Black pepper

B.N. Piper nigrum Fy: Piperaceae

Black pepper of commerce is the dried, matured fruits of a tropical perennial climbing
plant popularly known as ‘King of Spices’ and Black gold.. It is the most important and most
widely used spice in the world. It is one of the oldest spice known to man. The Black pepper is
valued for its characteristic pungency and flavour, as an ingredient in food preparations and also
a condiment. Black pepper is also very important in traditional medicine.
Cytology

The cultivated black pepper is having the somatic chromosome number of 2n=52.
Various reports indicated the existence of a polyploid series in the genus Piper. All the species
examined from South India and Sri Lanka were reported to have common basic number of
X=13, while the North Indian species X=12. Hence, the species with 2n=26 are the diploids
those with 2n=56 may be considered as tetraploids and 2n=104 types are octoploids. Variation
in the chromosome number reported in the various types indicate the existence of many
ecotypes in this taxa. These ecotypes are being maintained in the population by the predominant
vegetative propagation.

P nigrum is a tetraploid it was indicated that P nigrum might have originated through
hybridization between species occurring in Western Ghats. Ravindran (1991) proposed three
species viz., P wightii, P galeatum and P trichostachyon as the putative parents of P
nigrum based on morphological and bio systematic studies. All these are woody climbers
having more similar to P nigrum than to those other species. Of the three, P Wightii and P
galeatum were suggested as the most probable ancestors of P nigrum

Origin

The humid tropical evergreen forest of Western Ghats of India, is the center of origin of
black pepper
Distribution

Pepper is distributed extensively in the moist evergreen forests and to a lesser extent in
semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests of Western Ghats of South India growing from
almost sea level up to an elevation of 1500 m. Most of the related species of Piper too occur at
these elevations, but P. schmidtti and P. wightii occur above 1500m only.

Botany (Floral biology)

Majority of the cultivated types are monoecious but wild types / forms are usually
dioecious in nature. Flowers (50-150) minute borne in the axils of ovate fleshy bracts.
Many cultivated type’s exhibit protogyny with female phase preceding the male phase by few
days or weeks.
Hermaphrodite pepper flowers are protogynous, the stigma being excreted 3-8 days
before the dehiscence of the anthers. The stigma may be receptive for up to 10 days with peak
receptivity 3-5 days after excretion. Flowering begins from the base of the spike and continues
towards the tip for a period of 07-08 days.

Self pollination is predominant in most of the cultivars and there is no active pollen
transfer mechanism. Balankotta and Kalluvally are self fertile and self pollination can occur
without the action of rain and wind.

Geitonogamy is the major mechanism of effecting pollination in which dispersal of

pollen grains is carried out by dew or water drops (Hydrophily).

Species

Over 1000 species were reported from the genus Piper out of which 110 are of Indian
origin. In India, the transgangetic region and the sub-mountainous South Western regions are
recognized as independent centres of distribution of Piper.

Some of the economically important species of Piper other than black pepper are
Sl. No. Species Common name Remarks
1. Piper betle Betel vine Dioecious, evergreen
perennial
2. P longum Hippali / Pippli/ Indian long Erect spike
pepper
3. P chaba or P retrofactum Java long pepper Erect spike
4. P mullesua
5. P cubeba Tailed pepper
6. P barberi Erect spike
7. P colubrinum Brazalian hippali: Originated This is the only species
from Brazil due to resemblance resistant to foot rot
of its fruits with P.longum resistance caused by
Phytophthora
8. P hymenophyllum

9. P. wightii Occurs only at high elevation around 2000m. The pepper

of hill tops like Ooty and Kodaikanal

10. P. schmidtii Occurs at above 1500m MSL

Medicinal value: Piper betle, P. longum , P. chaba, P. cubeba and P. mullesua

Resistant to pollu betle (Longitarsus nigripennis ): P. longum, P. chaba, P. barberi

and P. hymenophyllum

Research institutes

1. Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR),Calicut,Kerala

2. AICRP centers: Panniyur, Sirsi, Chintanapalli, Yercaud, Pundibari(West Bengal) and
Dapoli
3. Kerala Agricultural University (KAU): Pepper Research Station, Panniyur
Breeding objectives

