CHICKPEA

SCIENTIFIC NAME: Cicer arietinum

CHROMOSOME NUMBER: 2n=16

ORIGIN: According to Valvilov (1926)= South West Africa and Mediterranean

region

According to Vander Maesum (1984)= Turkey and Syria

It is the most important pulse crop of India . India is the largest producer of Chickpea in
the world. It is an annual legume of family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboidaeqe. Chickpea
is the key ingredient in hummus and chana masala and it can be grounded into falafel. It
is also used in salad, soups and stews, curry and other milk products like channa. The
chickpea is important in India, Mediterranean and Middle eastern cuisine. In 2019,
India was responsible for 70% of global chickpea production. It is one of the earliest
cultivated legumes and 9500 year old remains have been found in Middle East.
Chickpea is grown on a wide range of soils in India. In the North, gram is generally
grown on moderately heavy soil. The plants grow to 20- 50 cm high and has small
feathery leaves on either side of the stem.

OTHER NAMES:
Bengal gram

Garbanzo

Garbanzo bean

Egyptian pea

DISTRIBUTION:
India, Pakistan, Mexico, Turkey, Ethiopia, Burma, Myanmar

In India: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana = accounts 70 to 80 % of

total production in India.

Other states: Maharastra, Bihar, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh

WILD RELATIVES/ PROJENITORS:

 Ladizinsky stated that the probable wild relative of chickpea is Cicer

arietinum.
  The cultivated chickpea was one of the 1st grain legumes to be domesticated
in old world.
 Currently the only cultivated species of Cicer is Cicer arietinum.
 The wild progenitor of Cicer arietinum is Cicer reticulatum.
 Cicer genus has 49 species, out of these 9 are annual and 40 are perennial.
 The Three wild annual species of Cicer are:-
1. Cicer bijugum
2. Cicer echinospermum
3. Cicer reticulatum
RELATED SPECIES:
3 genepools have been proposed for Cicer species. The Primary genepool includes
Cicer arietinum, 2 annual species Cicer echinospermum and Cicer reticulatum.

CLASSIFICATION:
Based in seed size and shape two main kind of chickpea are recognized.

CHICKPEA

DESI TYPE KABULI TYPE

DESI TYPE:
 Found predominantly in India and Ethiopia
 Have small, angular ,coloured seeds and a rough coat
 Believed to be closer to the probable ancestor Cicer reticulatum
 Bushy growth habit
 Blue violet flowers
 Varieties: Flipper, kyabra, Moti, Yoker, Genesis TM 508,Genesis TM 509,
Howzat, Sonali, Limbour, Amethyst etc
KABULI TYPE:
 Predominantly grown in Mediterranian region
 Large beige coloured see
 owl headed shaped seeds
 smoother coat
 Erect growth habit
 White flowers
  Varieties: Bumper, Garnet, Genesis TM 079, Genesis TM 090, Genesis TM 425,
Genesi

TAXONOMY:
Kingdom Plantae
CladeTracheophytes
Clade Angiosperms
Clade Rosids
Clade Eudicots
Order Fabales
Family Fabaceae
Species Arietinum
Genus Cicer

HISTORY:
Chana or chickpea is an ancient crop that marked its organization even before 10000
BC when it was used by Hunter gatherer societies for eating and sustaining their
communities.

Chickpea was brought to the Western Europe and was known in many areas in the
Bronze age most popularly in Italy and Greece.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. BREEDING FOR HIGHER YIELD:
 The seed yield of chick pea is increased by
 Use of good quality seeds from an authentic source
 Use high yielding varieties recommended for the area
 Use recommended doses of fertilizer and micronutrients as per need
 Adjust seed rate according to the seed size of the variety chosen and time of
sowing.
2. BREEDING FOR DISEASE RESISTANT:
Improved chickpea varieties should be bred for resistance to disease like wilt, root
blight and ascophyta blight.

Breeding for Fusarium wilt resistant has been location specific because differece in
races pattern at different locations.

Two approaches for breeding chickpeas for durable resistance to ascophyta blight
including breeding for partial resistance have been followed with success.
Ex: BG 1053 tolerant to wilt

DCP 92-3 resistant to wilt

3. BREEDING FOR RESISTANCE TO INSECTS:

Breeding for insects and pests resistance in chickpea can be done against the following

 Beet armyworm
 Chickpea leaf minor
 Cowpea aphids
 Cutworms(black cutworms and winter cutworm)
 Pod borers (cotton boll worms and American boll worms)
4. BREEDING FOR EXTENDED REGIONAL ADAPTATION:
Chickpea is a dry season legume largely grown on residual soil moisture after rainy
season.

The crop experiences stress towards end of crop season. The crop may also face heat
stress during the reproductive stage if sowing is delayed.

The breeding approaches for improving adaptation to these stress include development
of variety with early maturity and enhanced abiotic stress tolerance.

Varieties with improved draught tolerance can be bred.

5. BREDDING FOR IMPTOVED QUALITY AND NUTRITIONAL

VALUE:
Chickpeas are rich in fibres and protein.

The protein content is 14.4 gram and fat content is 4.2 gram.

These are higher in sulphur amino acid but limited in lysine.

