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PEARL MILLET (Penisetum americanum)

(Bajra – Bulrush Millet) (2n=14)
Pearl millet is also known as Bajra, is an important food crop of semi arid tropics. It is also
grown as fodder crop. During 2013-14, pearl millet in India was grown in 7.91 m ha with a
production 9.19 m ton and productivity was 1161 kg/ha (DES-DAC, 2014).
Local name: Pearl-Millet (Bajra)
Family: Gramineae
Genus: Pennisetum
Species: americanum (L) K. Schum , glaucum (L) R.Br (most acceptable) , typhoides
Chromosome Number: 2n = 2x = 14
Related Species: P. purpureum
Origin: Africa
Pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum ) is believed to have been domesticated in Sub-
Saharan Africa some 4000 to 5000 yr ago (Munson, 1975). Archaeological evidence
suggests that pearl millet was first domesticated at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert in
West Africa around 2500 BC (Manning et al., 2011). Pearl millet is a diploid (2n = 2x = 14),
warm-season C4 annual cereal crop grown in West Africa and on the Indian subcontinent for
food and forage. Pearl millet accounts for more than half of the total worldwide production
of all millets. It is the sixth most important cereal crop in the world, next to maize, rice,
wheat, barley and sorghum (FAOSTAT, 2014). It is the most drought tolerant of all
domesticated cereals. It is commonly grown in the hottest and driest regions where other
cereals are likely to fail because of drought, high temperature stress, and poor soil
conditions. It is termed as poor mans’ crop because it has high nutritional value and can
successfully be grown on marginal lands and can tolerate drought and heat to a great extent. Its
nutritional superiority comes from high levels of protein, vitamins, essential amino acids,
antioxidants, and essential micronutrients, such as iron and zinc. Its grain is generally superior
to sorghum as human food and approximately similar to maize as feed grain
Pearl millet is also an excellent forage crop because of its lower hydrocyanic acid
content than sorghum. Its green fodder is rich in protein, calcium, phosphorous and
otherminerals with oxalic acid within safe limits.
The inflorescence is a cylindrical spike tapering towards the ends and may vary in length from a
few centimeters to over a meter. It consists of a central rachis with closely spaced fascicles.
Each fascicle contains one or more spikelets (generally 2-5, The most common number being
two) and a whorl of bristle (usually 30 to 40 in number). However, there are generally two
spikelets in most of the fascicles. The bristles are the prolongations of the fascicles and may be
longer or shorter than the spikelet.
Each spikelet comprises a short lower glume and two florets, the lower one being staminate or
some times even without stamens, and upper one bisexual or perfect. The male floret consists of
a single lemma enclosing three stamens, but has neither palea nor lodicules. The perfect floret
has a broad lemma, a thin palea, three stamens and carpel with two styles which terminate in a
brush-like stigma
Anthesis: The stigmas begin to appear two to three days after emergence of the spike. Stigma
attains full length after 36 to 48 hours and remains receptive for one to two days. The anthers
emerge after stigmas dry up. The anthers of the bisexual flowers appear two to three days before
those of the staminate flowers. Style divides in two branches in its upper part and possesses
stigmatic hairs to admit pollen grains. Stigma takes 12 to 24 hours to protrude and open out, and
remains receptive for one to two days.
Mode of pollination:
Pearl millet is a highly cross pollinated crop and up to 80 per cent out crossing occurs in it. The
emergence of anthers is slow probably because of the absence of lodicules.
Distribution:Africa, India, Pakistan, South East Asia, USA and Europe. The major pearl
millet growing states are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana which
account for more than 90 % of pearl millet acreage in the country.
Taxonomy : The genus Pennisetum is having more than 140 species. Stapf (1954) has
divided the genus Pennisetum in to five sections viz.,
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1. Gymnothrix
2. Eupennisetum
3. Penicillaria
4. Heterostachya
5. Brevivalvula
The cultivated Pennisetum glaucum belongs to the section penicillaria.
Progenitors :
1. Pennisetum purpureum
2. P.qumulatum
3. P. orientale
Origin and putative parents.
Stapf included 32 species is Penicillaria. Of these 32 species found is Africa, six annuals are
considered wild and probable ancestors of the cultivated one. They are
1. P. perottettii
2. P. molllissimum
3. P. violaceum
4. P. versicolor
5. P. adonense
6. P. gymnothrix
The cultivated specie s of pennisetum is believed to have originated through hybridization with
in these six species.
