyeri, Kenya.
1964 Obtained a degree in Biological Sciences from Mount St. Scholastic
College in Atchison, Kansas.
1966 Subsequently earned a Master of Science degree from the University of
Pittsburgh.
1971 Studied for doctoral degree in Germany and the University of Nairobi,
obtaining a Ph.D.
1976 Became chair of the Department of Veterinary Anatomy at University of
Nairobi.
1977 Became an associate professor.
1976-87 Active in the National Council of Women of Kenya.
1981-87 Chairman of the National Council.
1986 Established a Pan African Green Belt Movement Network and has exposed
over 40 individuals from other African countries to the approach.
2004 Won the Nobel Peace Prize for her years of work with women to reverse
African deforestation.

Choose one of the following two topics. Compose a topic sentence, brainstorm to
generate ideas, and then arrange your ideas chronologically. You may wish to use
transitional words and phrases like these to guide the reader from point to point.
First second before soon suddenly
then during when moments later
next after while finally

Paragraph 1
Record an unforgettable event
Choose a moment in sports or in some other activity that you vividly remember, either as
a participant or as a spectator. In the topic sentence, tell in a general way what happened.
(It was the most exciting touchdown I have ever seen, or Ninety embarrassing seconds
marked the end of my brief surfing career.)Then record the experience, arranging details
in time order.
Paragraph 2
Narrate the first hour of your average day
Start with getting up in the morning and continue to describe what you do for that first
hour. Record your activities, your conversations, if any, and possibly your moods as you
go through this hour of the morning. As you revise, make sure that events clearly follow
time order.
C. Order of Importance (Emphatic Order)
Ideas in a paragraph can also be arranged in the order of importance. You may start
with the most important idea and end with the least, or you may begin with the least
important idea and build to a climax with the most important one.
Model paragraph 1
Louis Pasteur is revered as a great scientist for his three major discoveries. Most
important, this Frenchman created vaccines that have saved millions of human and
animal lives. The vaccines grew out of his discovery that weakened forms of a disease
could help the person or animal build up antibodies that would prevent the disease. The
vaccines used today to protect children from serious illnesses owe their existence to
Pasteur’s work. Almost as important was Pasteur’s brilliant idea that tiny living beings,
not chemical reactions, spoiled beverages. He developed a process, pasteurization that
keeps milk, wine, vinegar, and beer from spoiling. Finally, Pasteur found ways to stop a
silkworm disease that threatened to ruin France’s profitable silk industry. Many medical
researchers regard him as “the father of modern medicine.”
Task 14
1. Reread the above Model paragraph carefully and answer the following questions.
1. What are the three major important discoveries that Louis Pasteur is revered for?
2. Does the organization of the paragraph start with the least important idea and
build to a climax with the most important one-or from the most important to the
least? What is the evidence for your answer?
3. If you wish to persuade your reader with arguments or examples, do you think
beginning with the most important points impresses the reader? Why?
4. What transitional words are used in describing points in the order of importance
in this paragraph?
5. What is the concluding sentence of this paragraph? What is the main idea in the
conclusion?
Model paragraph 2
Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First, we have got to fix the leaky roof before the
September rains come. Next, we need to patch the big holes in the bedroom walls and
then strip the peeling paint off the walls. Then we can repaint the apartment. After the
walls are repainted, we can work on replacing the linoleum squares in the kitchen that are
loose or cracked. Later, the living room carpet needs shampooing, and we should replace

that old swaybacked sofa. Then we won’t be embarrassed to have company over once in
a while.
2. Reread the above Model paragraph carefully and complete the following note.
Our apartment needs a lot of fixing up. First…………………Next,……………Then……
After the walls are repaired, ……………………………………………………………….
Later,………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. Rewrite the paragraph in your own words using the information you completed
in the note. Organize your paragraph in the order of importance.
Use order of importance to give coherence to one of the paragraphs that follow. Use
transitional words and phrases like these to guide the reader along:
first even more another next last

above all especially most of all least of all
Paragraph 1
Describe a day in which everything went right
Free write or brainstorm to generate ideas. Choose three or four of the day’s best events
and write a paragraph in which you present them in order of importance—either from the
most to the least important, or from the least to the most important.
Paragraph 2
Persuade someone to attend your university
Choose a person you know—a friend or relative and write a paragraph to convince that
person to enroll in classes at your university. Write your topic sentence and generate
ideas; choose three to five reasons to use to convince your reader. Arrange these reasons
according to their order of importance.
Summary
Organizing Paragraph to Build Coherence

Type of Order When to use How it works
To tell a story To show how things change over time
Chronological To a explain a process
order To show cause and effect
Provide details according to their location – near
Spatial order To describe something to far, top to bottom, left to right, and so on.
To explain or clarify –often Groups ideas together in way that shows the
Logical by defining, dividing a relationships between them.
subject into parts, or
comparing and contrasting.
Arranges ideas and details from most important
Order of To inform or to persuade details to least, or vice versa, according to which
importance order the author considers most effective.

2.7. Types of paragraphs
Basically there are four types of paragraphs namely: Descriptive, Expository, Narrative
and persuasive paragraphs.
2.7.1 Descriptive Paragraph
A description is a form of writing that gives a picturesque of a topic. It shows the reader
what a person, a place, a scene, a thing, a sensation or an emotion is like. Thus, when you
write a description, you use words to paint a picture for your readers. With description,
you use language that creates a vivid impression of what you have seen, heard, smelled,
tasted, or touched. You can develop this type of paragraph by including more descriptive
details so that the reader is able to see or think about, or act on what you have shown.
There are two types of description: Objective description and subjective description.
Objective Description: you describe the subject, but you will not reveal your attitude or
feelings about it. Instead, you transmit a straightforward and literal portrait of the subject
without imputing your point of view into the description. Examples:
Football and swimming are the most played games in Hawassa, but recently basketball is
also becoming popular among the youth. Biking and running competitions are also rarely
held on the main streets of the town.
Mr. Jeremy lives in our village. He works in the factory that was built last year. He has
three children who are attending high school.
Subjective Description: Subjective description is known as impressionistic description.
In subjective or impressionistic description you convey a highly personal vision of the
subject because you want to evoke a strong emotional response in the reader.
Examples:
Hawassa is an extremely interesting and a delightful city with a number of wonderful
places to visit. Its extreme beauty and the existence of fresh air throughout the year create
a center of attention. If truth be told, it is worth visiting.
Mr. Jeremy, who is the factory worker in our village, smelled like a rotten egg as if he
had not taken a shower for centuries.
Note: Remember that the purpose for writing, be it objective or subjective, will determine
the change in the descriptive language.
When you write a descriptive paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A descriptive paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states the main
point you want to make in your paragraph.
 Your topic sentence should indicate the person, place, or object that you
describe in your paragraph.
 All your examples and details should help to support your paragraph’s main
idea. Have enough descriptive details.
 A descriptive paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up the
main idea stated in the topic sentence.
 Since space order is often used in description, a descriptive paragraph should
present the details that support the topic sentence in a clear spatial order, the

order in which you observed the person, object, or scene you are describing.
Thus, as you arrange your ideas in a descriptive paragraph, be sure to use
appropriate transitional words and phrases to lead readers from one detail to
another.
 Of course, other kinds of order are possible. For example, a description of a
person might have two parts: details of physical appearance and details of
behavior. See this example paragraph:
Our new instructor from abroad is thirty years old, rather tall and has blue
eyes and short black hair. He wears casual clothes as he teaches students in
a relaxed atmosphere. He enjoys his job because he gets to meet and help
so many different people. During his spare time, he likes playing tennis
which he plays at least three times a week. He also loves listening to
classical music and he admitted that he spends a lot of money on buying
new CDs! He lives in a pretty private room in Arba Minch. He enjoys
eating great cultural food and laughing with the likable people who live
here.
Task 16
Answer the following questions based on the description of the person in the above
paragraph.
1. What is the most noticeable feature of the person described?
2. What is the attitude of the person towards the person he or she described?
3. What are the adjectives used to describe the person? List them.
4. Using the same model, write a similar description of someone beside you.
Interview him or her using the questions in the box on the next page to collect
appropriate information about him or her that you will use in your description.
Questions for the interview

1. How old are you? How tall are you?
2. Where did you attend your high school?
3. What kind of clothes do you usually wear? Why?
4. What kind of job do you do? Do you like it? Why?
5. What are your favorite hobbies? Why do you like them?
6. Where do you come from?
7. Do you like living there? Why or why not?
Task 17
1. Read the following model paragraph that describes the most noticeable features
of a given scene. Then, answer the questions that follow it.
On November 27, 1922, when archaeologist Howard Carter unsealed the door to the
ancient Egyptian tomb of King Tut, he stared in amazement at the fantastic objects

heaped all around him. On his left lay the wrecks of at least four golden chariots. Against
the wall on his right sat a gorgeous chest brightly painted with hunting and battle scenes.
Across from him was a gilded throne with cat-shaped legs, arms like winged serpents,
and a back showing King Tut and his queen. Behind the throne rose a tall couch
decorated with animal faces that were half hippopotamus and half crocodile. The couch
was loaded with more treasures. To the right of the couch, two life-sized statues faced
each other like guards. They were black, wore gold skirts and sandals, and had cobras
carved on their foreheads. Between them was a second sealed doorway. Carter’s heart
beat loudly. Would the mummy of King Tut lie beyond it?
1. What overall impression do you understand from the topic sentence of this
paragraph? What main idea is stated in the topic sentence? What is your evidence?
2. Discuss with your partner the important words you have noted down. What are the
most noticeable features of the scene described?
3. This paragraph, like many descriptive paragraphs, is organized according to space
order. The author uses transitional words or phrases that lead the readers from one
detail to the other. What are those transitional words or phrases?
4. What is the attitude of the writer in describing the scene, objective or
impressionistic? What are your clues?
2. Arrange the following jumbled sentences and rewrite them into an effective
descriptive paragraph.
1. The bedrooms had colorful patchwork quilts on the beds and antique pictures on
the walls, but the mattresses were brand new and extremely comfortable.
2. An old-fashioned radio, hooked rugs, and a handmade checkerboard combined
with the wood-burning fireplace to create a rustic atmosphere.
3. The rent cottage was charming because it was old-fashioned and modern at the
same time.
4. The reading lights were of the same, efficient, up-to-date style I have at home.
5. On entering the living room, one’s immediate desire was to fling oneself on the
huge sofa.
6. The cottage took me back in time in the best ways.
7. From the modern redwood deck I had a peaceful view of the quite, secluded lake.
3. The following table gives you some information about the average depth, area,
and volume of the world’s oceans. Read the information very carefully and write
a paragraph on the basis of this information.
Average depth Area volume
Oceans (Meter) (million sq (million cu km)
km)
Pacific Ocean 4,300 165.7 707.6
Atlantic Ocean 3,900 82.4 324.6
Indian Ocean 3,900 73.4 291
Arctic Ocean 1,300 14.1 17
Antarctic Ocean 3,790 361.1 1,370

4. Choose one of the topics below and write a descriptive paragraph on a separate
paper.
1. A favorite place 6. A favorite article of clothing
2. A useful object 7. A comfortable spot on campus
3. A family member or friend 8. The car you would like to have
4. A work of art 9. A statue or monument
5. A valued possession 10. Someone you admire
2.7.2. Expository Paragraph
The purpose for an expository or explanatory paragraph is to give information about a

subject. This paragraph should explain ideas, phenomenon, gives directions, or shows a
process of how to accomplish something. Explanatory paragraph should have factual
information provided in sequential order. Expository paragraph can be written by using a
combination of all or some of the following techniques of developing ideas: Definition,
Cause and effect, classification, process writing, comparison and contrast, illustration,
identification and analysis.
A. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. A definition limits
the thought by classifying it generally and specifically, by telling what it is not or by
determining its precise meaning by fixing its denotation and connotation.
Definition is a method of explaining words or phrases. When most people think of

definitions, they think of the formal definitions they see in a dictionary. Formal
definitions have a three-part structure.
 The term to be defined

 The general class to which the term belongs
 The things that make the term different from all other items in the general class to
which the term belongs
Term Class Differentiation
Ice hockey Played on ice by two teams on skates who use

is a game curved sticks to try to hit a puck into the opponent’s
goal.
is a pasta
Spaghetti Made in the shape of long, thin strands, usually
served with a sauce.
A single-sentence formal definition is often not enough to define a specialized term

(point of view or premeditation, for example), an abstract concept (happiness or success,
for example), or a complicated subject (stem-cell research, for example). In these cases,

you may need to expand the basic formal definition by writing a definition paragraph. In
fact, a definition paragraph is an expanded formal definition.
In the following paragraph, an extended definition is used as part of the introduction to a

research article. The intention here is both to establish the terms of the discourse and to
establish the importance of the subject. By exploring the meaning of the term bimetals,
the writer creates a shared concept that focuses the discussion that follows.
Bimetals are components made up of two separate metallic units, each occupying a
distinct position in the component. Bimetal rods or wires, also called clad metal, duo- or
dual-metal, are made of dissimilar metals. The rod core, a cylindrical body made of one
metal, is surrounded by a concentric, cylindrical sleeve of another metal. Some fibrous
metals may also be regarded as bimetallic; for example, rods made by unidirectional
solidification of some eutectic compositions contain a metallic or nonmetallic compound
of fibrous filaments embedded in an almost pure metallic matrix. The structure of a
present-day niobium-tin (Nb-Sn), a metallic chemical compound of niobium (Nb) and tin
(Sn), used industrially as a type superconducting core can be even more complex. It is
multi-metallic--containing more than two dissimilar metals. The two elements of a
bimetallic product are usually intimately interlocked, so that they function in unison.
When you develop a paragraph through definition, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 Have a clear topic sentence that states the paragraph’s main idea
 Your topic sentence must identify the term you are defining.
 Check that all examples and details support your topic sentence.
 Consider whether you need to add more examples or details to help you define
your term.
 Check whether your transitions are appropriate for the pattern (or patterns) of
development you use, or to add transitions to make your paragraph more
coherent.
 End the paragraph with a concluding statement that summarizes your main idea.
Task18
The following paragraph is developed by definition. Read it carefully and answer
the questions that follow it.
Imperialism is a nineteenth-century term that refers to the policy by which one country
takes over the land or the government of another country. The goal of imperialism was to
establish an empire. The imperialist country thought that it was superior to the country it
took over. It justified its actions by saying that it was helping the other country. For
instance, countries such as Germany, Belgium, Spain, and England claimed large areas of
land in Africa. The point of imperialism was to take as much out of the occupied
countries as possible. For example, in South America and Mexico, Spain removed tons of
gold from the areas it occupied. It made the natives into slaves and forced them to work
in mines. In order to protect their interests, imperialist countries often sent troops to
occupy other countries and to keep order. As a result, imperialism kept the people in
occupied countries in poverty and often broke down local governments and local
traditions. At its worst, European imperialism brought slavery, destruction, and death to
many people.