1. To develop high yielding vines (Above 3 kg fresh berries per vine)

2. To develop bold berries with high oleoresin (Above 10 %) and piperine content
3. To evolve inputs responsive varieties
4. To develop types which can tolerate shady and drought situations
5. To evolve varieties suitable for high altitudes(Above 1000 m above MSL)
6. To develop types tolerant to Phytophthora, nematode (RKN and Burrowing: Radophilus
similis), Fusarium etc.,
7. To evolve varieties resistant to pollu beetle

Genetic resources

There are about 2357 germplasm collections are maintained at IISR, Calicut and 680
accessions at different AICRP centers. The genetic resources of this crop in India are a great
strength. This germplasm containing local cultivars, wild forms collected from the area of origin
and related species are a wealth to be utilized for crop improvement. The cultivar diversity is
one of the principal components of diversity in black pepper. The National repository of black
pepper established at IISR, Calicut, Kerala, is the largest in the world.

The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) also maintains germplasm
collections of various spices at its regional station (Trichur).

Conservation of genetic resources is extremely important in context of rapid gene

erosion taking place due to a variety of biotic, abiotic, socio-political and economic factors. The
loss of land races and traditional varieties is rapid in black pepper due to devastating diseases,
spread of improved cultivars, deforestation etc.,

Cultivars :

Over 100 named cultivars exist in black pepper. They might have been originated from
wild forms / species during domestication and selection. These are mostly from Kerala followed
by Karnataka state. Many of these cultivars are getting extinct due to devastating disease and
replacement of the traditional cultivars by a few high yielding varieties.

Over 75 cultivars of black pepper are being cultivated in India. The important cultivars are

Sl. Cultivar Remarks

No
1. Aimpiriyan
2. Balankotta
3. Kalluvally Field tolerance to Phytophthora foot rot
4. Narayakkodi
5. Neelamundi
6. Uthrinakotta
7. Karimunda Very popular throughout Kerala tolerant to shade, performs well as
mixed crop. Suceptible to Phytophthora foot rot.
8. Kottanadan
9. Cheriyakaniakadan
10. Vadakkan A natural triploid, vigorous vine, very large berries.
11. Pepper Thekken Farmer variety: Unique variety high yielding one with branches in
the spike
12. Bilimalligesara
13. Malligesara
14. Uddaghere Cultivars of Karnataka
Doddiga

Malligesara: One of the most popular cultivar in Karnataka especially in the malnad region of
Uttara Kannada and Shivamogga district. Two types are commonly recognized – Kari and Bili
malligesara

Uddaghere: A popular and high yielding cultivar from U. Kannada and Shivamogga district of
Karnataka
Breeding methods:

1. Introduction : Being native of Western Ghats of the country, where there is abundant
variability exists; there is no much scope for introduction of material into our country from
elsewhere.

2. Clonal selection: Many clones exhibit considerable natural variability. The popular variety
‘Karimunda’ exhibits considerable variability for yield and other economic characters.

Clonal selection in black pepper: IISR and CPCRI

Sl. Name Parentage Special traits

No.
1. Sreekara Karmunda (KS-14) Drought tolerant
2. Subhakara Karimunda (KS -27) High quality line with high oleoresin and
essential oil
3. Panchami Aimpiriyan 5 row arrangement of fruits. Twisted spike, late
maturing with excellent fruit set
4. Pournami Ottaplackal Tolerant to root knot nematode
5. PLD - 2 Kottanadan CPCRI, Palode, High oleoresin line (15.5%)
6. Panniyur -4 Kuthiravally Performs well in open conditions, stable yielder
7. Panniyur - 6 Karimunda Drought tolerant, suitable for open as well as
partial shade
8. IISR - Thevamundi Tolerant to Phytophthora ,suited to higher
Thevam altitudes and plains

3. Selection from open pollinated seedlings :

 Seed set under open – pollination in pepper is mostly through self fertilization except in
female clone – Uthirankotta. But the progeny shows considerable variability as the cultivars are
heterozygous. It therefore, offers lot of scope for selection in such progenies. Selection from such
open pollinated seedlings has resulted in the release of some superior varieties