The study of genetic diversity of Pennisetum species recognized three gene pools that were
delineated as primary, secondary, and tertiary genepools (Harlan and De-Wet, 1971). The
primary genepool included all forms of cultivated, weedy, and wild diploids (2n = 2x = 14); the
secondary pool consisted solely of tetraploid P. purpureum (2n = 4x = 28); and the tertiary pool
included distantly related Pennisetum species of various ploidy levels.
Breeding objectives :
1. Breeding for high grain yield
To get high yields the following plant characters are necessary
a) more number of tillers, b) well filled, compact, long panicle., c) heavy grains., d) Uniformity
of ripening. Under irrigated conditions photo insensitivity and early maturity are essential for
multiple and relay cropping.
2. Breeding for improved grain quality.
It can be achieved by incorporating yellow endosperm to improve vitamin A content or white
endosperm to improve protein content.
3. Breeding for drought tolerance :
This can be achieved through evolving lines having shorter duration so that they can escape
drought, lines with more adventitious roots, lines with high leaf water potential and high
chlorophyll stability index are to be evolved.
4. Breeding for disease resistance
Downy mildew is the major disease. Ergot and smut comes next. Of late, rust at late stage is also
becoming a major problem. Lines having Local Bellary cytoplasm (732 A) are observed to be
downy mildew resistant.
5. Breeding for alternate source of cytoplasm in male sterile lines.
Original Tift 23 A evolved at Tifton, Georgia is highly susceptible to downy mildew. Because of
this the HB series went out of cultivation. The indigenous 732 A obtained from Bellary is
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resistant. Similarly L 111A of Ludhiana is also tolerant. A1, A2, A3 and A4 are there 732 A
belongs to A4 cytoplasm.
6. Breeding for to have high forage value : The forage cumbu must have following characters.
a) high sugar content in the stem juice, b) Increased leaf number with more breadth., c)
Digestibility.
7. Breeding for dwarf pearl millet cultivars: The development of dwarf pearl millet cultivars
offers potential advantages that include increased lodging resistance, green forage production,
and response to inputs. The dwarfing genes have been reported to improve forage nutritive value
by reducing stem percentage and increasing leafiness. There are four recessive dwarfing genes
(d1, d2, d3, and d4) in pearl millet that control plant height. The recessive dwarfing gene d2 has
been deployed widely in commercial cultivars grown in Australia, India, and the United States.
The d2 gene reduces the internode length by 50% and, as a result, was reported to do so without
affecting the number of leaves (Burton and Fortson, 1966) or the length of the coleoptile and
mesocotyl
Breeding Procedures
Pearl millet breeding in India was started in the 1940s by the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (Singh et al., 2014). During the 1940s and 1950s, sporadic varietal improvement efforts
for grain yield through mass selection from locally adapted materials were made (Singh et al.,
2014). The breeding program was strengthened with the establishment of the All India
Coordinated Pearl Millet Improvement Program (AICPMIP) in 1965. The AICPMIP has centers
in 13 states of India, with >18 cooperating centers conducting research targeted at enhancing
productivity through breeding high-yielding cultivars and developing crop protection
technologies and production practices.
During the pre-hybrid phase (1950-1965), improvement efforts largely concentrated on
local traditional landrace materials and carried out simple mass selection. This resulted in the
development and release of a total of 13 improved cultivars (3 hybrids and 10 OPVs).The
average improvement in pearl millet productivity during this period was 5.2 kg ha-1 per annum.
The second phase of pearl millet breeding in India was marked with the introduction of CMS
line from the United States in the early 1960s. To increase the productivity of pearl millet in
India, hybrid development had become the major breeding objective in the 1960s (AICPMIP,
2017). In India, after the official release of the first sorghum hybrid CSH 1 (Coordinated
Sorghum Hybrid) for commercial cultivation in 1964 (Pray and Nagarajan, 2009), the first pearl
millet hybrid ‘HB-1’ (Hybrid Bajra-1) was released in 1965 followed by HB 2, HB 3, HB 4 and
HB 5. The release of HB-1 dramatically improved grain yield productivity of the crop in dry and
high-temperature areas of India. Among the hybrids of the HB series, HB 3 became the most
popular because of its shorter maturity, bold grain and adaptability to moisture stress conditions.