1. What is the important term that is defined in this paragraph?
2. What examples and supporting details are included to develop the definition of the
term?
3. What appropriate transitional words and phrases are used to make the connection
between the ideas clearer?
4. What is the concluding statement that summarizes the main idea of the paragraph?
What does it conclude?
Task 19
Use the information presented in the chart below to write a paragraph of stipulated
definition about human memory
Information
Sensory memory:
Fleeting snapshots
of sights and sounds
Attention
Short-term memory:
Temporary storage
and processing of
information
Encoding
Retrieval
Long-term memory:
Permanent storage of
information

Task 20
Develop one of the following terms or phrases by the use of definitions. Tell what the
word or phrase is as well as what it is not. Consider using appropriate transitional
words or phrases in your paragraph
1. A real sports fan 6. Human right
2. Democracy 7. Behavior
3. Patriotism 8. True Love
4. Real Friend 9. White blood cell
5. Learning 10. Malaria
B. Exemplification
An exemplification paragraph explains or clarifies the idea in the topic sentence with
specific examples. Personal experiences, class discussions, observations, conversations,
and reading (for example, in newspapers and magazines or on the Internet) can all be
good sources of examples.
To clarify general statements, we use exemplification—that is, we use specific examples

that illustrate a general idea.
General Statement Specific Examples
Today is going to be a hard day. Today is going to be a hard day because I have a
history test in the morning and a lab quiz in the
afternoon. I also have to go to work an hour earlier
than usual.
My car is giving me problems. My car is burning oil and won’t start on cold
mornings. In addition, I need a new set
When you write an exemplification paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 An exemplification paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states the
paragraph’s main idea.
 The topic sentence is followed by examples that support the main idea.
 Examples should be arranged in logical order—for example, from least important
to most important or from general to specific.
 An exemplification paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up its
main idea.
 When you write an exemplification paragraph, be sure to include clear transitional
words and phrases. These transitions help readers follow your discussion by
indicating how each example is related to another as well as how each example
supports the topic sentence.
The following paragraph uses several examples to make the point that some countries
change their names for political reasons.

Task 21
1. Read the paragraph below carefully and answer the questions that follow it.
New Government, New Name
Often, when countries change their names, it is for political reasons. Sometimes a new
government decides to change the country’s name to separate itself from an earlier
government. For example, Burma became Myanmar when a military government took
over in 1989. Cambodia has had several name changes as well. After a coup in 1970, it
was called the Khmer Republic. Then, in 1975, under communist rule, it became
Kampuchea. Gaining independence from another nation is another reason for a country to
change its name. For instance, in 1957, after gaining independence from the Great
Britain, the Gold Coast became Ghana. Another name change occurred when the French
Sudan became Mali. After gaining independence from France in 1960, it decided to reject
its colonial past. Finally, Zimbabwe gave up its former British name, Rhodesia, several
years after winning independence. These name changes can be confusing, but they reveal
the changing political climate of the countries in which they occur.
1. What main idea is stated in the topic sentence of this paragraph?

2. List the specific examples that are used to support the main idea of the topic
sentence.
3. What transitional words are used to connect ideas in the paragraph? List them.
4. What is the main point in the paragraph’s concluding statement?
2. Choose one of the topics below (or choose your own topic) and write an
exemplification paragraph
1. Effective (or ineffective) teachers
2. Ways that student prepare for exams
3. Types of resources in the college library
4. Challenges older students face
5. Problems facing college freshmen or someone new to a job
6. Unattractive clothing styles
7. Peer pressure
C. Cause and Effect

If your purpose for writing is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, you
should use cause and effect method. Cause and effect analysis states the cause in the topic
sentence and then proceeds to analyze the topic by discussing the effects of the central
idea.
A cause is something or someone that makes something happen. An effect is something
brought about by a particular cause. A cause-and effect paragraph helps readers
understand why something happened or is happening or shows readers how one thing
affects something else.

Cause Effect
Increased airport security Long lines at airports
Weight gain Health problems
Seatbelt laws passed Increased use of seatbelts
When you write a cause-and-effect paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers
whether the paragraph is focusing on causes or on effects (for example, “There
are several reasons why the cost of gas is so high” or “Going to the writing center
has given me confidence as well as skills”).
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should discuss every important cause or effect, one
at a time. The causes or effects should be arranged in some kind of logical order
—for example, from least important to most important.
 A cause-and-effect paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums
up the main idea stated in the topic sentence.
 Transitions in cause-and-effect paragraphs, introduce individual causes or effects.
They may also show the connections between a cause and its effects or between
an effect and its causes. In addition, they may indicate which cause or effect is
more important than another
Task 22
1. The following paragraph focuses on causes. Read the paragraph carefully and
answer the questions that follow it.
There are many causes that make writing a research paper difficult. Too often, students
postpone work on the paper until it is too late. They also invite avoidable difficulty by
their failure to find out at the beginning of their study whether sufficient materials are
available in the library. Besides this, instead of developing a general notion of the topic
before tackling it in detail, they begin with the first convenient book and plunge into five
points before they have decided what kind of information they need. Such confused
research procedures result in unnecessary wastage of time and effort.
1. What is the topic sentence of this paragraph? What main idea is stated in the topic
sentence?
2. What are the transitional words used to guide the reader move from one cause to
another in the paragraph? Make a list of them.
3. What are the causes described in the paragraph? List them.
4. What is the concluding sentence of this paragraph? What main idea is summarized
in this concluding sentence?
2. The following paragraph focuses on causes. Read the paragraph carefully and
answer the questions that follow it.
Climate change caused by global warming would have several negative effects. One
effect would be an increase in the number of intense storms. Large hurricanes and other
types of storms would damage property and kill many people. Another effect would be a
rise in sea level. As the earth warms, the polar ice would melt and raise the level of the

earth’s oceans. Coastal cities and low-lying areas would probably be flooded. Still
another effect would be the spread of certain kinds of diseases. Many diseases, now
found only in warm areas, would spread to areas that were once cool but then became
warm. Malaria and yellow fever, for example, could become as common in the United
States as they are in Africa and Southeast Asia. Finally, climate change associated with
global warming would affect agriculture. Farming areas, such as the Midwest, where
American farmers grow corn and wheat, would become dry. As a result, there would be
food shortages, and many people could go hungry. No one knows for certain what will
happen, but if global warming continues, our lives will certainly be affected.
1. Does the paragraph focus on causes, effects, or both? Does the topic sentence clearly
identify this focus?
2. What are the effects or causes described in the paragraph? Make a list of them.
3. What important transitional words and phrases the writer uses to identify effects?
Make a list of them.
4. What is the concluding statement of this paragraph? What is the main idea of the
conclusion? Do you agree with the writer’s conclusion? Why or why not?
3. Study the following outline. Write a cause-effect paragraph on the basis of the
outline. You should write a "focus on effect" paragraph.
Effects of ants
I. On agriculture
A. Reducing harmful insect populations
B. Dispersing seeds
C. Helping pollination
D. Keeping pests under control
II. On people
A. Used as medicine
B. Used to timber forests
C. Used to prey on caterpillars
D. Used to drive pests out of houses
4. Following are five possible topic sentences. List some causes or effects for the
main idea stated in one of the topic sentences and write a cause-and-effect
paragraph. Consider using appropriate transitional words or phrases in your
paragraph.
1. Global climate change has both direct and indirect significant health effects.
2. Chronic unemployment can have many causes.
3. Smoking cigarettes results in many undesirable side effects
4. The high cost of college tuition is not easy to explain.
5. There are several reasons why professional athletes’ salaries are high.
5. Write a paragraph that examines causes or effects on one of the following topics.
Consider using appropriate transitional words or phrases in your paragraph
1. Major reasons for school or college dropout
2. Effects of a particular government policy
3. Poor self-sanitation
4. Lack of balanced diet

5. Living in an over populated area
6. Lack of plan for studying
7. Deforestation
8. Absenteeism from the school
9. disobeying the traffic law
10. Drinking alcohol
11. Smoking cigarette
12. Causes (or effects) of stress
13. Causes of conflict between countries
14. Air or water pollution
D. Process
If the purpose is to explain the series of actions, stages, or procedures, then you should
use process method. A process paragraph consists of a series of connected steps. The
steps must be logical and are often chronological in order. You can use time words and
transition expressions to make the sequence of events or actions clear. Process writing is
especially important when you want to explain the steps necessary to complete a task.
Process paragraphs usually demonstrate how to do something.
When you write a process paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A process paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that identifies both the
process and the point you want to make about it (for example, “Anyone who takes
the subway to school in the morning knows how hard it is to find a seat, but by
following a few simple steps, you should be able to get one almost every day” or
“By following a few steps, you can design an effective résumé”).
 A process paragraph should describe the steps in the process, one at a time. These
steps should be presented in strict time order—the order in which they occur or
are to be performed.
 A process paragraph should end with a concluding statement that sums up the
point you are making about the process.
Here are some important transitional words you might need to use in explaining
your Process:
At the start of the In the middle of the process At or near the end of the
process process
At first… Next…, As you continue. Finally…
In the beginning… After that… As you finish…
To begin with… Continuing with… Toward the end…
The first step… The next step is…. The last step…
When you begin… When this step is finished…
Task 23
1. Read the following model paragraph carefully and answer the questions that
follow
The writing process has four distinct phases. The first is invention, which is aided by any
number of techniques, including free-writing, mind-mapping and outlining. In this first
stage, it’s important for a writer not to edit but to let ideas flow and to simply get them
down on paper. After invention, comes the first draft—the stage where the ideas start to
take shape. Many writers use a sentence outline at this stage to see where they need to cut

and where they need to add material. The first draft is also where writers should develop
a tentative thesis to guide the structure of their essay. The next stage of the process is
when both the second and third drafts are done. Here, ideas and structure are refined, and
the thesis is revised until it becomes the unifying idea of the paper. Finally, comes the last
stage, that of editing. Writers should take care at this stage that all sentence structure and
punctuation is correct, and they should make corrections to documentation format as
needed. Writers often repeat these four phases more than once, or skip a phase and go
back to it, making the writing process more cyclical than linear.
1. What is the topic sentence of this paragraph? What main idea does this topic
sentence state?
2. Is this a process explanation or illustration? How do you know it? Give your
justification.
3. What important steps are discussed in this process paragraph? List the steps.
4. What are the important transitional words and phrases used to move readers from
one step to the next? List them.
5. What is the concluding sentence of the paragraph? What is the main point in the
conclusion?
Lead-in Task
Read the following questions individually and try to answer them.
Do you ever lie? How do you know if a person is lying? Can you tell the way the person
looks or acts?
Do you know what a Polygraph test is and how it works?
2. Read the process paragraph that describes a polygraph test. Then answer the
questions. As you read pay attention to the process that occurs.
Polygraph Testing
Many people know the terms polygraph and lie detector test, but many are not familiar
with how this test actually works. The test uses a process that analyzes the physiological
reactions in the person’s body while he or she answers questions. First, a device called a
pneumograph is attached to a person’s chest to record breathing patterns. Any
abnormalities in respiratory pattern are recorded during general interview. Next, a
machine similar to those used in doctor’s offices is attached to the person’s upper arm to
measure blood pressure. During, this part of the polygraph test, the pulse and changes in

and heartbeat are recorded. Finally, skin responses are used as part of the lie detection
examination. Usually, the tips of the person’s fingers are attached to electrodes. An
abnormal amount of sweating is an indicator that the person may be lying. After the
preceding steps have been followed, polygraph experts analyze the results. From the data,
the experts may conclude that the person is telling the truth, or they may decide that the
person is most likely lying.
1. What is the topic sentence of this paragraph? What is the main idea of this topic
sentence?
2. Read the body of the paragraph again and look for three parts of the polygraph test
process. What are they?
3. What are the five transition expressions in the paragraph that show time? Write them
out.
4. In process paragraphs, the topic sentence and the concluding usually have a different
relationship than in the other kinds of the paragraphs you have studied. The
concluding sentence is often about the result of the process and does not necessarily
reflect the topic sentence. Reread and underline the concluding sentence. What is the
final result of the polygraph process?
5. Where would you insert this sentence in the paragraph?
This portion of the polygraph test that analyzes blood pressure is often shown in movies
and television show.
6. Where would you insert this sentence in the paragraph?
These electrodes record the amount of perspiration that a person develops while he or
she is answering questions.