The KABULI type has generally high energy value than the desi type.

Breeding should be done to increase lysine content.

6. BREEDING FOR RESISTANCE TO ABIOTIC STRESS:

Chickpea producing regions are largely affected by temperature, heat, frost and drought.

Breeding should be done to increase drought tolerance.

Varieties should be adaptable to high and low temperature stress.

Tolerant varieties should be bred against heat, cold and saline and alkaline.

7. OTHER BREEDING OBJECTIVES:

 Breeding for resistance to abiotic stress
 Breeding for identification of stable form of male sterility
  Increased biomass, tall, erect and compact cultivar
 Breeding chickpea for early sowing
 Breeding for reduced susceptibility to Heliothis
 Breeding for adaption to late sowing
 Breeding for development of high protein breeding lines
 Breeding for development of desi cultivars and superior breeding lines
 Breeding for development of KABULI cultivars and superior breeding lines
 Breeding for new plant type

IDEAL PLANT TYPE:

1. Compact plant type
2. Medium tall plant
3. Optimum no of primary and secondary and minimum no pf tertiary branches
4. Photo thermo sensitiveness
5. Determinate growth habit for harvesting uniform produce
6. Well-developed nodules

BREEDING METHODS:
1. INTRODUCTION:
Introduction is generally facilitated by the following ways:

 Exchange of materials with fellow plant breeders

 Exploration of areas showing rich variation of species
 Obtaining generic resources from international institute
2. HYBRIDIZATION:
The objective of hybridization is to combine desirable traits from 2 or mare parents into
a singular cultivar.

Selection of parents- when the aim is to replace the existing variety with a superior one,
the existing variety with adaptation to the local environment is a logical choice as one
parent. The second parent must be so chosen that it complements the 1st parent.

If creation of variation for the desired traits is the objective then diverse parents are
selected.

Success of the artificial hybridization ranges from 10 to 50%.

The success rate of artificial hybridization can be increased by

 Selection of large flower buds

 Selection of lateral buds rather than terminal ones
  Avoiding mechanical injury to the floral part at the time of emasculation and
pollination
 Attempting hybridization after the formation of the 1st pod
Hybridization involves single cross

Three way cross (BGD72([BG256×E100Y]×BG256) )

Multiple crosses
ICCV2([K850×GW5/6×P48]×[L550×Guanchii2])

3. MARKER ASSISTED SELECTION:

It has been effectively used for selection of ascophyta blight and fusarium wilt
resistance using RAPD and SSR markers

4. MODIFIED BULK METHOD:

It is for selection of trials such as biotic stress, seed size, earliness and plant type.

5. MUTATION BREEDING:
Following consideration should be taken into account for mutation breeding programs-

 Most mutation are recessive so selection is made in M2 and for polymeric traits
selection is done in M3
 Beneficial mutations occur at very low frequencies
 Mutations are randomly induced and these are recurrent
Ex: CM-88 = tolerant to both blight and wilt diseases varieties (derivative of c727 at
100Gy dose of gamma rays)

CM-98 = a bold seeded high yielding and disease resistant variety (derived of k850 at
300 Gy dose of gamma rays)

6.SOMACLONAL VARIATION:
Though plant tissue culture appears to be a potential tool for generation and exploitation
of useful variability.

7. PEDIGREE METHOD:
For resistance breeding (pest etc)

8. BACK CROSS METHOD:

For inter specific hybridization, limited back cross for desi× kabuli interrogations and
also for resistance breeding.

Resistance to fusarium wilt can be transferred from desi to KABULI

RESEARCH INSTITUTE:
1. All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project (AICPIP)
 2. All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Chickpea
3. Indian Institute of Pulse Research
4. Directorate of Pulse Research
POPULAR VARIETIES:
 Gangaur ( GNG 1581)
 Aparna ( RSG 991)
 Sangam (GNG 1488)
 JGK 2
 JGK 3
 JG 14
 JG 6
 IPCK 2002-29
 BGD 103
 MNK 1
 JSC 55
 JSC 56
 Deera
 Pant kabuli
 Pant kabuli-3
 LENTILS
Scientific Name; Lens

culinaris, Family: Fabaceae

Chromosome No.- 2n =2x =24

ORIGIN:
South Western Asia and the Mediterranean region
A low input pulse crop grown mainly in India, Pakistan, Egypt, Greece, Italy and in
Mediterranean basin. In India, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal are the
states were 75 % acreage is concerned.

It was one of the earliest cultivated crops in the world with archeological evidence from
the early Stone Age. India leads the world in lentil production, and most of the lentils are
consumed by India and its neighbors. Currently, Canada and Turkey are the world's largest lentil
exporters. Historically, lentil was widely used in India, Southwest Asia, and the Mediterranean
region in the form of split lentil (dhal) and it is still an important source of dietary protein in these
areas. Lentil contains approximately 22% protein, and is high in fiber, vitamin A, calcium, starch,
iron, phosphorus, copper and manganese.