The establishment of ICRISAT at Patancheru, India, in 1972 further stimulated pearl millet
breeding program through germplasm collection, characterization, and dissemination to the
national program
Downy mildew epidemics had become the recurring problem, and most of the hybrids
based on Tift 23Al , released in India in the 1960s, were pushed out of production shortly after
their release. These downy mildew epidemics required genetic diversification of hybrid seed
parents.
Then, the third phase of the Indian pearl millet breeding program that started in 1981
was focused on genetic diversification of the CMS seed parents and restorers. Consequently, in
addition to conducting strategic breeding, crop management, and value-addition research,
AICPMIP also stimulated pearl millet germplasm collection, conservation, characterization,
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evaluation, and documentation. Field and greenhouse screening of a large number of germplasm
from West Africa identified sources of downy mildew resistance. Then, the rapid cultivar
turnover because of downy mildew was slowed through transfer of resistance genes from
resistant sources. This third phase of the pearl millet breeding program also marked the
beginning of marker-assisted breeding, and marker-assisted backcrossing played a pivotal role in
downy mildew resistance breeding Field and greenhouse screening of a large number of
germplasm from West Africa identified sources of downy mildew resistance. Then, the rapid
cultivar turnover because of downy mildew was slowed through transfer of resistance genes from
resistant sources.
The current and fourth phase of the pearl millet breeding program in India that has been running
since 1996 is focused on improved genetic diversity of seed and pollinator parents to enhance
abiotic stress tolerance and targeting adaptation to specific niches. Consequently, the problems of
downy mildew epidemics were kept largely under control.
1. Introduction : Hybrid bajra from Punjab. Tift 23 A from USA
2. Selection : Mass Selection: In this method desirable plants are selected from open pollinated
population and the seed from selected plants composited and planted to initiate next cycle of
selection. The criteria are usually head characteristics, like compactness, length of ear, weight of
grain, uniformity of ripening etc. varieties developed- Jamnagar Jaint, Pusa moti, etc. Vansari,
Kopargaon Local, N 28-15-1, Co 1, K 1, Co 2, Co 3, AKP 1, AKP 2, RSJ, RSK and T 55 were
developed and released.
3. Hybridisation and selection: Wild relatives of cultivated species serve as a reservoir of genes
that could potentially be used to improve crop cultivars. Accordingly, wild Pennisetum species
serve as a reserve of germplasm for pearl millet improvement. Thus, there is a great need for
systematic collection and preservation of wild Pennisetum species for use in genetic
improvement of pearl millet. They are the most readily available and easily used wild relatives
for crossing with domesticated pearl millet. These subspecies could be used as sources of disease
and insect resistance, fertility restoration genes for the A1 cytoplasm, cytoplasmic diversity, and
many inflorescence and plant morphological characteristics Pennisetum glaucum subsp. monodii
was found to be a source for new CMS, striga (Striga spp.) resistance, and rust and leaf spot
resistance (Hanna et al., 1985). Pennisetum purpureum proved to be a donor of forage yield and
quality, stalk strength, and restorer genes of the A1 CMS system
Interspecific hybridization: P. glaucum (2n = 2x = 14) ´ P. purpureum (2n = 4x = 28) crossing
produces a vigorous, sterile triploid (2n = 3x = 21) hybrid that may be used in improving pearl
millet forage yield and quality. Cumbu napier hybrids.
4. Heterosis breeding : Hybrid bajra
In earlier days before the identification of male sterile lines utilising the protogynous nature
hybrids were released.
After the discovery of cytoplasmic genic male sterile line Tift 23A by Burton in Tifton, Georgia
led to development of hybrids. Earlier hybrids of India viz., HB1, HB2 to HB5 were produced
utilising Tift 23 A. But due to susceptibility to downy mildew they went out of cultivation. Even
before the discovery of CGMS lines by Burton it was discovered by Madhava Menon and his
coworkers at Coimbatore. Unfortunately due to failure of publishing it was not recognised.
Currently, there are five different CMS systems (A1 –A5 ) that are used in pearl millet breeding
To over come the problem of downy mildew male sterile lines L 111A and 732 A were isolated
and at present used in breeding programme. There are number of CMS lines developed by
private agencies like Nath seeds, Mahyco, Mahendra.