3. Use the following chart as the guide for arranging your supporting sentences in
their logical order and write a process paragraph. One possible topic sentence is
given to you.
Topic sentence: Most frogs have a life cycle with two distinct stages, typically living in
water as young and on land as adults.
First stage
Adult frogs lay eggs in water
Eggs hatch into small fishlike

larva called tadpoles
Tadpoles feed on algae and bits of

plant material in the water to grow
Second stage
Metamorphosis begins and the
tadpole grows hind limbs
Tadpole exchanges its gills for

lungs and changes into young frog
The young frog crawls out on land
The frog resorbs the rest of its tail

and reaches adult body size

4. Based on the information in the flaw chart below, write a process paragraph
describing a digestive process.
Food enters the mouth
Teeth break food into

small bits
Swallow and food

travels through tube
into stomach
Food is broken down even more in

stomach creating nutrients and
wastes
Nutrients pass Waste passes out

through intestine of body through
wall into blood intestine
stream and then
the entire body

5. Following are five possible topic sentences. Make a note of the main idea
considered in the topic sentence and write a process paragraph. Consider using
appropriate transitional words or phrases in your paragraph.
1. Getting butter out of milk can take some important steps.
2. Registration during each semester is not a simple process.
3. Training to swim in the pool can be a tricky process.
4. Blood circulation system has various important stages.
6. Write the process paragraph on one of the following topics. First write the
possible topic sentence for process paragraph. After writing the topic sentence,
list three or four steps that explain the process the sentence identifies. Consider
using appropriate transitional words or phrases in your paragraph.
1. How to make tea or coffee 6. How to be a good friend

2. How to draw a picture 7. Strategies for winning arguments
3. How to break an unhealthy habit 8. Downloading music from Internet
4. How to conduct a research 9. How to quit smoking
5. How to write a letter for friend 10. How to build something
E. Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast is a method of analyzing or examining two or more subjects
according to their similarities and differences or both. Writers use comparison and
contrast simply because it is often the best way to explain something - an object or an
idea is better understood only when its features stand next to those of another idea or
object.
When you write a comparison-and-contrast paragraph, keep the following guidelines in
mind:
A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells
readers whether the paragraph is going to discuss similarities or differences.
 The topic sentence should also make clear the focus of the comparison (for example,
“Toni Morrison and Maya Angelou have similar ideas about race and society” or “My
parents and I have different ideas about success”).
 A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should discuss the same or similar points for
both subjects, one by one. Points should be arranged in logical order—for example,
from least important to most important.
 A comparison-and-contrast paragraph should end with a concluding statement that
reinforces the main point of the comparison.
There are two kinds of comparison-and-contrast paragraphs: subject by- subject
comparisons and point-by-point comparisons:
E1: Subject-by-subject comparison

In a subject-by-subject comparison, you divide your comparison into two parts and
discuss one subject at a time. In the first part of the paragraph, you discuss all your points
about one subject. Then, in the second part, you discuss all your points about the other
subject, comparing it to the first. (In each part of the paragraph, you discuss the points in
the same order.) A subject-by-subject comparison is best for short paragraphs in which

you do not discuss too many points. Because readers are not asked to remember a great
many points, they will have little difficulty keeping track of the comparison as they read.
E2: Point-by-Point Comparisons
When you write a point-by-point comparison, you discuss a point about one subject and
then discuss the same point for the second subject. You use this alternating pattern
throughout the paragraph. A point-by-point comparison is a better strategy for paragraphs
in which you discuss many points. It is also a better choice if the points you are
discussing are technical or complicated. Because you compare the two subjects one point
at a time, readers will able to see each point of comparison before moving on to the next
point.
Task 24
1. Read the following two model paragraphs carefully and answer the questions that
follow them.
Model Paragraph 1
Eating on Campus Food trucks are a good alternative to the campus cafeteria. Eating in
the cafeteria takes a lot of time. Students have to go into a building, wait in line, walk
down some stairs, and find a table. In addition, the cafeteria usually has a limited variety
of food, with only two or three different hot meals and some prepackaged sandwiches.
The food is cooked in advance, and after sitting on a steam tray for a few hours, it is dry
and lukewarm. Finally, food in the cafeteria costs a lot. Students who are not on a food
plan can easily spend more money for dinner. In contrast, the food trucks are much
quicker than the cafeteria. Most food trucks serve a meal in less than five minutes. If the
weather is nice, students can sit anywhere on campus and eat. In addition, the food trucks
offer a lot of choice. Moreover, the food from the trucks is fresh and hot most of the time.
Finally, meals from a food truck usually cost less. This is a big savings, especially if you
are a student on a tight budget. For busy students, the food trucks are often a better choice
than the cafeteria.
1. What is the topic sentence of this paragraph? What main point is stated in the
topic sentence?
2. Does this paragraph deal with similarities or differences? How do you know?
3. What is the structure of this paragraph? Is it a subject-by-subject or point-by-point
comparison? What is your justification?
between the ideas clearer? List them.
What is the concluding statement that summarizes the main idea of the paragraph?
Model Paragraph 2
Professor John and Professor Diana demonstrate very different teaching styles in how
they operate their classes, how they give exams, and they grade us. Professor John’s
classes are highly organized; we work through the lesson every day in the same order.
Professor Diana uses an opposite approach. She creates a lesson to fit the material, which
enable us to learn most. Their exams differ too. Professor John gives standard,
predictable essay exams that are based on his lectures. Professor Diana gives both
multiple choice and essay exams, so we never know what to expect. In addition, each

professor grades differently. Professor John counts class participation as half of our
grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably well on the exams, you will probably pass
the course. Professor Diana, on the other hand, counts the exams 100 percent, so you
have to do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique, enjoyable
teaching style, and I am learning a great a lot from each.
1. What is the topic sentence of this paragraph? What main point is stated in the topic
sentence?
2. Does this paragraph deal with similarities or differences? How do you know?
3. Is this paragraph structured in similar way of comparison and contrast technique
with the first one? What is your justification?
between the ideas clearer? List them.
5. What is the concluding statement of this paragraph? What is the main idea of the
conclusion?
2. Use the information from the table below to write a paragraph of comparison.
Use the methods of organization implied by the analysis.
Dolphins Blue Whales
Are mammals Are mammals

Live in oceans worldwide Live in oceans worldwide
Live in groups called pod Live in groups called pod
Are endangered by humans Are endangered by humans
Eat meat of other sea animals Eat meat of other sea animals
3. Use the information from the table to write a paragraph of contrast. Use
appropriate transitional words and phrase.
Hanna Birtukan
Decided to settle down in Addis Decided to settle down in Bishoftu
Ababa
Desires the excitement of a big city Prefers living in small town
Usually likes being around a lot of Never likes being around a lot of people
people
Has no fear Is not only afraid of dark, but also her own
shadow
Dress in loud and bright colors Likes dark and dull colors
Has loud and happy laughter Is very quiet person
4. Following are four possible topic sentences. List some similarities or differences
for the two subjects being considered in the topic sentence and write a
comparison-and-contrast paragraph. Consider using appropriate transitional
words or phrases in your paragraph

1. Health care provided by a private physician is by far different from health care
provided by a local clinic.
2. My friends and I have similar views on the effects modernism on our fragile
culture.
3. My friends and I have different views on the use of chewing chat.
4. My mother and my father have very different ways of trying to solve the family’s
problems.
5. Write a comparison-and-contrast paragraph on one of the following topics. Use
1. Living in the city versus living in the countryside
2. Educated versus uneducated person
3. Poor person versus rich person
4. Learning at high school versus learning at university
5. Home life versus university life
6. Public school education versus private schooling
F. Classification
Classification is the arrangement of information into groups or categories in order to
make clear the relationship among the members of the group. Writers need to classify,
because it helps them present a mass of material by mean of some orderly system.
Related bits of information seem clearer when presented together as parts of a group.
When you write a classification paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A classification paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that introduces the
subject of the paragraph. It may also identify the categories you will discuss (for
example, “Before you go camping, you should sort the items you are thinking of
packing into three categories: those that are absolutely necessary, those that could
be helpful, and those that are not really necessary”).
 A classification paragraph should discuss each of the categories, one at a time.
Your discussion of each category should include enough details and examples to
show how it is distinct from the other categories.
 The categories in a classification paragraph should be arranged in logical order—
for example, from most important to least important or from smallest to largest.
A classification paragraph should end with a concluding statement that reinforces the
main point stated in the topic sentence.
Task 25
follow
Three Kinds of Shoppers
Shoppers can be put into three categories: practical, recreational, and professional. The
first category is made up of practical shoppers, those who shop because they need
something. Practical shoppers go right to the item they are looking for in the store and
then leave. They do not waste time browsing or walking aimlessly from store to store.
The next category is made up of recreational shoppers, those who shop for entertainment.
For them, shopping is like going to the movies or out to dinner. They do it because it is
fun. They will spend hours walking through stores looking at merchandise. More often
than not, they will not buy anything. For recreational shoppers, it is the activity of

shopping that counts, not the purchase itself. The third category is made up of
professional shoppers, those who shop because they have to. For them, shopping is a
serious business. You can see them in the mall, carrying four, five, or even six bags.
Whenever you walk through a mall, you will see all three types of shoppers.
1. What three categories of shoppers does the paragraph describe?

2. Is each category clearly identified and explained? What are the examples and details
that support the paragraph’s main idea?
3. Are the categories arranged in a logical order, one that indicates their relationships
to one another and their relative importance?
4. What are the transitional phrases used to introduce the three categories in this
paragraph?
5. What main is summarized in the paragraph’s concluding statement?
2. Write a classification paragraph on the basis of the information you get from the
following outline.
Types of trees
I. Fruit trees
A. Fleshy fruits
1. Orange
2. Apple
B. Dry fruits
1. Nuts
2. Almond
II. Fruitless tress
A. Pine
B. Oak
3. Read the following paragraph carefully. Then, using the information described in
the paragraph, draw a chart that shows different categories and the groups in the
categories.
Sports can be classified into three categories: those in which people participate as
individuals, those in which people take part in teams, and finally those in which
participation may be individual or in teams. The first category may be subdivided into
two groups. The first consists of the sports in which one person competes against one
other person; an example of this is judo. The second group comprises the sports in which
a number of individuals compete against each other, for example, athletics. An example
of the second category of sports, that is, sport that is normally played in teams, is football.
The third category, that is, sports which can be played by individuals or teams, can be
divided into two groups like the first. In other words, in one group there are sports such
as tennis in which one individual or team plays against another and in the other there are
sports in which several individuals or teams compete against each other, for example
rowing.

4. Write a classification paragraph on one of the following topics. Consider using
appropriate transitional words or phrases in your paragraph
1. Popular music 5. Parents or children
2. Television shows 6. Types of success
3. Useful Web sites 7. Sports
4. Teachers 8. Countries
2.7.3. Narrative Paragraph
To narrate is to tell a story that explains what happened, when it happened, and who was
involved. For example, a narrative paragraph could tell how an experience you had as a
child changed you, how the life of some famous personalities is inspiring, or how the
Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point in the Civil War.
We tell stories to teach a lesson, illustrate an idea, or make someone laugh, cry, or get
involved. No matter what your narrative is about, every narrative should have a clear
point: It should reveal what you want your reader to learn or take away from the story.
When you write a narrative paragraph, you need to keep the following guidelines in mind:
 A narrative paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that tells readers the
point of the paragraph—that is, why you are telling a particular story.
 Events are presented in a definite time order, usually the order in which they
occurred. Effective narrative paragraphs include only those events that tell the
story and avoid irrelevant information that could distract or confuse readers. Use
details to present settings by answering the “when” and “what” questions.
 You should allow your readers to build up their emotions with your use of nouns
and verbs. You should have a sense of reality.
 You should write either from the first person point of view or from the omniscient
(third person) point of view.
 A narrative paragraph ends with a concluding statement that sums up the main
idea stated in the topic sentence.
Task 26
1. Read the following narrative paragraph carefully and answer the questions below
it
When I was about five years old, I remember doing a lot of exciting things. We had a
large mango trees growing behind our house, and my sister and I climbed them in the
summer. One time I fell out of one of the trees and landed on my head, but I was not
badly hurt. We also played baseball in the backyard with the neighbor kids, and I
remember we used my mother’s dishes for home plate and the bases. We rode our bikes
all over the north end of the town, and we raced through the alleys after a train,
splattering water and mud to each other. The high school was only a block away, so we
walked there in the summer, jumped the fence, and skated around the cement corridors
until a custodian chased us out. Finally, there was a big vacant lot beside our house where
we played cowboys and countrymen almost every Saturday. It seems like I did nothing
but play when I was young.
1. What is the main point in the topic sentence of the paragraph?
2. What are the major events of the narrative? List some details that enrich the narrative.
3. What narrative point of view is used in this paragraph?

2. Arrange the following jumbled sentences into one narrative paragraph. Then,
discuss your answers with your classmate and make necessary correction.
1. One night my husband cut his hand badly on a knife, and blood was everywhere.
2. Instead, I called my dad, who lives next door.
3. He looked at the cut, applied direct pressure to stop the bleeding, washed and
bandaged it, and then decided we should go to the emergency room.
4. My dad always remains calm, even in emergency situations.
5. He was calm and knew what to do even though, as I could tell, he was worried, too.
6. He came right over.
7. I felt so frightened that I couldn’t look at the wound and I didn’t know if I should
call a police.
3. Choose one of the topics below and write a narrative paragraph. Consider using
1. A difficult choice 9. An embarrassing situation
2. A frightening situation 10. A surprise
3. A time of self-doubt 11. A sudden understanding or insight
4. A success 12. Something funny a friend did
5. An act of violence 13. Unexpected good luck
6. A lesson you learned 14. A conflict with authority
7. A happy moment 15. An event that changed your life
8. An instance of injustice 16. An important decision
2.7.4. Argumentative
In an argument paragraph, your purpose is to persuade readers that your position has
merit. You attempt to convince people of the strength of your ideas by presenting
evidence—facts and examples. In the process, you address opposing ideas, and if they are
strong, you acknowledge their strengths. If your evidence is solid and your logic is sound,
you will present a convincing argument.
Important Note: There are two kinds of evidence—facts and examples.

1. A fact is a piece of information that can be verified. If you make a
statement, you should be prepared to support it with facts—for
example, statistics, observations, or statements that are accepted as true.
2. An example is a specific illustration of a general statement. To be
convincing, an example should clearly relate to the point you are
making.
When you write an argument paragraph, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 An argument paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that states your
position. Using words like should, should not, or ought to in your topic sentence
will make your position clear to readers. The federal government should lower the
tax on gasoline. The city should build a new sports stadium.