While the lentil seed is used mainly as food, the straw can also be used as a high quality
animal feed or as a source of organic material for soil improvement. It can be used to diversify
and lengthen the crop rotation, which reduces disease pressure in other crops and has weed
control advantages. Lentil also improves soil tilth and reduces the requirement for nitrogen
fertilizer. Lentil prices vary, but net returns are often higher than those obtained from wheat. On
the prairies, lentil yields range between 500 and 2800 kg/ha with an average yield of about 1345
kg/ha. Average concentration of major nutritional components in lentil i.e., protein 22 per cent (in
seed), 6.4 per centage (in plant) for livestock rations.

Species (cultivated and wild species):

The genus Lens Miller comprises of five annual species of which only Lens culinaris
Medik (= L. esculenta Moench) is cultivated, while the four wild species namely L. montbretii, L.
nigricans, L. ervoides and L. orientalis are delicate, small flowered annuals di s t r i b ut ed o
ve r S o ut h We s t As i a a n d Mediterranean.

Crossing
Lentil is strictly self-pollinated crop due to cleistogamy and dehiscence of anthers occurs
before the anthesis. Wilson and Law in 1972 reported less than 8 .0 % occasional cross
pollination through thrips or other small insects. Wilson (1972) reported successful crossing in
green house. Crossing was best on young vigorous plants when the relative humidity was above
50%, the temperature between 15-25°C in 12-15 hours of light and 9-12 hours of darkness.
When the RH dropped below 35%, the percentage of successful manual crosses decreased
sharply. Lentil flowers continue to self –pollinate at the lower RHs, but pollen for crossing is
difficult to gather and transfer.

The buds (one half- three fourth the length of calyx lobes) are held between the thumb and the
forefinger with the suture of the keel facing the operator. Special care is to be taken not to bend
or twist the peduncle. Sharp- pointed forceps are normally used to carefully remove one or two
calyx lobes adjacent to the suture side of the keel. The wings and keels are removed
individually. The standard is either or folded away from the stigma. The stamens are removed
either by grasping individual filaments with forceps and breaking them free from the staminal
column or by pulling them outward.

Manual pollinations are made immediately after emasculation. Pollen is selected from the
vigorous flowers. The keel is opened with forceps so that the staminal column and the pistil
could be removed as a unit. This brush like unit is used to transfer pollen to the exposed
stigma of emasculated flowers. The pollen loaded pistil and the anthers are brushed against the
trichoid side of the stigma. After pollen transfer the standard of the female flower is returned to its
original positions around the pistil.

Breeding objectives
In lentil crop major breeding objectives are
1. To develop high yielding varieties.
2. To developed variety with bold seed, containing high protein content with less
cooking time.
3. Early maturing
 4. Resistance to various diseases such as rust and Ascochyta blight.
5. Resistance to insects such as pod borer, cutworm, aphids etc.
6. Resistance to Shattering
7. Tolerance to drought etc.

Breeding Methods
Classical/traditional/ conventional approaches

1. As per historical record of released varieties, majority of them are selected from
germplasm; is evident that pure lines selected among local adopted germplasm lines
has been very successful. Varietal hybridization followed by application of
pedigree, bulk breeding methods or their modifications are increasingly being
used.
2. The trends are in favour of Bulk and Single seed Descent (SSD) method, where
segregating populations are handled in bulk till F 5/F6 generation, preferably with
introductions off-season nurseries and single plant selections are made in F5/F6
to be grown as individual plant progeny rows. The bulk harvest of selected rows
(each row to be separately bulk) are evaluated in yield trials. While advancing the
generations, it should be insured that the natural spread of prevalent disease is
adequate.
3. Mutation breeding can also be applied. Mutation breeding in pulse crop is also a
successful tool for crop improvement. Among mutants, germination and survival at
maturity in lentil where unaffected at 4 and 8 kR (Krad those of gamma rays).
However, these characters were significantly altered at 12-32 kR. A series of induced
morphological mutants listed in lentil including crinkled leaf, boat shape leaf, tendril
leaf multiflorate/sterile crumple petals, late flowering, semi fertile with long peduncle,
genetic male sterile, cytoplasmic male sterile, seed colour etc. Mutation breeding
would be advantageous if carried out with one or two specific objectives. The doses
less than LD 50 or GR 50 could be desirable to obtain economically useful
mutants. The mutant generations may be handled as per the requirement of breeding
objectives.

Molecular/non-conventional approaches
1. Recently combined approaches viz. , conventional and markers (morphological,
biological and molecular) are widely being used to improve the lentil crops for trait of
interest emphasized that biochemical markers are powerful tools for the assessment of
genetic variability within and between plant populations. In continuation DNA marker
namely Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) have received much
attention as plant breeding tool and as an estimator of phylogenetic relationship.

Lentil Varieties
There are two types of cultivars/ varieties commonly called as masur or malk masur
(bold seeded) and masuri (small seeded) are grown in India. The bold seeded cultivars
are grown primarily in Bundelkhand region of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and in
Maharastra. The small seeded cultivars are popular in Bihar, Eastern Uttar Pradesh,
West Bengal and Assam. Varietal improvement programme of lentil in India was initiated
in 1924 when single plant selections were made in locally collected mixed seed lots.
Some of these earlier developed pure line selections were NP1, NP47 (IARI), T8, T38
(Uttar Pradesh), L12 (Punjab), BR25 (Bihar) and B77 (West Bengal). Subsequently the
lentil breeding programme got boost under All India Coordinated Pulse Improvement
Project in 1970s and several important varieties were developed at Pantnagar, IARI, and
PAU Ludhiana etc.