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5. Population improvement : The greatest push for the development of OPVs as a part of
population improvement programme started in 1970s with the establishment of the International
Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT). Exploiting a diverse range of
germplasm, mostly from the African sources, several composites were developed and improved
by recurrent selection, resulting in the development and dissemination of a large number and
diverse range of breeding materials. In population improvement programme, various recurrent
selection methods (mass selection, gridded-mass selection, recurrent restricted phenotypic
selection, S1 and S2 progeny selection, half-sib selection and full-sib selection) with varying
successes in the genetic improvement of several trait-based composites have been used. A large
number of trait-based composites (e.g. early composite, medium composite, late composite,
smut-resistant composite, high tillering composite, bold-seeded composite, dwarf composite and
high head volume composite) of broad genetic base were developed till late 1980s. Many of
these were improved by recurrent selection and several OPVs were developed. WC-C75, ICMV
221, ICTP 8203, HC 4, Raj 171, JBV 2 and JBV 3, HC 20, RCB 2, CZP 9802 and Pusa 266 were
developed from different cycle products of various trait-based composites
ICRISAT entry WCC 75 is an example for population improvement. This was developed from
“World Composite” by recurrent selection method. It was developed from derivatives of
numerous crosses between diverse sources of germplasm and Nigerian early maturing land races
known as ‘Gero’ millets. Another example is ICMV 155 of ICRISAT.
6. Synthetic varieties :Synthetics are produced by crossing in isolation a number of lines tested
for their GCA. Synthetics are the populations that are synthesized by inter pollination among the
high GCA lines. The synthetics are reconstituted at certain intervals by inter pollination among
the component lines and therefore Maintenance of components lines is essential. E.g. ICMS
7703. It is a result of crossing between 7 inbred lines of India x African crosses, ICMV-87901
7. Mutation breeding: The use of induced mutations in pearl millet breeding has been limited
because of readily available natural genetic variation, and the fact that limited studies have been
conducted on chemical rate and efficacy and physical mutagenesis effects on plant and seed
characteristics of pearl millet inbred lines.
At IARI Tift 23 A was gamma irradiated and 5071 A resistant to downy mildew was evolved.
With this the hybrid NHB 3 was evolved (5071 A x J 104)
Breeding centers:
International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT,) Hyderabad
All Indian Pearl Millet improvement project (AIPIP) Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
Practical achievements
Varieties: PS B – 8, PSB 15, mukta
Hybrids : HHB 45, HHB 50 from Hissan GHB 30, GHB – 27 from Gujarat

Seed production
Pearl-millet, being a cross-fertilized crop, has been improved through conventional breeding
procedures by developing composites, synthetics and hybrids. Before the exploitation of
cytoplasmic genetic male sterility (CMS) in 1965, pearl-millet varieties were used to be open-
pollinated. The development of the first CMS pearl millet line, Tift 23A, in the United States
occurred in 1956 . The CMS inbred line Tift 23A1 was introduced in India in 1962 (Burton,
1969). It quickly replaced the hand pollination using protogyny for hybrid production. The seed
parent and pollinator parent of HB-1 were Tift 23A1 and Bil 3B, respectively (Athwal, 1965a).
HB-1 (Tift 23A1 ´ Bil 3B) yielded, on average, 88% more than the best local cultivars in India.
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But after 1965, the development of first ever hybrid ‘HB1’ by using CMS resulted in a break
through in the yield levels of this so called poor man’s crop. Subsequently, more hybrids and
synthetics with great yield potentials and having resistance to various diseases were developed.
To maintain the high yield levels of released cultivars and to minimize the chances of varietal
deterioration, it is essential to adopt proper seed production practices. The genetic purity of the
varieties must be maintained.
Production of Hybrid seed using CGMS: ( Example of HHB-67)
Almost all the varieties of pearl millet are the hybrid varieties. The hybrid pearl- millet seed is
produced by utilizing cytoplasmic genetic male sterility. The various steps involved in the production
of hybrid pearl-millet seed are: maintenance of parental lines namely:
1. Male sterile lines (A-lines).
2. Maintainer lines (B-lines).
3. Restorer lines (R-lines).
The maintenance of parental lines is referred to as foundation seed production, whereas the
hybrid seed production is known as certified seed production.