 An argument paragraph should present points that support the topic sentence. For
example, if your purpose is to argue in favor of placing warning labels on
unhealthy snack foods, you should give several reasons why this policy should be
instituted.
 An argument paragraph should support each point with evidence (facts and
examples).
 An argument paragraph should address and refute (argue against) opposing
arguments. By showing that an opponent’s arguments are weak or inaccurate, you
strengthen your own position.
Task 27
follow it.
Some people argue that the government should provide free university education because
such education benefits the whole community. They assert that the skills that students
learn at university are important for the future social and economic development of our
nation. Therefore, so this argument goes, the government should invest money in
education as it does with other vital resources. According to this argument, when students
are forced to pay for their education themselves fewer of them will enroll in higher
education courses. However, it is undeniable fact that the government is able to invest the
money it gets back into the higher education system so that overall quality is improved.
Furthermore, there is money to fund more places for students so that in the future we will
not have the shortage of places we had in the past. Moreover, it is unreasonable to expect
taxpayers to pay for students' education when those students get well-paid professional
jobs after they graduate.
1. What is the issue of an argument in the paragraph?
2. What is the writer’s position? What is the evidence for your answer?
3. Did the writer organize the ideas well?
4. What specific evidences does the writer use to convince the reader? List some of
the evidences (facts and examples) that the writer uses to support his points
5. What other evidence could the writer have used?
6. What opposing argument does the writer address? How does he address this
argument?
7. Write out the transitional words or phrases the writer uses to move readers
through his argument.
2. Read the following paragraph carefully and complete the note that follows it. You
can use words or phrases to complete your note. Use separate paper or your
exercise book for your answer.
Homework is an important part of the learning process in middle school. One reason is
that homework gives students additional practice of skills covered in class. Middle school
classes are too short to teach a new concept and practice it sufficiently. Students need
both guided practice in class and independent practice at home. Another reason for
homework is that it gives time to complete longer assignments. For example, the ideal
composition process allows time for students to think, to reflect on their ideas, to revise

and to proofreading. In addition, since all students do not work at the same speed, giving
students time at home to finish work keeps them from falling behind. Finally, the most
important reason for homework is that it ensures review. New material and old material
are practiced in daily assignments. Students who do their homework daily are prepared
for tests and make better grades. In conclusion, not only is homework essential to
mastering new skills and maintaining previously learned skills, but it also guarantees
constant review and gives time for longer assignments. Students, do your daily
homework, make better grades, and learn more!
Homework is an important part of the learning process in middle school. One reason
is…………………………Middle school classes are too………………………Students
need both……………………Another reason for homework is …………. For example,
……In addition,…….....Finally, the most important reason for homework is…………..
New material and old material………… Students who do their homework daily
are……………In conclusion, ………………………………………..
3. Now, use the information you have completed in the note and rewrite a persuasive
paragraph in your own words.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
4. Read the following topic sentences and decide whether you agree or disagree with
them. List some points that could support your idea of agreement or
disagreement for each. Finally, write an argumentative paragraph on one of the
topic sentences.
1. All student athletes should be paid a salary by their college or university.
2. College students caught cheating should be expelled.
3. The Ethiopian government should provide free health care.
4. The white football players are not more talented than the black football players.
5. Death penalty has the potential to deter major crimes.
5. Write an argumentative paragraph on one of the following topics by either
supporting or opposing the issue.
1. Smoking at public
2. Violating the university regulation
3. Cheating on examination
4. Allowing abortion
5. Physical punishment in the school
6. Driving after drinking alcohol

Unit Three: Writing Effective Essays
Learning Objectives
 Distinguish the difference between a paragraph and an essay.

 Know the basic structure of an essay.
 Know the characteristics of an effective essay.
 Understand the importance of thesis statement in writing an essay.
 Learn producing effective thesis statements from the given topics.
 Learn producing appropriate essay outline.
 Differentiate various types of essays.
 Develop the skill of writing well developed essays using different
techniques.
 Recognize the use of transitional words or phrases in writing effective
essays.
Lead-in-Task
Think about these questions individually and discuss your thoughts in threes or
fours.
1. What is an essay?
2. How is it different from a paragraph?
3. What is the structure of an essay?
4. What is a thesis statement?
5. What are the Characteristics of a good essay?
This unit will help you apply the skills of paragraph writing to the writing of different
essays. It will guide you from a look at the essay and its parts through planning and
writing essays of your own.
Although writing effective paragraphs will help you complete short-answer exams and do
brief writing assignments, much of the time—in college or university and in the business
world—you will be required to write essays and reports which are several paragraphs
long. Essays are longer and contain more ideas than the single paragraph you have
practiced so far. It is a group of paragraphs, each with the function of supporting a
controlling idea called the thesis. The paragraphs should be logically related together by
directly or indirectly saying the same thing about the thesis statement. Essays require
many of the same skills that paragraphs do.
3.1. Basic Characteristics of a Good Essay

 An essay should possess unity. That means each paragraph should clearly relate
to the main idea of the essay.

 The essay should be written concisely with simple sentences and vocabularies,
which would attract the readers’ attention.
 The essay should have a clear and concise main idea (thesis statement).
 The essay should have a specific purpose such as informing, entertaining,
evaluating, or persuading.
 The introductory paragraph should create interest in the topic and make the
audience want to read on.
 The main point or the topic sentence of each paragraph in an essay should be
clear and each topic sentence should be supported with specific details.
 There should be clear transitions from one paragraph to the next.
 The essay should follow a certain ordered line of thought and should end with an
appropriate conclusion.
3.2. The Difference between a Paragraph and an Essay
The difference between a paragraph and an essay is briefly put in the following table.
Paragraph Essay
Introduction
The topic sentence introduces The thesis statement, by itself
the paragraph, expresses its or with other sentences,
main idea, and controls its expresses the main idea
content
body
A series of sentences support A series of paragraphs
the topic sentence, using one support the thesis statement,
or more methods of by using one or more methods
development of development
conclusion
A sentence summarizing the A paragraph summarizing
paragraph repeats the topic the essay repeats the thesis
sentence in a heightened form. statement in a heightened
form.
3.3. The Structure of an Essay

As you can briefly understand from the given table, like a paragraph, essay has also three
basic structures: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
3.3.1. The Introduction
This is the first paragraph of an essay that attempts to arouse the reader’s interest by
providing background information on the topic, stressing the significance of the topic, or
presenting one or more startling facts. Introductory paragraph should lead logically to the
thesis, which usually appears at or near the end of the introductory paragraph.
3.3.2. The Body
If, in your introduction, you say what you are going to say, then the body of your essay is
where you actually say it. Each paragraph of the body of your essay should contain a
topic sentence. Often the main point can be found in a topic sentence, which may appear

anywhere in the paragraph or be implied. Of course, all the middle paragraphs must
ultimately explain and support the essay’s thesis statement and come between the
introduction and the conclusion.
3.3.3. The Conclusion
The conclusion is the last paragraph of an essay. It summarizes or restates the thesis and
the supporting ideas of the essay. In other words, the conclusion briefly sums up the
points and evidences provided to support the thesis statement. It signals the readers that
the discussion has come to an end or makes a recommendation or prediction for the
future.
Read the sample essay below and identify its three basic structures: the
introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
Changing English: the African American Influence
If you ask average Americans where their language comes from, they will probably say
“England”. However, English vocabulary has also been influenced by other countries and
groups of people. Some words are borrowed from other languages, such as typhoon,
which originally came from Chinese word, “tai-fung”, meaning “big wind”. Skunk, the
name of a small, smelly, black and white animal, came to English from a Native
American language. African Americans, too, have both contributed new words to English
and changed the meanings of some existing words.
African Americans, many of whose ancestors were brought to the States as slaves
hundreds of years ago, have introduced a number of words to English from the language
that they spoke in their native countries. The common English OK is used around the
world today, but it was not always part of English vocabulary. One theory is that slaves in
America used a phrase in their own language that sounded like OK to mean “all right”.
Americans heard the phrase and started using it. Today, almost everyone in the world
uses OK to mean “all right”. Another good example of a “new” word is the word jazz.
African American musicians living in the United States began playing jazz music in the
city of New Orleans, and they used the word jass or jazz to describe the music and certain
kinds of dancing. No one is sure where the word originally came from, but as jazz music
became more and more popular, the word jazz became a common English word.
The meanings of words sometimes changes over time. The word cool is a good example.
Cool has been used in English for a long time to describe a temperature that is “not warm
but not too cold” or to describe a person who is “calm or unemotional”. However an
additional meaning was given to the word cool in the past 100 years. Just like the word
jazz, African American musicians used the word cool to describe the music they were
playing. For them cool meant “good”. As jazz music and other forms of music played by
African American musicians became popular, more and more people started to use the
word cool in conversation. Today, it is a commonly used word, especially by younger
people, to mean “good” or “great”. A word with the opposite meaning of cool is square.
Square is, of course, a shape, but it also is used to describe a person who is not cool. This
may be because a person who is too old-fashioned and not flexible is like a shape with
four straight sides and four corners.

English owes some of its interesting and colorful vocabulary to African Americans.
Existing ethnic groups in the United States as well as new immigrants will surly continue
to bring new words to English and give fresh meanings to existing words. Who knows
what the “cool” words of tomorrow will be?
3.4. Thesis Statement
The thesis statement is the sentence that tells the main idea of the whole essay. That
means, it tells the reader exactly what you will be covering in the essay. It subtly sums up
the whole composition and often gives the reader a hunch on how the main idea will be
supported in the entirely of the composition. The thesis statement can be compared to a
topic sentence, which gives the main idea of a paragraph. It usually comes at or near the
end of introductory paragraph.
The thesis creates a focus for the essay and should not be too broad or too narrow for the
assignment. A thesis that is too broad is a statement that is too large to be adequately
developed in the length essay you have been assigned. A thesis that is too narrow is a
statement that is not large enough to be developed into an essay. A well-focused thesis
presents a main idea that can be adequately developed in the number of paragraphs or
pages you have been assigned to write.
Task 1
The following introductory paragraphs are taken from two different essays. Write
out the thesis statement in each of these introductory paragraphs. What is the main
idea in each thesis statement is about? Share your answers with your partner.
A
Before I travelled to the United States last year, I thought that American food was just
hamburgers and French fries, hot dogs, steaks, pizza, apple pea and cola. These foods
are popular in the States, but during my travel, I discovered that there is so much
more to eating in America. People from every country in the world have made their
home in the United States of America and they have brought with them their native
foods. Even in small towns, you can find restaurants serving the foods of China and
Mexico, Italy and Vietnam. The United States can be divided in to six general regions
that have their own characteristic foods influenced by the cultures of the people who
live there.
B
Taoism is an ancient philosophy from Asia that places great importance on the natural
world. Taoism believe that spirit can be found in every person or thing, living or
nonliving. For the Taoist, even a mountain or a stone contains a spirit. Lao Tsu, a
Taoist writer and philosopher, said “people follow earth. Earth follows heaven.
Heaven follows the Tao. The Tao follows what is natural.” For thousands of years in
china and other Asian countries, gardens have been an important way to create a
place where people can feel the spirit of the natural world. Creating a Taoist garden is
an art. No two Taoist gardens are exactly alike, but all Taoist gardens include four
essential elements: water, mountains, buildings, and bridges.

3.5. Writing a Strong Thesis Statement
It is mentioned that a thesis statement gives the author’s opinion or states an important
idea about a topic. It should give an idea that can be discussed and explained with
supporting ideas:
 The qualifications for entering a university in my country are unreasonable.
 When studying a second language, there are several ways to improve your use of
the language.
These are examples of strong thesis statements because they can be discussed or
explained.
A thesis statement should not be a sentence that only gives a fact about the topic:
 In the northern hemisphere, the summer months are warmer than the winter
months.
This is not a strong thesis statement because it cannot be discussed or argued about.
A thesis statement should not state two sides of an argument equally:
 There are advantages and disadvantages to using nuclear power.
This could be a topic sentence, but it is not a thesis statement. It gives two sides of an
argument without giving a clear opinion of support or disagreement. It could be revised
like this:
 Although there are some advantages, using nuclear power has many
disadvantages and should not be part of our countries energy plan.
This is a strong thesis statement because it clearly gives the writer’s opinion about
nuclear power.
In order to clearly state the thesis statement for your essay, change the topic that you are
to write an essay on into interrogative. The answer that you get for your question could
be your thesis statement.
For example, if your topic is “causes for climatic change” you can possibly ask the
question “What are the causes for climatic change?” The answer to this question could be
“Climatic change mostly occurs as a result of manmade factors such as deforestation,
overgrazing, and emission of carbon from factories.” This can be a strong thesis
statement for the essay on the topic “causes for climatic change”.
Task 2
1. Read the following thesis statements carefully and identify each of them as strong
or weak thesis statement. Give reasons for your answers.
1. Some people prefer digital cameras, while others like traditional cameras.
2. College is different from high school in several ways—especially in teaching,
homework, and tests.
3. Indian became an independent country in 1947.
4. To be a successful student, good study habits are more important than intelligence.
5. There are several advantages of owning a car, but there are also many
disadvantages.

6. Using public transportation would be one of the best ways to solve the traffic and
pollution problems in cities around the world.
7. The Traditional Chinese Medicine International Service Complex is located in
Huaihua city, Hunan province, in Mid-South China.
8. Corporal punishment is counterproductive because it aggravates antisocial behavior
in the student, breaks down communication between teacher and student, and
instills fear rather than respect.
9. Smokers should stop smoking because smoking damages their health, their
appearance, and their pocketbook.