Research Institutes;
Indian Institute of Pulses Research
The Crop Improvement Division was established in the VIII Plan when the
Directorate of Pulses Research attained the status of Indian Institute of Pulses Research on 5th
September 1993. However, research efforts on breeding improved varieties of pulses were
initiated with the establishment of Directorate on Pulses Research in 1984. The Division
encompasses a broad range of activities from basic studies on plant genomes to development of
improved varieties. The Division includes plant breeding, genetics & cyto-genetics and
molecular breeding till 2012. In addition, plant genetic resource management and quality seed
production are integral parts of the Division.
The mandate crops are chickpea, pigeonpea, mungbean, urdbean, lentil, field pea,
rajmash and lathyrus.
 FIELD PEA
SCIENTIFIC NAME - Pisum sativum L.

CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n= 14

ORIGIN –

 The Mediterranean region, western and central Asia and Ethiopia have been
indicated as centers of origin.
 Recently the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) designated Ethiopia and
western Asia as centers of diversity, with secondary centers in southern Asia
and the Mediterranean region.
 Archaeological evidence of the use of peas dating from 8000 BC has been found
in the Fertile Crescent.
 The first cultivation of peas appears to have been in western Asia, from where it
spread to Europe, China and India.
 In classical times, Greek and Roman authors mentioned its cultivation as a pulse
and fodder crop.
DISTRIBUTION – The first cultivation of peas appears to have been in western
Asia, from where it spread to Europe, China and India.

WILD RELATIVES

 Wild relatives of pea include the species P. fulvum and the subspecies P.
sativum subsp. elatius.
 Wild peas are characterized by spontaneous dehiscence of pods and ballistic
seed spread.

 The wild pea is restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East.
 The earliest archaeological finds of peas date from the late neolithic era of
current Greece, Syria, Turkey and Jordan.

 In Egypt, early finds date from c. 4800–4400 BC in the Nile delta area, and from
c. 3800–3600 BC in Upper Egypt.

 The pea was also present in Georgia in the 5th millennium BC.
  Farther east, the finds are younger. Peas were present in Afghanistan c. 2000
BC, in Harappa, Pakistan, and in northwest India in 2250–1750 BC.

 In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, this peas appear in the Ganges
Basin and southern India.

BREEDING OBJECTIVES

 Early maturity
 Improved yield potential and stability Water productivity = More crop per drop
 Standing ability and harvest ability
 Pod characteristics - Pod shatter resistance
 Seed size
 Shelling percentage
 Pod yields
 Suitability for processing
 Resistance to disease - Maintained resistance to Downy mildew , Powdery
mildew
 Resistance to insect
 Resistance to abiotic stress - Tolerance to high soil boron, Improved tolerance to
frost and drought, particularly at podding
 Tolerance to herbicide

BREEDING METHODS

The breeding procedure adopted for pea improvement include -

 Individual plant selection

 Single seed descent method of selection
 Pedigree selection
 Bulk method of selection
 Recurrent selection
 Line breeding
 Hybridization
  Backcrossing
 Hybrids: male sterility
 Marker‐assisted selection
 Genetic transformation

1. Breeding for abiotic stress

 Breeding peas for cold resistance or cold hardiness by recurrent selection and
resistance to waterlogging has been undertaken abroad.

 The ‘leafless’ pea is tolerant to waterlogging.

2. Breeding for high protein and sugar content

 The wrinkled seeded content 26 -33 per cent protein content and in smooth seed
it is 23-31 per cent.
 The inheritance of protein content is polygenically controlled and mainly by
recessive factor for high protein content.
 The varieties GS 195 and the local cultivar, kinnauri have high soluble protein
content due to the presence of a very high number of dominant alleles.
3. Breeding for processing qualities

 Dehydration, canning and freezing are the most common processing method of
peas.
 Large sized wrinkled and dark green peas like arkel are suitable for dehydration,

 For canning, both round and wrinkled seeded varieties like T19 and Bonneville
can be used and for freezing wrinkled seeds.
4. Mutation

 The work on mutation breeding was taken up at jabalpur.

 The chemical mutagens, like EMS, NEU, EI, NMU and some others were used
in many countries.
 Two useful recessive genes resulting from induced mutation research abroad, st
and af were utilized to produse the ‘leafless’ pea genotype, af, af st st at
Jabalpur.
  The induced mutation developed are the early flowering 46 C and JP 829
(Flowering from 4th to 6th node),fasciated mutants,R701,R710,JP 625,JP
67,251 A, 997,999 and others.
 Acacia mutants –Acacia long, Acacia Batri, Acacia Purple and few others types
of mutants.
 The work is in progress to combine mutant characters with other desired
attributes including multiple disease and pest resistance and quality characters.
5. Biotechnology

 Transformation and regeneration protocols are now available in peas.