Sl. Name Year of Parentage Special traits

release
No
.
1. Panniyur – 2 1991 Op. Balankotta Tolerates shaded condition. High oleoresin
(Krishnan) content(10.90 %) o
2. Panniyur - 5 1996 Op. Perumkodi This is a shade tolerant long spiked variety better
suited for mixed cropping in coconut and
arecanut gardens. Tolerant to nursery diseases
3. Panniyur - 7 2000 Op.Kalluvally High oleoresin content (10.60 %)
4. IISR - Op. Tolerant to Phytophthora
Shakthi Perambramundi
5. Arka Coorg 2012 Seedling selection Released by CHES, Chettalli , High yielding,
Excel with long spikes with good setting, suitable for
high altitude Kodagu region of Karnataka.
6. Panniyur -9 2018 Open pollinated High yielding , performs well in open conditions
progeny selection tolerant to drought and cold , field tolerance to
of Panniyur -3 foot rot,

4. Hybridization : Hybridization work in pepper was started at pepper research station,

Panniyur as early as 1959 and the first ever hybrid pepper variety in the world Panniyur–1
was released from the station in 1967.
Techniques:

1. Selection of inflorescence in female parent: Inflorescence in female parent is

tagged at pre–anthesis stage and bagged using a polybag.
 2. Emasculation: Protogynous flowers- Emasculation is carried out at a time when
there is the least danger of dehiscence i.e. morning hours. Any anther, which has just
surfaced while stigmas are still receptive, is removed using a needle.

3. Pollen collection from male parent: Matured anthers from selected male parent are
collected and crushed to release pollen. This can be stored in fridge up to one week.

4. Pollination: Since anthers have rarely emerged at the time of stigma receptivity,
artificial pollination is done before emasculation.Aqueous suspension of pollen is
put drop by drop on the upper most part of the inflorescence. Pollination is usually
carried out in the evening hours. This is continued for a few days in each
inflorescence until the stigmas have dried up.
5. Collection of seeds and raising of seedlings: Seeds from the ripe berries are first
sown in poly bags. The hybrid seedlings are transplanted in main field when they
are 3-4 months old and evaluated on a single plant basis for yield and other attributes
consecutively for a few years ; generally 3-5 years for yield. On this basis selected
promising hybrids are multiplied vegetatively.

a. Inter varietal hybridization :

1. Panniyur –1: Uthirankotta X Cheriakaniyakadan, it is a selection from F1 of cross UXC.

This hybrid was received good response from all over and outside India and
continued to be the most popular hybrid variety even now.
Chief attributes of this hybrid are vigorous growth, large cordate leaves, non
– pigmented growing tip, long spikes and bold berries. It performs well only
under adequate sunlight condition (Open condition). Av.yield -3.85 t/ha,
Piperine : 5.30 % oleoresin: 11.80 %,

2. Panniyur – 3 : Uthirankotta X Cheriyakaniyakadan,its characters are similar to Panniyur –

 1 but has faint pigmentation on growing tip

3. IISR– Girimunda : Narayakkodi X Neelamundi: Suitable for higher elevation / attitudes

4. IISR– Malbar Eexcel : Cholamundi X Panniyur – 1: Suitable for higher elevation /

attitudes

5. Vijaya: Panniyur-2 X Neelamundi ,KAU released in 2012, which is high yielding with
bold berries and high quality, It found to be field tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot
but susceptible to defoliators

6. Panniyur-8: Panniyur-6 X Panniyur-5 , high yielding , performs well in open condition,

field tolerant to Phytophthora foot rot and drought

b. Inter specific hybridization

Inter specific hybridization between P nigrum and P colubrinum has been recently
attempted at IISR, Calicut as well as at KAU, Vellanikara to transfer the resistance genes
available in the wild species to the cultivated type. Inter specific crosses involving Panniyur –
1.2, and 5 as female parents and P colubrinum as resistant male donor. In this crosses even
though seeds were set and seedlings were obtained but these seedlings we found apomictic and
not hybrids.

Inter specific crosses involving P colubrinum as female parent had not resulted in seed set

5. Polyploid breeding :
A natural triploid 2n = 3x = 78, Vadakkan bearing large leaves, very bold fruits with low
fruit set was identified by IISR from the germplasm.

An induced octaploid (2n=8x=104) was developed by treating the seeds of Panniyur-1 with
0.05% colchicine. This octaploid has larger and thicker leaves but growth was slower than the diploid
parents and it was difficult to establish in the field.
6. Mutation breeding :
Attempts were made using gamma rays as source of irradiation. Apart from seeds, rooted
cuttings were also irradiated and raised. Irradiation adversely affected the germination of seeds. As
the dose increased germination was delayed. The M1 population expressed morphological
abnormalities such as chlorophyll changes, twinning of seedlings and rosette leaves.