10. Students who plagiarize should be expelled from college because they hurt the
institution, they hurt other students, and they hurt themselves.
1. Write effective thesis statements for each of the following topics and get them
checked by your instructor.
1. The problems caused by pollution
2. Benefits of using computers
3. Violence in television programming
4. The uses of forests
5. The effects of global warming
Task 3
Read the introductory paragraph of the following essay and write out its thesis
statement. Then, read the introduction and the body paragraphs again and write
the concluding paragraph for the essay.
In this era, we can see how fast the information moves from one place to another. We can
easily grab a newspaper, a magazine or even browse the internet to find out the latest
news. Some people believe that the presence of internet will eliminate the need for
newspapers and magazines whereas; others argue that all of them will never substitute
one another.
The significant growth of internet has indeed brought priceless advantages to our life.
Internet can provide us up to date news at an incredibly fast pace better than any other
conventional media like newspaper and magazine can achieve. Furthermore, by opting to
gather news via the internet, we could help save our environment since we can reduce the
number of resources used to produce the paper.
Meanwhile, from another stand point, first of all it is really too good to be true to have
everyone in this world reading news via the internet. In reality, there are still a lot of
people out there who prefer to get information from newspapers and magazines. This has
been caused by, but not limited to, the fact that reading news online is too tiring since we
have to keep our eyes staring at the monitor at stretch. Furthermore, we cannot also fully
trust any information spread out in the internet as everyone can put up any news as they
wish. That is why, to some extent, the information printed in the magazines and
newspapers seem to be more trusted since it has passed through a number of strict
procedures.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3.6. Steps in Writing an Essay

1. Select a subject that interests you
2. Limit the subject you have chosen into manageable size
3. Determine the purpose of your writing
4. Consider your reader’s need
5. Gather materials
6. Organize your notes
7. Prepare a complete outline
8. Begin writing your paper
9. Write a draft
10. Set the draft aside for a day or two, then read it through and make
changes.
11. Write a complete essay.
3.7. Outlining an Essay

In order to write a good essay, planning plays the prior role. The ideas and information
are collected to form an outline, which is later developed into an essay. The outline of an
essay is therefore the backbone of an essay because it is a list of the information that you
will put in your essay.
An outline:
 Begins with the essay’s thesis statement;
 Shows the organization of the essay;
 Tells what ideas you will discuss and shows which ideas will come first,
second, and so on;
 Ends with the essay’s conclusion.
Writing an outline before you write an essay will:
 Show you what to write before you actually begin writing;
 Help make your essay well organized and clearly focused;
 Keep you from forgetting any important points.
3.7.1. Important Steps for Outlining
Use Roman numerals (I, II, III, IV, V, etc.) for your essays main ideas: your introduction
and your thesis statement, your main body paragraphs and your conclusion write all of
these first and, before going into more detail anywhere.
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
III. Second main idea
IV. Third main idea
V. conclusion

Next fill in more information for the paragraphs in the main body by using the capital
letters (A, B, C, D, etc.). Use one letter for each paragraph in the main body before going
into more detail.
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
A. First Supporting point
B. Second Supporting point and so on
Finally use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) to give details for your supporting points.
Not every supporting point will have details, and some points will have several. It is not
important to have the same number of details for every supporting point.
I. Introduction
II. First main idea
A. First Supporting point
1. First detail
2. Second detail
B. Second Supporting point
1. First detail
2. Second detail and so on

Sample essay outline (see essay for this outline in section for argumentative essay)
I. Introduction
Thesis: Even though it can provide the world with a source of electricity, nuclear power is not
a good energy source because it is too expensive, the materials used in the power plants are
not safe, and there is a great possibility of accidents.
II. Body
A. Nuclear fuel is expensive
1. Nuclear power stations are expensive to build and operate (major)
2. Cost of construction (minor)
3. Cost of training workers (minor)
4. Cost of safety features (minor)
B. Nuclear materials are not safe
1. Mining materials produce radioactive gas
2. Working with radioactive fuels can harm workers
3. Nuclear waste products are dangerous
4. Very radioactive
5. Difficult to dispose of or store safely
C. There is a great possibility of accident
1. Nuclear power stations can fail (major)
2. Three Mile Island, USA (1979) (minor)
3. Tarapur, India (1992) (minor)
4. Darlington, Canada (1992) (minor)
D. workers can make mistakes
1. Chernobyl, USSR (1986)
2. Kola, Russia (1991)
3. Tokaimura, Japan (1999)
E. Natural disaster can occur
1. Earthquake, Kozloday, Bulgaria (1977)
2. Tornado, Moruroa, the pacific (1981)
III. Conclusion: Because of the cost and the danger, the world should develop different types of
energy to replace nuclear energy.
Task 4
1. Write effective thesis statement for each of the following topics. Then develop an
essay outline for each of the thesis.
a. High school students should wear uniform
b. Cost sharing must be mandatory
c. Teachers should not use Physical punishment in the school

d. The effect of smoking cigarette
e. The effect of drinking alcohol
f. Benefits of using computers
E. Using the outline you have developed, write an essay of five paragraphs and
exchange it with your friends for correction.
3.8. Types of Essays
Essays may be endless kinds, but like a paragraph, they are generally divided into four
main types each having its own purpose.
3.8.1. Descriptive Essay
It is a form of discourse that gives a picturesque detail of a topic. It revolves around one
point in time and tells you how your subject appears. The purpose of a descriptive essay
is to describe a person, place, or thing in such vivid detail that the reader can easily form
a precise mental picture of what is being written about. The author may accomplish this
by using imaginative language, interesting comparisons, and images that appeal to the
senses.
A Good Description:
 Creates a main impression-an overall effect, feeling, or image -about the topic
 Uses concrete, specific details to support the main impression.
 Uses details that appeal to the five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch
 Uses adjectives and figures of speech
Task 5
1. Read the following Sample descriptive essay and answer the questions that follow
it.
The first thing that you notice about a burning house is not that it is burning, but that it is
burning with such intensity. James watched the house across the street as fire engulfed it
from all sides. There was fire everywhere; the roof was on fire, the doors and windows
were on fire, fire was even coming out of the house through various openings, looking
like a fire-breathing dragon was inside the house, puffing away vicariously. The flames
burned deep red and amber, almost livid purple as James saw various firefighters trying
to put out the fire. Fortunately, there was no one inside as the whole family had been out
for dinner. Nothing inside was likely to survive the fire, James thought as he saw some
flames licking up in the air with the wind, trying to catch something else on fire, and
finding nothing but air, disappearing into the windy night, like disappointed flutters.
It all began about an hour ago. James was in his room and he thought he smelled
something burning. It smelled like a heated soldering iron or as if some wires and rubber
was being burnt. The first thought that crossed James' mind was that it was his computer
and that it had begun to fry. But then after a careful inspection ruled out that possibility,
he started back at his homework. He could not really concentrate as the smell persists. He
was convinced now that something was very wrong and went downstairs to inspect his
kitchen. It was as he was going down the stairs that he noticed something out of the
window. It looked like a fluttering red bird that had just flown by and as James try to

catch another glimpse, his curiosity turned to horror as he realized that the house across
the street was on fire. He ran downstairs and dialed 911, explaining what he had seen and
pushed his way into his driveway.
The house in front of him had just started to smolder in the fire. The first thing that
crossed his mind was what if there were people inside. He thought of going inside the
house and looking for some people, but the extreme heat that was coming out the house
thwarted him instantly. He could not go further than being a good hundred feet away
from the house. It was excruciatingly hot and he almost felt his eyebrows burn. He was
still very worried. Alex lived in that house and he had known him since they were kids.
Not knowing what to do, James ran back in the house and called Alex on his cell phone.
He watched through the kitchen window as a crash brought down the ceiling of the
house, bringing the whole roof down with a loud crash. Alex picked up the phone as
James saw a bellow of ash and smoke rise out of the house. It was mildly relieving to
James to find out that Alex and his whole family had decided to go out for dinner and
none of them were inside the house.
Soon, the firefighters arrived and looked at the full-blown inferno in front of them. The
fire had gotten quite out of control now as the whole house was on fire. The firefighters
evacuated the street and told everyone to go inside their houses. James had no choice but
to retreat to his room where he could see, feel, and hear Alex's house burn down. In a few
minutes, the house had been reduced to a pile of rubble, ashes, and smoldering wood and
items. There was a very putrid smell that took over the whole neighborhood, like a bad
barbeque party gone horribly wrong. The smell was so overpowering that it took James
almost two weeks to get it out of his nose. The house had burnt down to nothing within a
few hours, making James realize the futility of the human life and ventures. It takes man
many years to build his dream house and it takes nature only a few minutes to completely
destroy his dreams.
1. What impression do you get from the introductory paragraph in this essay? What is
your evidence?
2. Discuss with your partner the important words and phrases you have noted down. What
are the most noticeable features of the scene described?
3. What examples and descriptive details are used to support the main idea in each
paragraph of the essay?
4. Would you characterize the essay as primarily an objective or subjective description?
What leads you to your conclusion?
5. The author uses transitional words or phrases that lead the readers from one detail to
the other in describing the burning house. What are those transitional words or
phrases?
2. Write a descriptive essay on one of the following topics.

1. your university library
2. A historical site or monument
3. A person or character that makes you laugh or (frightens you)
4. An advertisement
5. Someone whom everyone notices

6. Church sanctuary, stadium, or any place of your choice.
In your thesis statement, state the dominant impression in one word, choosing a word
from the following list or thinking up your own word. Make sure all details of your
description reinforce that dominant impression.
Cheerful colorful filthy orderly
Cluttered disgusting spotless chaotic
Serene dull crowded lonely
Bleak gloomy eerie noisy
Messy elegant exciting calm
Shabby depressing impersonal cozy
3.8.2. Expository Essay
This is a type of essay where the purpose is to inform, explain, or define the author's
subject to the reader. Expository text is meant to deposit information and is the most
frequently used type of writing. Depending upon the particular purpose for which the
expository essay is being written, the mode of essay development that will be used may
vary. If the purpose is to break down a subject into its constituent parts and to explain
how they are related to the whole topic, then analysis method should be used; if the
purpose is to determine condition or reason and result or outcome, cause and effect
method should be used; if the purpose is to give the similarities and the differences,
compare and contrast method should be used; if the purpose is to explain the meaning of
a word or phrase, then definition should be used, and if the purpose is to explain the
series of actions, stages, or procedures, then process method should be used. Expository
essays are of many types. In this section you will see each type in detail.
A. Definition
Although paragraphs of definition are more common in college and the workplace than
essays are, you may at some time have to write a definition essay.
Sample definition essay

The following student essay, “Street Smart” by Kristin Whitehead, defines the term street
smart. In the essay’s introduction, Kristin defines her term briefly; in the essay’s body
paragraphs, she develops her definition further. Notice that the topic sentences of
Kristin’s three body paragraphs repeat a key phrase to remind readers of her essay’s
subject.
Task 6
1. Read the sample essay below carefully and answer the questions that follow it.
Street Smart
I grew up in a big city, so I was practically born street smart. I learned the hard way how
to act and what to do, and so did my friends. To us, being street smart meant having
common sense. We wanted to be cool, but we needed to be safe, too. Now I go to college
in a big city, and I realize that not everyone here grew up the way I did. Many students

are from suburbs or rural areas, and they are either terrified of the city or totally ignorant
of city life.
The few suburban or rural students who are willing to venture downtown are not street
smart—but they should be. Being street smart is a vital survival skill, one that everyone
should learn.
For me, being street smart means, knowing how to protect my possessions. Friends of
mine who are not used to city life insist on wearing all their jewelry when they go
downtown. I think this is asking for trouble, and I know better. I always tuck my chain
under my shirt and leave my gold earrings home. Another thing that surprises me is how
some of my friends wave their money around. They always seem to be standing on the
street, trying to count their change or stuff dollars into their wallets. Street-smart people
make sure to put their money safely away in their pockets or purses before they leave a
store. A street-smart person will also carry a backpack, a purse strapped across the chest,
or no purse at all. A person who is not street smart carries a purse loosely over one
shoulder or dangles it by its handle. Again, these people are asking for trouble.
Being street smart also means protecting myself. It means being aware of my
surroundings at all times and looking alert. A lot of times, I have been downtown with
people who kept stopping on the street to talk about where they should go next or
walking up and down the same street over and over again. A street-smart person would
never do this. It is important that I look as if I know where I am going at all times, even if
I don’t. Whenever possible, I decide on a destination in advance, and I make sure I know
how to get there. Even if I am not completely sure where I am headed, I make sure my
body language conveys my confidence in my ability to reach my destination.
Finally, being street smart means protecting my life. A street-smart person does not walk
alone, especially after dark, in an unfamiliar neighborhood. A street-smart person does
not ask random strangers for directions; when lost, he or she asks a shopkeeper for help.
A street-smart person takes main streets instead of side streets. When faced with danger
or the threat of danger, a street-smart person knows when to run, when to scream, and
when to give up money or possessions to avoid violence.
So how does someone get to be street smart? Some people think it is a gift, but I think it
is something almost anyone can learn. Probably the best way to learn how to be street
smart is to hang out with people who know where they are going.
1. What is the thesis statement of this essay? Restate this thesis statement in your own
words.
2. In your own words, define the term street smart. Why does this term require more
than a one-sentence definition?
3. Where does Kristin use examples to develop her definition? Where does she use
comparison and contrast?
4. What phrase does Kristin repeat in the topic sentences to tie her three body
paragraphs together?