 The most common method involves Agrobacterium tumefacience mediated
transformation.
 The major difficulty lies in the fact that this transformation is genotype specific
and only a small portion of cultivars have responded to this technique.
 Somaclonal variation arising from the regeneration of plants from callus, led to
the use of cotyledonary meristem from freshly imbibed seed as a source of
tissue for successful transformation.
 The use of this technology in the pea breeding is limited to proof of concept.
 Partial resistance to alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) has been reported as a
consequence of transformation with chimeric virus coat protein gene, a-amylase
inhibitor (α-A 1) and the promoter phytohemagglutin, both found in French-
bean when transferred to pea, have shown constitutive expression and resistance
to pea weevil.
 The expression of inhibitor (α-amylase) served to block the development of the
larvae at an early stage and this resulted in less seed damage and better seed
quality.
 This transgenic pea product could not reach to large scale field testing due to
legal issues.
 Transfer of herbicide resistance both as a reportable marker and a trait have also
been reported, but not carried through the commercial release.
 While GM crops are on increase in many parts of world with global acreage of
134 million hectares in 2009, the adverse reaction to GM crops in Europe and
low rates of transfer have all contributed to the pea breeding industry not
engaging in the development and release of GM peas till date.
RESEARCH INSTITUTES/ ORGANIZATIONS

 Exhaustive germplasm collection are being maintained at the national bureau of

NBPGR, New Delhi and the project Directorate of Vegetable Research,
Varanasi.
 Pea germplasm is also maintained at ICRISAT, Hyderabad, and Pulse Research
station, Kanpur.
 IIPR - Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
 Improvement of pea by breeding has been undertaken at PAU (Ludhiana), HAU
(Hisar), GBPUAT (Pantnagar), JNKV (Jabalpur), CSAU (Kanpur),
DR.YSPUHF (Solan), IARI (Delhi), PDVR (Varansi), NDUAT (Faizabad) and
VL (Almora).
 Intensive work has been undertaken breeding for resistance to disease (powdery
mildew, Fusarium wilt and rust) and insect pest (Bruchus and leaf miner) at
JNKVV, Jabalpur.
 Breeding for resistance to leaf miner was also taken up at HAU, Hisar.
 One variety developed by Rajasthan Agriculture Research Institute.

POPULAR VARIETIES

In India, in initial stages, local cultivars were subjected to mass/pure-line

selection and released. A very popular high yielding bold seeded cultivar T 163 was
made popular in UP after purification of a local material from Buland Shahr through the
efforts of Economic Botanist (Pulses) of the then Govt. College, Kanpur and now
CSAUAT, Kanpur.

Some popular field pea cultivars are listed as follows:

UP : Type 163, Rachna, DMR 11, B 22, Pant P 5, HUP 2

Bihar : BR 2, B 12 Swam Rekha, Rachna, DMR 11, T 163, Hans, HUP 2

West Bengal : B 22, B 12, Rachna, DMR 11, KUP 2

Delhi : Hans (L 116), Harbhajan (EC 33866), Rachna, DMR 11, Pant P 5

Maharashtra : Khoperkheda, Rachna, DMR 11, JP 885, Pant P 5

Himachal Pradesh : Kinnauri, Rachna, Hans, HPP 1

Punjab : PG 3, Rachna, Hans, Pant P 5

Haryana : Rachna, DMR 11, PG 3, Pant P 5

Rajsthan : Rachna, DMR 11, RP 3, T 163, Pant P 5

MP : Rachna, DMR 11, T 163, Hans, Pant P 5, JP 885

 BERSEEM
Scientific name – Trifolium alexandrinum

Chromosome number- 2n=2x=16

Tribe – Trifolieae

Family- Fabaceae

Berseem or Egyptian clover is a very important Rabi season legume fodder and
popularly known as the “King” of fodder crops. The crop is well adapted to cool and
moderately cool climate. It is sown from second fortnight of October to first fortnight of
November under irrigated conditions. Fodder obtained from berseem is highly palatable
and contains 17-22% crude protein, 42-49% neutral detergent fibre, 35-38% acid
detergent fibre, 24-25% cellulose and 7-10% hemi cellulose with 70% dry matter
digestibility. Besides, it improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the
soil.

Origin and spread

Its probable origin is South West Asia and was naturalized in Northern Africa
and Western Asia. About the origin there are several claims by several authors. As per
Frame (2005) it is eastern Mediterranean whereas, Knight (1985) says Syria as its
origin. Turkey also claims with its availability in wild forms. It was introduced into
Egypt in 6th Century and to India and Pakistan in 19th century (Knight, 1985). Later it
was spread into South Africa, USA and Australia in 20th century. At present berseem is
cultivated in around 23 countries viz., India, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Egypt, Jordan,
Australia, USA (California, south western USA),Indonesia, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon,
Morocco, South Africa, Sudan, Algeria, Israel, Iran, Iraq, Tunisia, Italy, France, China
and Nepal, spread over five continents. Out of these, it is grown in large areas in India,
Egypt, Pakistan, South Africa, southern Europe and eastern Australia.
Breeding Objectives

The major breeding objectives include:

(i) High dry matter yield
(ii) Better quality components– crude protein content, in-vitro dry-matter
digestibility, low percentage of neutral detergent fibre and toxicity,
(iii) High response to inputs,
(iv) Tolerance to adverse soils- acidic/saline soils, tolerance to extreme weather
conditions – high rainfall/ low moisture regime,
(v) Resistance to diseases and insect-pests,
(vi) Greater persistence-summer persistence in annual multicut forages,
Greater aggressiveness/fast growth and competing ability or complementation with the
companion crop, for example, berseem competes well in an intercropping of oats +
berseem and yield better in early cuts or first cut and subsequently it allows berseem to
flourish over and above its own production potential.

Breeding Methods

Berseem is an introduced crop in India and one of the most important drawbacks
in genetic improvement of Berseem is lack of genetic variability. Variability in the
existing gene pool of Berseem has been induced in through mutation, polyploidization
and interspecific hybridization. Different genetic improvement programmes by utilizing
breeding approaches like selection, polyploidy and mutation leads to the development
of >15 varieties for different berseem growing regions of India.

a) Inter-specific hybridization

Initially, the aim of interspecific hybridization was to clarify the closest relatives
of T.alexandrinum. T. alexandrinum (2n = 16) was successfully hybridized with T.
berytheum (2n= 16) and T. salmoneum (2n = 16) and found the most probable parent.
Recently, efforts has been put into using this approach with the aim of improving T.
alexandrinum resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, tolerance to soil alkalinity and
length of the vegetative period.
Genes for wide scale adaptability and disease resistance widely distributed in
several wild species of Trifolium could not be incorporated into the present day
cultivars because of interspecific incompatibility barrier which are common among
other Trifolium species also. Embryo culture has been effectively used in developing
interspecific hybrids of Berseem with Trifolium apertum. Progenies of interspecific
hybrids showed introgression of various desirable traits, including late flowering and
resistance to root rot and stem rot diseases.

b) Ploidy manipulation

A major breakthrough in Berseem breeding in India was achieved through

induction of polyploidy. The work on polyploidization of Berseem genome was started
with the aim to induce greater leaf and stem size. Auto-Tetraploid induced by using
colchicine treatment, and selection at Tetraploid level resulted the development of first
Berseem variety ‘Pusa Giant’ with more fodder production and good regeneration
capacity, uniform and higher yield throughout the season than diploid varieties released
for general cultivation in India . Another big achievement in polyploidy breeding was
achieved at IGFRI, Jhansi by developing an Auto-Tetraploid variety namely ‘Bundel
Berseem-3’ through colchiploidy followed by Recurrent single plant selection followed
with mass selection. It is released for north east
zone, Bihar Orissa, WB and eastern UP.

c) Mutation breeding

Major constraints in genetic improvement of Berseem are narrow genetic base

of the crop coupled with cross incompatibility barriers. Efforts have been made to
generate variation in the existing gene pool through mutation by using physical or
chemical mutagens .Major success was achieved by induction of longer duration mutant
in Mescavi variety through gamma ray treatment. These longer duration mutant in the
form of BL-22 a variety released in 1988 for temperate and north west zone; BL-180
released in 2006 for cultivation in North-west zone of India. Longer duration (flowering
in May-June) is the important agronomic trait in Indian condition. Incorporation of this
trait in Berseem variety for additional cut of green fodder during the scarcity period of
summer months may be achieved.

d) Biotic and abiotic stress tolerance

Berseem cultivars are susceptible to diseases like root rot (Rhizoctonia solani
and Fusarium Semitactum), stem rot (Scferotinia trifoliorum), leaf blight (Epicocum
sp.), powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) and downy mildew (Perenospora trifolif).

Biotechnological approach

Biotechnological approaches offering alternative and effective tools for genetic

improvement of crop plants. Utilization of biotechnological approaches in genetic
improvement by genetic transformation and other means requires efficient method for
plant regeneration via tissue culture using different parts of plant. Protocol for in vitro
plant regeneration from meristematic tissue and the establishment of regenerable callus
culture have been developed in Berseem and related species viz., Trifolium glomeratum,
T apertum, T resupinatum .Embryo rescue technique has been effectively utilized to
overcome the problems of post fertilization.
 OAT

INTRODUCTION

Scientific name- Avena sativa

Chromosome no.- 2n=6x=42(most important commercial oat is hexaploid species)
Botany Taxonomic classification
Order: Poales Family: Poaceae Subfamily: Pooideae Genu

Origin
The wild ancestor of Avena sativa & the closely related minor crop, A. byzantina, is a
hexapliod wild oat, A. sterilis. Genetic evidence shows the ancestral forms of A. sterilis grew in
the fertile crescent of the Near East. Oats are usually considered as a secondary crop i.e. derived
from a weed of the primary cereal domesticates, then spreading westward into cooler, wetter areas
favourable for oats, eventually leading to their domestication in the regions of the Middle East &
Europe.
The crop grows best in a cool, humid climate in the temperate zone and is less resistant
to cold or heat than either wheat or barley. It is thus not found in the tropics & sub-tropics of
Africa, Asia & South America where the climate is both damp & hot.