5. Kristin’s conclusion is quite a bit shorter than her other paragraphs. What, if
anything, do you think she should add to this paragraph?
2. Write a definition essay on one of the following topics.
1. Responsibility 5. happiness
2. Courage 6. Competition
3. Peer pressure 7. Security
4. Procrastination 8. Success
B. Example or Illustration
A writer uses examples or illustration to develop a general idea or prove a general
statement. Examples are specific and concrete, not general or abstract. They explain,
clarify, or demonstrate a general idea. An illustration is an extended, developed example.
Examples help readers understand the writer’s ideas by making abstract ideas concrete
and easier to understand. Just as a picture or illustration helps the reader see and
understand the writer’s ideas, examples or illustrations help the reader understand a
general idea. Examples are also more memorable than abstractions. Most students
remember the examples an instructor used in class long after they’ve forgotten the point
the instructor was trying to make. Examples keep the reader’s attention and make writing
vivid and memorable.
Read the following illustration or example essay about an admirable man and do the
task that follows it.
An Admirable Man
My dad didn’t have a college degree, but he was an intelligent man. He could fix most
things, from cars to toasters to radios, and he had a knack for nurturing growing things
such as crops and animals and children. My father was well liked and well respected in
our community, and nobody deserved his reputation more than he did. Most of the things
I learned of value in my childhood came from watching my father and learning from him.
By setting a good example for me, my father showed me the meaning of honesty, hard
work, and generosity.
My father showed me the meaning of honesty. I never heard him tell a lie, even the kind
of white lie we tend to use to save ourselves time or money or hassle. Once when a
cashier gave him change for a twenty rather than the ten he had given her, he handed
back the extra ten dollars and told her she’d made a mistake. Needless to say, she was
astounded by his unexpected honesty. Another time when he accidentally backed into a
car in a parking lot and left a small scratch on its fender, he left a note on the windshield
with his name and phone number. He always took responsibility for his actions, and if
something went wrong, he was the first to admit his mistake. When the crops failed or an
animal died, if it was his fault, he admitted it. He always said it takes a man to admit his
mistakes rather than run away from them. By watching my father, I learned what it means
to be honest.
Not only was my dad honest, but he was also the hardest-working man I’ve ever known.
His day began before daylight when he got up to feed and water the animals and take care
of household chores. In winter, he had to get up a half an hour earlier to bring in wood for

the stoves and shovel the snow out of the driveway. After helping Mom get the kids off to
school, he headed out the driveway in his pickup truck to drive thirty miles to his job
working for the physical plant of a large corporation. Rain or snow, he never missed a
day of work. At work he did everything from installing desks to fixing electrical
problems. His job kept him on his feet most of the day, and when he came home at five,
he was tired, but he was never too tired to help with dinner or to complete whatever jobs
needed doing around the house.
My father was also an enormously generous man. He helped out whenever anyone in our
community needed a roof repaired, a fence mended, or a crop brought in. He also
volunteered his time to coach our Little League baseball team and to serve as a volunteer
firefighter. Not only was he generous with others, but also with his kids. He was never
too busy to help out with a school project, toss a baseball with us in the front yard, or just
sit on the porch swing and talk. I don’t know how he found the time to do everything he
did, but he believed it was his responsibility to help others.
There aren’t many men like my dad, and the older I get, the more I appreciate and admire
him. The old saying “Actions speak louder than words” is certainly true of my father. He
didn’t preach about how to be a good person, but he was one. I learned good values from
watching him and from the example he set. I only hope I can set as good an example for
my children.
Task 7
1. Now, complete these notes about an admirable man. Write your answers on your
exercise book.
Paragraph I.
Thesis statement: ……………………………………………………………….
Paragraph II.
A. Main statement: My father showed me the meaning of honesty.
Specific examples that illustrate the honesty of the writer’s father:
1…………………………………………………………………………………...
2…………………………………………………………………………………...
3…………………………………………………………………………………...
4…………………………………………………………………………………...
5.…………………………………………………………………………………..
Paragraph III.
B. Main statement: …………………………………………………………………
Specific examples that illustrate this main idea:
1……………………………………………………………………………………..
2……………………………………………………………………………………..
3……………………………………………………………………………………..
4……………………………………………………………………………………..
5.…………………………………………………………………………………….
Paragraph IV.
C. Main statement: ………………………………………………………………
Specific examples that illustrate this main idea:
1……………………………………………………………………………………..

2……………………………………………………………………………………..
3……………………………………………………………………………………..
4……………………………………………………………………………………..
5.…………………………………………………………………………………….
Paragraph V. Conclusion:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Write an example or illustration essay on one of the topics below.
1. Choose someone you admire and use examples or illustration to show that he or she is
an excellent role model for a specific group of people such as children, athletes,
musicians, businesspeople, and so on.
2. What have you learned or did you learn about being a successful student during your
first semester in university? Make a statement about what you learned and then
support it with specific examples.
3. Use examples or illustration to show that the Internet can be a great tool for medical
research, shopping, or entertainment.
D. Cause and Effect
Essays of cause and effect are among the most important kinds of essays to master
because knowing how to analyze the causes and consequences of events will help you
succeed in college, at work, and in your personal life. It is a unique piece of writing that
you are often assigned with.
Sample Cause and Effect Essay
The twentieth century saw a major increase in the world’s population. Yet large parts of
the globe remain uninhabitable, so people are drawn towards living in existing towns and
cities. As a result our modern day cities face a number of serious problems which are due
to overcrowding.
Cities teeming with people are put under great strain to supply housing, health care,
education, jobs and a certain quality of life for the inhabitants. The consequence of too
dense a population is that one or all of these areas must suffer. Owing to being over
peopled Britain’s main cities all have a number of people living on the streets. Life must
be extremely hard for these people and one effect of such a lifestyle is that drug abuse
and crime rates rise.
Cities are environmentally unfriendly places. This is because light, heat, travel and food
must all be supplied artificially as one is removed from nature. Hence, the greater the
population, the more natural resources are burnt up and, consequently, the more pollution
is created. A city crowded with people leads to roads crawling with cars. The effect of the
consequent levels of carbon monoxide in the air is said to, in cities as crowded as Mexico
City, be equivalent to smoking twenty cigarettes a day. Living in a city therefore forces
us to be part of an unhealthy consumer throwaway society, which creates illness and
environmental crisis, rather than curing it.

It is the Government’s responsibility to find solutions for these problems. As a result a lot
of taxpayer’s money is spent on trying to keep the effects of overcrowding under control.
More housing is built; more roads are planned. This tactic might alleviate some
symptomatic problems at high cost. However, it will never solve the problem of
overpopulation.
For this reason, we must look to the cause of the problem, which is simply an unchecked
epidemic of people. Thus, Governments must educate people to limit the size of their
family. In China, couples are penalized financially as a consequence of having more than
one child. This may seem cruel, but the “one-child policy” is beginning to have an effect
on the world’s most populous nation. Similar such policies may also be necessary in
other overcrowded nations and this, in turn, would eventually result in solving the
overcrowding in cities.
Task 8
1. Reread the given model cause-effect essay carefully and answer the following
questions.
1. Does the essay focus on causes, effects, or both? Does the thesis statement clearly
identify this focus?
2. Does the writer try to consider all relevant causes and effects?
3. Make an informal outline of the essay. What determines the order of the causes or
effects? Is this the most effective order? Why?
4. What transitional words and phrases are used? List the transitional words and
phrases used to indicate causal connections.
5. Are more examples or details included to help readers understand causal
connections? List them.
6. Do you agree with the writer’s conclusions? Why or why not?
3. Here is another essay about “The Effects of Being a Foreign Student”. Read it
carefully and answer the questions that follow.
Usually becoming a foreign student in order to study in another city can change your life
in many aspects. Living in a city far away from home can bring many consequences and
effects which almost always change a student’s form of life. When I became a foreign
student, many things changed or had to change. You do not live with your family, so
usually you have to learn how to live in harmony with others, how to do things by
yourself, how to move to other places, and the like. Being a foreign makes you learn a lot
of things, but at the beginning it can be somewhat difficult, as it happened to me. That is
why the purpose of this paper is to discuss the three main effects of being a foreign
student.
The main effect and the one that affects you most is the fact that you do not live with
your parents and in your house, which means that you will not enjoy its commodities. It
was so good when your mom cooked for you, and when the house maid used to make
your bed. Your dad took you to school, and when classes finished, you returned to your
room and made yourself completely comfortable. But becoming a foreign student implies
that you will live in a dormitory or that you will rent an apartment. Usually you have to
take care of dirty dishes, messy rooms, and cooking. This means you have to learn many
new things, like how to cook several dishes. In a few words, you have to learn how to be
independent.

Another effect is that you have to find your way around the city, so you have to know the
main parts of the city. If you have a car, it may be easier to explore the city. You can just
get lost and see where each street takes you, and then find a way back home. But if you
don’t have a car, you need to learn how to get around by walking, in buses, or with taxis.
For this you may find out about bus routes or find out how much costs to use taxis, and in
this way you can plan the time it will take you to get from your house to school, for
example. This will force you to plan your time better, and maybe you will have less
available time along the day. This may decrease the time you have to make homework or
to hang out with your friends, for example. But over time, you learn how to plan your
activities in a better way.
A foreign student may also find himself feeling somewhat lonely, since arriving in a new
city means you don’t know anyone. You may be lucky if another friend from your city
comes with, but usually you are alone. It is important to start meeting people and making
friends. In this way it will be much easier to get used to being a foreign student. You will
have new people with who to hang with, with whom to go to parties. Besides you won’t
have to be quiet all the time in classes like when you don’t know someone. Sometimes
friends can also help you in a lot of situations, like when you have problems about
running out of money, when you need to go to your house quickly but you don’t have a
car, or when you need to get something that is not easily found. But most of all, with
friends you can have a great time and learn a lot of things.
Leaving your house and going to another city to study is an experience in your life that
cannot be compared to any other experience in your life. You learn how to be
independent, and you get to meet tons of people. It may be somewhat difficult to live
without your parents and in another city, but this makes you learn how to live your life
better and how to appreciate what you have, like your parents and your belongings.
Besides, you get to appreciate the things you achieve during your life because you learn
that your goals are not achieved easily, but that they cost a lot of work and effort. In
conclusion, being a foreign student is great!
1. What is the main focus of the essay? Does the thesis statement clearly identify
this focus?
2. How does this essay differ from the first one? Does the writer try to consider all
relevant points? Can you mention some?
3. Make an informal outline of the essay. What determines the order of the effects?
Is this the most effective order? Why?
4. What transitional words and phrases are used? List the transitional words and
phrases used to indicate causal connections.
5. Are more examples or details included to help readers understand causal
connections? List them.
6. Do you agree with the writer’s conclusions? Why or why not?
4. Analyze your points first and write a cause effect essay on one of the following
topics.
1. In some countries, the government encourages the citizens to marry and have
families. What are the reasons for this, and what have been some results?

2. Explain some of the problems caused by pollution in the world today and suggest
at least one possible solution.
3. Many people prefer to work in the public sector, rather than in the private sector.
What are the reasons for this, and what effects does it have on a country?
4. Diabetes and heart attacks are on the rise in many countries. What are the main
causes of this, and what effects could this have for individuals and the
government?
5. What are some of the causes of global warming? What could some of the effects
be?
6. Explain some of the problems caused by worldwide unemployment and suggest at
least one possible solution.
F. Process
Process essays either explain how to do something or describe how something works (or
how something happened).
Sample process essay
For Fun and Profit
My first experience selling items at a flea market was both fun and profitable. In fact, it
led to a hobby that is also a continuing source of extra money. That first time took a lot of
work, but the routine I established then has made each flea market easier.
The first step in the process is to call to reserve a spot at the flea market. Then, I recruit a
helper—usually my brother or one of my roommates—and we get to work.
The next step is sorting through all the items I managed to accumulate since the last flea
market. My helper comes in handy here, encouraging me to sell ugly or useless things I
may want to hold on to. We make three piles— keep, sell, and trash—and one by one, we
place every item in a pile. (Before we decide to sell or throw out an item, I check with all
my roommates to make sure I’m not accidentally throwing out one of their prized
possessions.)
Next comes pricing the items for sale, which is actually the hardest step for me. It’s
always difficult to accept the fact that I might have to set a low price for something that
has sentimental value for me (a giant stuffed animal, for example). It’s just as hard to set
a high price on the ugly lamp or old record album that might turn out to be someone’s
treasure. At my first flea market, I returned with a lot of unsold items, and I later realized
I had sold other items too cheaply. I never made these mistakes again.
The next step is my least favorite: packing up items to be sold. I usually borrow my
friend’s van for the heavy items (boxes of books or dishes, for example). The small items
(knickknacks, silk flowers, stray teaspoons) can be transported in my brother’s car.
The final steps in my preparation take place on the day before the event. I borrow a
couple of card tables from friends of my parents. Then, I go to the bank and get lots of
dollar bills and quarters, and I collect piles of newspaper and plastic supermarket bags.
Now, my planning is complete. On the day of the flea market, I get up early, and my
helper and I load the two vehicles. When we arrive at the site where the event is to be

held, one of us unloads the cars. The other person sets things up, placing small items
(such as dishes and DVDs) on the card tables and large items (such as my parents’ old
lawnmower) on the ground near the tables.
Then, the actual selling begins. Before I can even set up our tables, people start picking
through my things, offering me cash for picture frames, pots and pans, and video games.
We develop a system as the day goes on: one of us persuades buyers that that old meat
grinder or vase is just what they’ve been looking for, and the other person negotiates the
price with prospective buyers. Then, while one of us wraps small items in the newspapers
or bags we brought (and helps carry large items to people’s cars), the other person takes
the money and makes change.
Finally, at the end of the day, I count my money and give a share to my helper. We then
load all the unsold items into the car and van and bring them back to my apartment. We
store them in the back of my closet so it will be easy to pack them up again for the next
flea market.
Task 9
1. Reread the given Sample process essay carefully and answer the following
questions.
1. What process does this essay describe? What are the major steps in the process?
2. Are the steps presented in clear, logical order? Are they grouped logically into
paragraphs?
3. What identifies this essay as a process explanation rather than a set of
instructions?
4. Does the writer use enough transitions to move readers through the process?
Write out some of the transitional words and phrases that link the steps in the
process.
5. How would you characterize the writer’s opening strategy? Is it appropriate for
the essay’s purpose and audience? Why?
6. How would you characterize the writer’s closing strategy? Would a different
conclusion be more effective? Explain
2. Write a process essay based on the outline that comes after the diagram. The
information in the diagram can also help you in developing your essay well.

3. The following transitional words and transitional phrases will help you to make
your process essay effective.
To begin with First Second Last but not least

First of all After that Next Last
Finally Third, Then In conclusion
I. Introduction
Thesis: Ingestion, digestion, and absorption are the three major steps involved in the
digestive process.
II. Body
A. Food is ingested.
1. Food enters the mouth.
2. Food is chewed.
3. Food is ready to travel to the stomach.
B. Food is digested.
1. Food is mixed with acidic gastric juices in the stomach.
2. The partially liquid food moves from the stomach to the small intestine.
3. Enzymes are secreted.
C. Absorption
1. The digested food passes through the walls of the small intestine.
2. The digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream.
III. Conclusion
D. Paraphrased Thesis: The digestion process involves three major steps: ingestion,
digestion, and absorption.
G. Comparison and Contrast
The main purpose in a comparison and contrast essay is to show how two people, two
things, or two places are similar or different or both. Comparisons are discussions in
which you find similarities between two or more ideas or things; contrasts, on the other

hand are discussions in which you indicate differences between two or more ideas or
things. Comparison/contrast essays can be very dull without the use of some imagination,
particularly in the use of transitions.
Because there are two popular ways (subject- by- subject comparisons and point-by-point
comparisons) to develop comparison or contrast essays, this section offers two essays so
that each pattern is illustrated. To understand what subject –by- subject or point-by-point
comparisons, you can refer back to the note in unit two that discusses about compare and
contrast paragraph.
Sample comparison and contrast essay
Backyards: old and new
Most of the time I like getting something new—new clothes, new CDs, new video games.
I look forward to making new friends and visiting new places. But sometimes new isn’t
better than old. Five years ago, when my family moved to a house in a new area, I
learned that a new, neat backyard can never be as wonderful as a rambling, untamed yard
of an older house.
My first yard, behind our older house, was huge, the size of three normal backyards, but
completely irregular in shape. Our property line sagged in and out around old, tall trees in
a lot shaped like a large pie piece from which some giant had taken random bites. The left
side was taken up by a lopsided garden that sometimes grew tomatoes but mainly wild
raspberries, an odd assortment of overgrown bushes, and wildflowers of mismatched
shapes and sizes. The middle part had grass and scattered shade trees, some that were
good for climbing. The grassy part drifted off into an area with large old evergreen trees
surrounded by a tall tangle of vines and bushes that my parents called “the Wild Spot,”
which they had carefully ignored for years. The whole yard sloped downhill, which with
the irregular shape and the trees, made my job of mowing the grass a creative challenge.
Despite the mowing problem, there was something magical about that untamed yard. We
kids made a path through the Wild Spot and had a secret hideout in the brush. Hidden
from adult eyes, my friends and I sat around a pretend fire ring, made up adventures (lost
in the jungle!), asked each other Important Questions (better to be a rock star or a
baseball player?), and shared our secret fears (being asked to dance). The yard’s grassy
section was big enough for throwing a football with my brother (the here-and-there trees
made catching long passes even more spectacular), and my twin sisters invented
gymnastic routines that rolled them downhill. Mom picked vegetables and flowers when
she felt like it. It seemed like someone, family or friend, was always in our yard doing
something fun.
When all the kids were teenagers, my parents finally decided we needed more space, so
we moved into a house in a new development. Although the house itself was better (more
bathrooms), the new backyard, in comparison to our older one, was a total
disappointment. New Backyard was neat, tidy, tiny, flat, square, and completely fenced.
There were not only no big old trees for shade or for climbing—there were no trees at all.
My parents had to plant a few, which looked like big twigs stuck in the ground. No
untamed tangles of bushes and flowers there—only identical fire hydrant–sized shrubs
planted evenly every few feet in narrow, even beds along the fence. The rest of this

totally flat yard was grass, easy to mow in mere minutes, but no challenge either. No wild
berry bushes or rambling vegetable gardens were allowed in the new development. No
wild anything at all, to be exact.
Nothing wild and no variety: that was the problem. To put it bluntly, the yard was neat
but boring. Every inch of it was open to inspection; it held no secret spaces for the
imagination to fill. There was no privacy either as our yard looked directly into the
almost duplicate bland yards of the neighbors on all sides. The yard was too small to do
any real physical activity in it; going out for a long pass would mean automatic collision
with the chain link fence in any direction. My sisters’ dance routines soon dissolved
under our neighbors’ eyes, and our tomatoes came from the grocery store. With no
hidden nooks, no interesting landscape, and no tumbling space, our family just didn’t go
into the backyard very often. Unlike the older, overgrown backyard that was always
inviting someone to play, the new backyard wasn’t fun for anyone.
1. Reread the given Sample compare and contrast essay carefully and answer the
following questions.
1. What is the thesis statement of this essay? What is the main point of the thesis?
2. Does this essay deal mainly with similarities or differences? How do you know?
3. What is the structure of the essay? Does it use a point-by-point or subject-by-
subject strategy? Is this the best choice? Why do you think the writer uses this
pattern of development?
between the ideas clearer?
5. What is the concluding statement that summarizes the main idea of the essay?
Task 10
2. Here is another compare and contrast essay about “School system in Europe and
the United States”read it carefully and answer the questions that follow.
School system in Europe and the United States
A nation’s purpose is in educting its children is to prepare them to become productive
members of the society. Each country in the world has developed a system of education
based on its needs, economic resources, and traditions.one would think that industrial
societies such as United States and the countries of Europe would have similar systems
for educationg their children. However, a comparision of schools systems in Europe and
United States reveals several similarities but a great number of differences.
The educational systems of Europe and the United States are similar in a number of ways.
To begin with , elementary school classes look the same everywhere: there are about
twenty to twenty – two pupils per class, and the classes are coeducational. Also, there is
one teacher for all subjects for each grade (except in Scandinavia), and the majority of
elementary school teachers are women. In addition, the subjects thaught at the elementary
level are basically the same everywhere: reading and writing , mathematics, introductions
to the sciences, music, sports ans art. The only major difference in the elementary
curriculum is the most Europeans study a foreign language in elementary school, but
most American children do not.

Second, European and American students spend approximately the same number of years
in school. Both the United States and most European countries require children to attend
school for at least nine or ten years. Germany and Belgium have the highest requirement:
twelve years of education. Also, children in most countries start compulsory schooling at
a similar age, usually age six, and they may leave at similar age, usually age sixteen.
Despite these similarities, the educational systems differ greatly in several areas. For
example, the number of hours per day and days per year that children must attend school
varies widely. The number of hours students must spend per day in high school ranges
from a low of five in Belgium to high of eight in parts of Hungary and Turkey. Some
countries require a half-day of school, whereas others require a full day. In addition, the
number of days per year that students must be in school differs. Austria requires 237 days
of school per year, while Spain and Hungary require only 170. That is difference of more
than two months!
Another major difference is in the types of schools available. In the countries of Northern
Europe, there is no division between elementary and secondary school; school just flows
from the first day of first grade until the end of compulsory schooling at age sixteen.
However, in the United States, school is divided into nine years of elementary and four
years of secondary education. Furthermore, some countries require students to make
choice between academic preparatory and vocational training schools. In Germany,
pupils must make this decision as early as age ten. In the United States, in contract, they
never have to make it. Anyone in the United States who graduates from high school has
the opportunity to go on a college or university.
In addition to the differences in academic and vocational schools, there are also
differences in private schools. In France, Spain, Belgium, and Austria, most private
schools are religious, but in most other countries, they are not. Also, in most of Europe,
the government pays part of the cost of private schools: 70 percent in Hungary, 80
percent in Denmark and Austria, and 85 percent in Norway. In contrast, parents must pay
the full cost in Britain, Greece, Turkey, and the United States if they want their children
to attend a private school.
A final major difference between Europe and the United States is in the number of
students who go on to higher education. In the United States, over 50 percent of high
school graduates enter a college or university. In contrast, fewer than 15 percent of
British students do. The European average is about 30 to 40 percent.
It is clear that the experience of school children varies from country to country. Even
though the United States and the countries of Europe seem very similar in many ways,
their educational systems are actually quite different. No one can say if one system is
better than another system, for each on fits its own needs, economies, and traditions the
best.
1. What is the thesis statement of this essay? What is the main point of the thesis?
What does it tell you about the organization of the body paragraphs?

2. Does this essay deal with similarities, differences or both similarities and
differences? What evidences can you give for your answer?
3. What is the structure of this essay? Is it structured in the same way with the first
essay? What is your justification? Why do you think the writer uses this pattern
of development in this essay?

4. What appropriate transitional words and phrases are used to make the
connection between the ideas clearer? In which paragraph does the changeover
occur? Write out the transition phrases that introduce the changeover.
5. What is the main point in the concluding paragraph of this essay?
3. The following table gives information about George’s and Joseph’s restaurant.
Read the given information very carefully and write a comparison-and-contrast
essay.
Restaurant Prices in Dollar Services Facilities

Salads 3.50 Opens from 7 a.m. clean bathrooms
George’s Sandwiches 4.00 to 9 p.m. 12 tables and 48 chairs
Restaurant Soup 3.00 drive–in service 20 parking spaces
Drinks 1.50 carry-out playground for kids
Desserts 2.00 home delivery air conditioner
three cashiers
inrush hours
Joseph’s Salads 4.50 Opens from 7 a.m. clean bathrooms
Restaurant Sandwiches 4.50 to 7 p.m. 8 tables and 32 chairs
Soup 3.50 drive–in service 10 parking spaces
Drinks 2.00 No home delivery No playground for kids
Desserts 3.00 two cashiers in rush ceiling fans only
hours
4. Make an essay outline on one of the topics below and then write a comparison-and-
contrast essay. Use appropriate transitional words or phrases in your essay.
1. Life in developed countries versus life in undeveloped countries
2. Modern medicine versus traditional medicine
3. Life in the city versus life in the countryside
4. Educated person versus uneducated person
5. Public school education versus private schooling
H. Classification
It seems that one way the human mind makes sense of the world is by grouping similar
things and then dividing them into subcategories; a good classification does just that.
Task 11
1. Read the Sample classification essay below carefully and answer the questions
that follow it.
One does not have to pass a qualifying examination to enter the state of parenthood. In
fact, almost anyone can become a parent. Precisely because the group called parents is so
large, many different kinds of parenting exist. In terms of how strict parents are with their
children, however, there are three basic types: autocratic, permissive, and democratic.
Autocratic parents think their word is the law, and when they say jump, everyone had
better do it quickly. These parents assume that they alone know what is best for their

children and that the kids will learn discipline and respect for authority from
regimentation. What they do not even consider is that they may not know best and that
rules untempered with mercy can breed rebellion and contempt for authority. The
autocratic parent whose child comes home one hour late from a date because a major
accident tied up traffic for miles will allow that child no opportunity to explain his or her
reasons for being late. The child is immediately grounded, his or her allowance
suspended. Parents of this type probably have good intentions, wanting their children to
grow up “right,” but they approach the task as if the family were in boot camp.
At the other extreme, permissive parents set few or no rules for their children and offer
little guidance. Frequently, these parents are too busy to take time with the children and
tend to leave the child rearing to TV, the computer, school, and chance. Since parents of
this type set few rules for their children, it would be nearly impossible for their child to
come home late. They allow their children to come and go as they please, either because
they don’t care what their youngsters do or because they think children need to learn to
make their own rules. Permissive parents may not understand that all young people need
guidance because when they mature, they will have to abide by society’s rules. Not being
taught to respect order early in life causes some children of permissive parents to resent
the regulations everyone must obey.
Democratic parents, the third type, are not as strict as autocrats and not as lenient as
permissives. They are willing to discuss rules and punishments with their children and to
listen to the other side of an argument. A democratic parent whose child comes in an hour
late from a date will listen to the explanation about the major wreck that tied up traffic for
miles. Since this is such an easily verifiable story, the democratic parent would suspend
any punishment in this case when he or she hears the news or sees the morning paper. In
general, democratic parents lay down fewer rules than their autocratic counterparts
because they realize that children must learn some life lessons on their own. Democratic
parents prefer to work in the role of advisors, always available when their children need
help.
Too few people with children are democratic parents, the most effective of the three
types. Both too much authority and too little can breed disrespect and resentment. A good
parent should offer boundaries and advice, trying neither to rule nor disregard his or her
children completely.
1. What three categories of parents does the writer discuss in this essay?
2. Is the writer’s treatment of the three categories similar? Does he give the same
kind of information for each kind of parenting style? What evidences can you
give for your answer?
3. Are the categories arranged in a logical order, one that indicates their
relationships to one another and their relative importance?
4. How do the topic sentences in each paragraph move readers from one category
to the next? How do they link the three categories?
5. Write out the thesis statement of this essay. Then restate it in your own words.
6. Should the writer have included additional examples in each category? Should
he have included any additional categories?