Nutrition quality

Historically, oat production mainly focused on the animal feed market and nowadays, in
the world scale, about 75% of oat grain is still used for animal feeding. However, the unique
nutritional values and advantages of oats for human consumption as a healthy food were
confirmed in recent decades. The primary characteristics of oat grain quality are: groat percentage,
test weight, protein, fat and 𝛽-glucan level. To a lesser degree, but also important for milling, are
easy dehulling, uniform kernels, low groat breakage during dehulling, uniformity of colour and
taste.
Groat percentage and protein content are important both for food and feed.
High fat level is more important for feed, providing more metabolisable energy. In contrast, high
fat is not desirable for human consumption, because it may cause rancidity and shorten the storage
life of oat products. Also, low fat content along with high 𝛽-glucan level is a part of the
requirement for health claims on oat products. A high 𝛽-glucan level is more valuable for human
consumption and less for animals because higher fiber levels resulted in lower nutritional energy.
High amounts of 𝛽-glucan in oat feeds are inefficiently utilized by poultry, especially by young
chicks.

CULTIVATED OATS

One species, Avena sativa, is of major commercial importance as a cereal grain. Four other species
are grown as crops of minor or regional importance.

 Avena sativa, (common oat or tree oat)- Avena sativa is a cereal crop of global
importance and the species commonly referred to as "oats." All members of this species are
characterized by a panicle with a roughly pyramidal shape with equilateral branches
spreading outward. It is distinguished from A. byzantina, the red oak, by its spikelets
separating from the pedicel by fracture, leaving no basal scar, while in red oats and some
other species the separation takes place by abscission, leaving a definite scar. One
subspecies, A. sativa subsp. orientalis, is known as the common side oats, and is of much
less economic importance.

 Avena abyssinica,( Ethiopian oat)- Zohary and Hopf (2000) note that Avena abyssinica is
a "half-weed, half-crop confined to the highlands of Ethiopia." Stems are erect, tend to be
small, and are fairly stiff, and panicles are equilateral, medium in size, and very drooping.
 Avena byzantina, (red oat)- Avena byzantina has stems that are usually slender, reddish in
color, and rather stiff, and the panicles are narrow, small, and erect with relatively few
spikelets . The two flowers of the spikelet adhere tightly to one another and separate by
fracture of the stem or rachilla at the base, and the lemmas adhere to the kernal and have
weak, non-twisted awns.
 Avena nuda,( naked oat, hulless oat, or large naked oat).- Avena nuda has the caryopsis
or kernal that is loose within the palea, as with the wheat . As its nutrient content is
somewhat better than that of common oat, A. nuda has increased in significance in recent
years, especially in organic farming.
 Naked oats compared with covered oats are higher in nutrients (protein, fat, oil,
antioxidants and others) due to the absence of hulls. Breeding for naked oats and the
development of cultivars targeted for special markets could increase the worldwide
value of oats.
 Naked (hulless) oats differ from the covered (husked/ conventional/hulled) types by
only a single major gene (with modifying genes). Marshall & Shaner (1992)
established that a single, incompletely dominant gene (N-1) interacting with
modifying genes (N-2, N-3 and N-4) control the expression of the hulless grain
characteristic in oats.
 Depending on the alleles present at each of the four loci, the different phenotypic
expressions of nakedness are observed. A completely naked phenotype is expressed
when all alleles at the loci N-1, N-2 and N-3 are homozygous dominant. The
presence of homozygous recessive alleles at the loci N-1 will produce the covered
phenotype, the recessive alleles of N-2 and N-3 will confer various proportions of
‘mosaic phenotypes’, the mixture of naked and covered kernels. When alleles at the
loci N-1 are in a heterozygous condition and the alleles at the N-4 locus are
homozygous dominant, a covered phenotype is observed.

 Avena strigosa,( lopsided oat, bristle oat, or sand oat)- In Avena strigosa, the
lemmas are lance-like, extending to two distinct points, and the plant has small, erect
stems, and near equilateral panicles. It is grown for fodder in parts of Western
Europe and Brazil.
WILD OATS

These species, called wild oats or oat-grasses, are nuisance weeds in cereal crops, as, being
grasses like the crop, they cannot be chemically removed; any herbicide that would kill them
would also damage the crop.

 Avena barbata,( slender wild oat, or slender oat)- Avena barbata has stems that are weak
and small, yielding a decumbent growth habit, and panicles are equilateral, drooping, and
rather large.
 Avena fatua, (wild oat or common wild oat) - Avena fatua resembles A. sativa but is of
greater vigor. It has very large and drooping panicles and the spikelets have long twisting
awns and separate by abscission from their pedicles. Although it is of some value as hay or
for pasturage, it is not grown for grain and is a troublesome weed.
 Avena sterilis, (winter wild oat or wild red oat) - Avena sterilis is believed to be the
ancestor of the cultivated red oats. It has large, harily lemmas, with strong twisted awns,
adhering tightly to the kernal.