7. Could the writer use another pattern of development to structure this essay, or is
classification and division the best choice? Explain.
2. Write a classification essay on one of the following topics.
1. List the components of blood and explain the function of each.
2. List the major means of transport used and explain about each
3. Classify the countries in the world intermesh of their economic development and
discuss them
4. Different uses of social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace.
5. High school teachers and college professors
6. Methods of studying for a final examination
Before you start writing the essay you have to clearly state your thesis statement.
Example: Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma have distinct
functions.
3.8.3. Narrative essay
Narration is probably the oldest form of all writings. Basically, a narrative is a story. It
may be a story written about you or about another person or about something that you
have read. The narrative may be simple anecdote or biography or historical event, it may
also be an incident, short story or a novel. One essential feature of the narrative is the
arranging of events and incidents into a believable time sequence.
In writing your narrative essay, keep the following conventions in mind:
 Narrative is generally written in a particular point of view
 Narrative uses vivid verbs and modifiers
 Narrative uses conflict and sequence as does any story
 Narrative may use dialogue
 Narrative should include a plot, setting and characters; a climax; and an
ending.
 Narrative should answer “WH questions” i.e. when, why, where, who and
whom.
Task 12
1. Read the given sample narrative essay carefully and answer the questions that
follow it.
Earthquake!
October 17, 1989, was a day that I will never forget. It was the day I experienced my first
earthquake. I had just gotten home from school and was lying on the living room sofa
watching the news on TV. My little brother was in his room playing, and my older sister
was in the kitchen preparing our dinner. Our parents were still at work.
At exactly 5:04 P.M., the earthquake struck. Our apartment started shaking violently as if
it were a small wooden boat being tossed by giant waves in the ocean. At first, none of us
realized what was happening. Then my sister yelled, "Earthquake! Get under something!"
I was too stunned' to move, but the shaking was so strong that I soon fell off the sofa onto
the floor. I half rolled, half crawled across the floor to the dining table and got under it.
My sister was sitting on the floor in the kitchen, holding her arms over her head to protect

it from falling dishes. She yelled at my little brother to get under his desk, but he wanted
to be near us. He tried to get out of his room, but he kept falling down. The earthquake
lasted less than a minute, but it seemed like a year to us.
At last, the shaking stopped. For a minute or two, we were too scared to move. Then my
sister and I cautiously got up and went to help our little brother, who was crying. As soon
as he saw us, he began to calm down. There was no electricity, so I looked for my
transistor radio and turned it on. Unfortunately, it didn't work because the batteries were
too old. Next, we checked the apartment for damage, but we didn't find any. We felt very
lucky, for nothing was broken and no one was hurt. After a while, we started worrying
about our parents. I tried to call them at work, but the phone lines were busy.
Two hours later, our parents finally arrived home. They were unhurt, but they had had to
walk home because the electric streetcars were not working. We were so happy to see
them!
Our first earthquake was an experience that none of us will ever forget, but it taught us a
lesson, too. Now we keep emergency supplies such as fresh batteries for my radio
available, and we have an emergency plan for communication with one another.
1. What is the main point of this essay? Is this point explicitly stated in a thesis
statement?
2. How many paragraphs are in the model essay? What time words or phrases
begin each paragraph? What other transitional words are added to clarify the
order in which the events occurred?
3. What are the major events of the narrative? How many time divisions are used
in narrating these events? What are they? List some details that enrich the
narrative.
4. What narrative point of view is used in this essay? Do verb tenses establish a
clear chronological order?
5. What is the main point in the concluding paragraph of the essay?
2. Write a narrative essay on one of the following topics.
1. The story of your education
2. Your idea of a perfect day
3. The plot summary of a terrible book or movie
4. An important historical event
5. A day everything went wrong
6. A story from your family’s history
7. A biography of you or someone you know very well
3.8.4. Argumentative Essay
Argumentative essay is an extended writing in which we try to convince others to agree

with our facts, share our values, and accept our argument and conclusions.
When writing an argumentative essay, keep the following guidelines in mind:
 Begin by introducing the debate topic in your own words.
 Then write if you agree or disagree with the argument
 Tell people why you hold that opinion and come up with ideas and examples to
back up your arguments.

 Try to put the ideas in an order with the most important ideas first and links
between each idea so that the essay flows well.
 Think about why people might have a different opinion and try to show why they
are not important or they are not true.
 Conclude with a brief summary and try to make a strong last sentence that people
will remember.
Task 13
1. Read the given model argumentative essay carefully and answer the questions
that follow it.
Don’t support nuclear energy
These days, it seems like everyone is worried about how the world will meet its energy
demands when we have run out of oil and natural gas. Scientists and researchers are
investigating such power sources as solar energy, wind energy, and even energy from hot
rocks beneath the earth’s surface. However there is one energy source that I believe
should not be developed any further. In fact, I believe that we should stop using it as soon
as possible. Even though it can provide the world with a source of electricity, nuclear
power is not a good energy source because it is too expensive, the materials used in the
power plants are not safe, and there is a great possibility of accidents.
Nuclear energy is not an economical energy source. First of all, nuclear fuel is expensive.
It must be taken out of ground and transported great distances. As fuels are used up, they
will become more expensive, just as oil and gas have. In addition nuclear power plants
cost a lot of money to build and to operate because of the great care that must be taken
with safety. Because the people who work in nuclear power plants must be highly trained
specialists, salaries for workers are also high.
In addition to being expensive, nuclear materials are not safe. When uranium is taken out
of the ground, radioactive gas is released. This is not safe for the miners. Uranium itself
is not safe because of its high radioactivity. Because of this, people who work with
nuclear fuels are at risk of cancer. As nuclear power plants run, they create nuclear waste,
which also is dangerous. It is very radioactive, and it is difficult to dispose of or even to
store safely. No town wants nuclear buried nearby, and for good reason.
Most significantly, there is always a possibility of nuclear accidents. The power plants
themselves can fail when they get old or if they are not built correctly. The machinery
can malfunction, too. In 1979, problems at the Three Middle Island nuclear power plant
in the United States resulted in radioactive materials escaping into the nearby community.
More recently, equipment failures were responsible for accidents in power plants in
Tarapur, India in 1992, and in Darlington, Canada, also in 1992.both of these accidents
led to leaks of radioactive material.
It is not just buildings and equipment that can fail, but people, too. Workers at nuclear
power plants can make mistakes. Perhaps the most famous of these incidents occurred at
Chernobyl, in the former U.S.S.R., in 1986. Radio activity from the Chernobyl accident
was recorded as far away as Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, and even Japan. Human error
has been responsible for numerous power plant accidents. Some recent well-known
examples include Kola, Russia, where workers accidentally caused an equipment failure

in 1991, and Tokaimura, Japan, in 1999.there is no way we can guarantee the workers
will not make mistakes again in the future.
Even natural disasters can affect nuclear power plants. An earthquake in Bulgaria in1977
damaged the nuclear power plant in Kozloduy, and a big storm in the Pacific Ocean in
1981 washed nuclear waste from Moruroa out into the ocean. Of course, it is possible for
people to predict or to prevent events like this. Different types of severe weather or
natural disaster can strike almost anywhere in the world.
It is true that oil and gas cannot supply all of the world’s energy needs much longer.
However, we cannot replace them with an energy source that is expensive and dangerous,
from the time the fuels are taken out of the ground to even after the plant is running.
Instead, we must develop cheaper and, most importantly, safer types of energy to power
our world.
1. What is the writer’s argument? What is his position? How does he address his
argument? What evidence can you give for your answer?
2. The writer describes that nuclear energy is not an economical energy source. What
specific evidences does he use to convince the readers that nuclear energy is not an
economical energy source?
3. It is argued that, in addition to being expensive, nuclear materials are not safe. What
evidences does the writer use to support his view here?
4. The writer also mentioned the possibility of nuclear accidents as the most significant
issue in his argument. List the evidences (facts and examples) that he uses to support
this point.
5. Write out the transitional words or phrases the writer uses to move readers through his
argument.
6. What is the writer’s conclusion in this essay? Do you agree with it? Why?
2. Here is another argumentative essay about “The right to die” read it carefully
and answer the questions that follow.
The right to die
A difficult problem that is facing a society is the legalization of euthanasia, another word
for mercy killing. Euthanasia is the method of causing death painlessly to end suffering.
People who are in coma because of accidents and elderly people who are terminally ill
because of incurable diseases are kept alive by artificial means. They do not have a
chance to recover, but American laws do not allow doctors to end their lives. However in
my opinion, euthanasia should be legalized for several reasons.
The first and most important reason to support euthanasia is that these patients have no
chance of recovery. They can never lead normal lives and must be kept alive by life
support mechanisms such as respirators to help them breathe and feeding tubes to provide
them with nutrition. They are clearly more dead than alive and will never be able to live a
normal life. For example, after Samuel, an infant, had swallowed a balloon, he stopped

breathing. The balloon was removed, but the lack of oxygen had caused brain damage
and left him in an irreversible coma. Samuel was unable to breathe without the aid of a
respirator, and there was no hope for his recovery.
Another reason to support mercy killing is that medical costs are very high. Today the
cost of a hospital room can be as much as $ 1, 450 per day for basic care, which does not
include the cost of specialized care or the use of special equipment. The high cost of
medical can cause financial problems for the family. For example, Charles Adkin’s
eighty–two-year old wife lived in a nursing home in coma for four years. Since there was
no chance for her recovery, Mr. Adkins requested that the medical staff withhold
treatment. However, his pleas were ignored. Soon after she died, Mr. Adkins was billed
$250, 000 for his wife’s medical care. The courts ordered him to pay the bill, which must
have placed a terrible financial burden on him.
The final reason to support the legalization of euthanasia is the family suffers. The nurses
and other hospital staff can give the terminally ill patient only minimum care. Thus, the
family must spend time to care for the special needs of their loved one. For instance,
Nancy Cruzan was kept alive on life-support machines for eight years. She would never
recover from her vegetative state. However, during those years, her loving, caring parents
visited her regularly.
In the end, because terminally ill patients have no chance to recover and to live normal
lives, they should be allowed to die with dignity. Therefore, the family should have the
right to ask doctors to turn off the life- support machines or to stop further medical
treatment. To prolong life artificially when there is no hope for the future is a tragedy
both for the patients and for their loved ones.
1. What is the writer’s main argument in this essay? How does it differ from the first
one? What is the writer’s position? How does he address his argument? What
evidence can you give for your answer?
2. What are the topic sentences that give the main reasons? Write them out.
3. Write out the transitional words or phrases the writer uses to move readers through
his argument.
4. What are the two parts of the conclusion?
5. Do you agree or disagree with the writer’s final thought? Explain.
6. Do you think the nursing home should have listened to Mr. Adkin’s request to
withhold medical treatment from his wife? Explain.
3. Write an argumentative essay on one of the topics below.
1. Any citizen who does not have a criminal record should be permitted to carry a
concealed weapon.
2. Any student caught cheating on an examination should be automatically dismissed
from college.
3. Both parents should assume equal responsibility in raising a child.
4. Financial incentives should be offered to high school students who perform well on
standardized tests.
5. Participating in team sports helps to develop good character.
6. The production and sale of cigarettes should be made illegal.

7. College students should have complete freedom to choose their own courses.
References
Anker, S. (2009).Real Essays with Readings: With projects for College, Work, and
Everyday Life (3rded.).Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Brijandi,P.,Alavi,M. &Salmani-Nodoushan,A. (2004). Advanced Writing. Tehran:
Zabankadeh Publications.
Brown, C. A., Nilson, J., Shaw, W. F. & Weldon, A. R. (1984). Grammar and
Composition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Clark, L. & Stead, A. B. (1978).Business English and Communication. New Delh:
Mcgraw-Hill.
Cullen, K. &O’Donoghue, E. (2005).Chambers Desk Top Guide Letter Writing ( 2 nd ed.).
Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publication.
Dugger, J. (2002).Business Letters for Busy People (3rd ed.).USA: National Press
Publication Inc.
Fawcett, S. (2007).Ever Green: A Guide to Writing with Readings (9 thed.).Boston:
Wadsworth CENGAGE Learning.
Ghosh,P. (2003). Good English: Spoken and Written (44th ed.). Calcutta: Modern Book
Agency Private Ltd.
Glencoe (1997).Writers Choice: Grammar and Composition ( Vol. 12). McGraw-Hill
company.
Hartman, P. & Blass, L. (2007).Quest: Reading and Writing( 2nd ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Hood, S. & Brown, K. (1989).Writing Matters: Writing Skills and Strategies for Students
of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jayakaran,I.C. (2003). Everyone’s Guide to Effective Writing. Apple Publishing
International.
Kirszner,G.L. &Mandell, R,. S. (2009).Writing First: Practice in Context with Readings
(4thed.). Boston/New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s.
Krizan,C., Merial,P.&Jones,L.C.(2002). Business Communication. USA. South West
College Publishing.
McMurrey, A. D. & Buckley, J. (2008).Handbook for Technical Writing. New Delhi:
CENGAGE Learning.
Murray, J. (2002). Written English. Oxford: Great Britain.
Solomon- G/Ghiorghis (1991).Writing for Academic Purpose. Addis Ababa: Addis
Ababa University.
Oshima,A.& Hogue, A. (1997)Introduction to Academic Writing(2nd ed.).London:
Addison Wesley Publishing Company.
Web references
wps.pearsoncustom.com/wps/media/objects/3388/.../ch15.pdf (For shifts in sentences)
http://learners.ncu.edu/writingprogram/writing_center.aspx?menu_id=147(For shifts in
sentences)
http://www.crdaethiopia.org/html/vacancy.php (For letter writing)
http://eslbee.com/effects_of_being_a_foreign_student.htm. (For essay writing)

http://www.tailoredessays.com/samples/descriptive-essay-on-house-on-fire.htm.(For essay
writing)
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/2004/maathai-bio.html(For
paragraph writing)
http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/pd-def.htm.(For paragraph writing)
college.hmco.com/instructors/catalog/.../pdf/0618144099_un03.pdf (For paragraph
writing)
www.douglas.bc.ca/__shared/assets/GR659311.pdf(For Punctuations)
www1.uprh.edu/.../Comparison%20and%20Contrast%20Essay/...(For paragraph writing)
http://www.writeexpress.com/conciseness.html(For conciseness in writing sentences)
http://amarris.homestead.com/files/process_essay.html(For essay writing)
www.onestopenglish.com/skills/writing/...cause.../147393.article (For essay writing)

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Arba Minch University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Basic Writing Skills

B asic w riti n g skills Page 5

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1.1. Clauses in Writing Effective Sentences

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1.2. Types of Clauses

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1.3. Sentence Types Based on Their Structure

1.3.1. Simple Sentence and Compound Sentence

1. The boy devoured pasta.

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1. Anthropologists discuss cultural materials with informants. Anthropologists

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This is a compound complex sentence because it is constituted from two independent

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We decided that the movie was too violent (independent clause)

1.4. Sentence Types Based on Their Function

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1.4.1. Declarative Sentence

A declarative sentence is used to make a statement. It always ends with a period.

An imperative sentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction,

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a. The three Musketeers is an exciting novel by Alexandre Dumas.

1.5.1.4. Many a, Every, and Each with Compound Subjects

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when or or nor( either…or or neither…nor) connects a compound subject made up of a

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1.5.2. Pronoun Reference Errors

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1.5.3. Sentence Fragments

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1.5.4. Run-on Sentences

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1.5.4.3. Using a comma and a coordinating conjunction

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1.5.7.3. With correlative conjunctions

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1.5.8. Unnecessary Shifts

1.5.8.2. Shifts in voice.

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Mood indicates whether a sentence is a statement or a question (indicative mood), a

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1.6.1. Begin with adverbial modifier

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Subordinate clauses at the beginnings of sentences usually serve as adverbs. Begin a

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1.8. Conciseness in Writing Sentences

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1.9. Needless Repetition

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