 Avena maroccana- Moroccan oat, Avena occidentalis- western oat,

 Avena pubescens- downy oat-grass, Avena pratensis- meadow oat-grass,
 Avena spicata- poverty oat- grass, Avena brevis- short oat.
CLASSIFICATION OF OATS
Oat species are classed cytologically according to the number of chromosomes in their
cells: Diploids (2n = 14), tetraploids (2n=28), or hexaploids (2n =42). The diploids and tetraploids
are often referred to as minor species.
O'Mara (1961) in reviewing the literature on the cytogenetics of Avena listed the species as
follows:
Diploids, n=7 Tetraploid, n=14 Hexaploid,n=21

A. clauda A. fatua
A. pilosa A. sativa
A. barbata
A. longiglumis A. nuda
A. wiestii
A. ventricosa A. sterilis
A. vaviloviana
A. strigosa A. byzantina
A. abyssinica
A. orientalis
A. ludoviciana
The Minor Species of Avena
In two publications on the classification of oat varieties in the United States, Etheridge (1916)
mentioned three minor species and Stanton (1955) six. Each author gave some botanical
description of the species he mentioned. The minor species included by Stanton are:
Botanical name Common name
 Diploid (7n) (2n = 14):
Avena brevis, Roth Short oat
Avena strigosa Sand oat
Avena wiestii Desert oat
Avena nudabrevis Vavilov Small hull-less (or naked)

 Tetraploid (14n) (2n = 28):

Avena barbata Brot Slender oat
Avena abyssinica Hochst Abyssinian oat
ORIGIN OF CROP FROM ANY DIPLOID OR TETRAPLOID SPECIES
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
 Greater economic competitiveness of oats - Obtained through breeding for higher
yields, stiff straw (resistance to lodging) and high resistance to diseases such as
mildew, crown rust and oat mosaic virus.

 Improved value of the oats for human consumption- By selecting for important
components of milling quality such as high kernel content, hullability, low proportion
of screenings and minimum grain blackening and breakage. Increased beta glucan
content is another desirable target which contribute to the health claims attributed to
oats.

 Improved value of oats for ruminants- High metabolisable energy is targeted by

breeding oats with thinner husks or with lower lignin content and above average oil
content

 Improvements in naked oats for non-ruminants and industrial fractionation-

Targets are for higher yield, oil and protein content. An additional target is lower
trichome density to reduce irritation at harvesting and subsequent grain handling

 Reduced environmental input- An understanding of nitrogen and water use by oats

to enable selection of and breeding for more efficient varieties which will contribute
to sustainable agriculture.

 High yield- 10% higher, a good combination of yield components (spikes per unit,
kernels per spike, 1000-grain weights).
 High quality- high protein content (more than 17%), β-glucan content, became a
priority in order to meet the requirements of processing, green stems with high
protein contents at maturity, and higher plant stature (over 120 cm).
 Resistance to diseases (Smut, Rust, BYDV, Aphids)
 Resistance to drought- (Annul rainfall <300mm, Short of rain in in the early of
growing season.)
 In rainfed areas
 good tillering ability
 both high grain and vegetative harvest indices
 longer growing period, growing slowly at the
 seedling stage, fast grain-filling rates
 taller plant heights, large spikes, well-developed root systems.
  For irrigated conditions
 Shorter growing times (90 days) and short statures (95-100 cm)
 lodging resistance, uniform tillering with more florets and kernels
 tolerance to high water and fertility conditions
 a good combination of yield components (4.8-6.7 million spikes per hectare,
35-50 seeds per spike, and a 1000-grain weight of more than 20g
 Resistance or tolerance to Smut, rust, and BYDV diseases and aphids

BREEDING METHODS
The breeding approaches to improve nutritional quality are mostly based on selection of
parents which possess high levels of target traits, followed by hybridization cycles, pedigree
selection and/or recurrent selection. To obtain high genetic variation and valuable transgressive
seggregants with needed complexes of genes, large segregating populations are required.
Laboratory measurements of 𝛽-glucan, protein and fat content may facilitate the phenotypic
selection of genotypes with the desired quality characteristics. Molecular genetics is a prospective
avenue to facilitate oat breeding for quality traits. For example, markers associated with 𝛽-glucan
content have been found.
 The main method in the breeding research was the combination breeding method
(intervarietal hybridization – simple, complex, backcross, diallel combinations).
Homogenization of the created hybrids was performed by the individual selection
method.
 The breeding technique chosen to be implemented in the breeding program which
develops biotic and abiotic stress resistance (cold resistance, drought tolerance, diseases)
was backcrossing and evaluation of obtained genotypes through field and laboratory
methods.
 To make an efficient selection of equal morphological generations and lines with specific
traits direct field observations, biochemical, physiological and biometric analyses and
evaluation tests were conducted.
 Gamma rays and sodium azide mutagenic treatments were used to create a greater
genetic diversity.
 A new approach in oat breeding was the application of biotechnological methods,
which included in vitro cultivation of mature embryos and selection of somaclonal lines
 with expressed traits and in vitro selection of selection media for selection of regenerants
with enhanced cold and drought resistance.
 Also, another new approach was the use of morphological and biochemical markers to
study the genetic diversity of oats and the control on its varietal purity and for this
purpose SDS electrophoresis of protein was applied.

RESEARCH INSTITUTE (OR) ORGANIZATIONS

 ICAR-Indian Grassland and fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
 ICAR- Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hydrabad