H

O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS
'H
IG
H
SC
H
O
O
L
[C
O
PY
R
IG
H
T]
BONDING
COVALENT
 T]
Some examples from

H
IG
R
PY
O
daily life that involve

[C
L
O
O
H
covalent bonding?
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H
 Proteins
H
O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS
'H
IG
H
SC
H
O
O
L
Carbohydrates
[C
O
PY
R
IG
H
T]
DNA
 H
O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS
'H
Other examples

IG
H
SC
H
O
O
Sand
L
[C
O
PY
R
IG
H
T]
Bromine gas
Bromine, Br2 is a diatomic molecule where two bromine
atoms are covalently bonded together.
Gaseous bromine

T]
H
IG
R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
Covalent bonding

H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

Liquid bromine
 Sand, which more
commonly known

T]
as silica is actually

H
IG
R
silicon(IV) oxide.

PY
O
[C
It consists of atoms

L
O
O
H
of silicon and

SC
H
oxygen that are
IG
'H
TS
Covalent bonds
covalently bonded
EN
C
O

together.
N
IN
LY
O
H
 COVALENT BONDING
Covalent bonds are formed between non -metals , by
sharing electrons to achieve the noble gas

T]
H
configuration.

IG
R
Non- metals

PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H
COVALENT BONDING
(NON-METAL + NON-METAL)

▪ In covalent bonding, non-metal atoms share electrons

T]
H
with one another to achieve the noble gas structure.

IG
R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O

A covalent bond is the electrostatic force of attraction

H

▪
between the positive nucleus and the shared pair of
electrons.
COVALENT BONDING
(NON-METAL + NON-METAL)

Molecules are formed in the process.

T]
H
IG
R
PY
O
A molecule is formed by having 2 or more

[C
L
O
atoms held together by covalent bonds.

O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H
WHAT IS A MOLECULE?

Molecules of Molecules of

T]
H
Elements Compounds

IG
R
PY
Contains 2 or more identical Contains 2 or more different

O
[C
atoms covalently bonded atoms covalently bonded

L
O
O
together together

H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
Exists as diatomic or Exists in many different forms
EN
C

polyatomic molecules
O
N
IN
LY
O

E.g. O2, F2, S8 E.g. CO, CO2, H2O

H
COMPARISON BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT
BONDING
Ionic Bonding Covalent Bonding

T]
H
IG
R
PY
Occurs between metal and Occurs between non-metals

O
[C
non-metal

L
O
O
H
Transfer of electrons from Sharing of electrons between

SC
metal to non-metal

H
non-metals

IG
'H
TS
EN

Forms ionic compound Forms molecule (simple

C

covalent molecule/ giant

O
N
IN

covalent molecule)
LY
O

Ions are held together by Atoms are held together by the

H

strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the shared

attraction between positive electrons and the positive
and negative ions nucleus
COVALENT BONDING
(NON-METAL + NON-METAL)

T]
▪ If 2 atoms (X and X) share:

H
IG
R
PY
O
1 pair of electrons ⇒ a single bond (X−X) is formed

[C
▪

L
O
2 pairs of electrons ⇒ a double bond (X=X) is formed

O
▪

H
SC
▪ 3 pairs of electrons ⇒ a triple bond (X≡X) is formed

H
IG
'H
TS
A single covalent bond contains only 2 electrons.
EN

▪
C
O

Hence, a double bond will contain 2x2 = 4 electrons

N

▪
IN

and a triple bond will contain 3x2 = 6 electrons.

LY
O
H
 H
O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS
'H
IG

Cl
H
SC
H
O
O
L
[C
Cl O
PY
R
IG
H
T]
SINGLE COVALENT BOND
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
Formation of a Hydrogen molecule (H2)

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of second H
: electrons of first H
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
R
PY
O
[C
L
Hooray!
Hooray!
Can
IIn
need
IIyou We
We
cannot
fact,
one
give are
are
ILet’s
give
need

O
know!

O
both
both
me noble
noble
electron
oneyou
one now!
now!
electron
to
any

H
share our

SC
no!
become ☹
Ohelectron?
electrons!
myself!
noble!
electrons!

H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C

Cl Cl Cl Cl
O
N
IN
LY
O
H
H
O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS
'H
IG
H
SC
H
O
O
L
[C
O
PY
R
IG
H
T]
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
• Formation of a Chlorine molecule (Cl2)

IG
R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN

: electrons of first Cl
LY
O
H

: electrons of second Cl
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
Formation of a Chlorine molecule (Cl2)

IG
R
PY
showing only the outer shell

O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of Cl
: electrons of Cl
COVALENT BONDING
(NON-METAL + NON-METAL)

T]
If 2 atoms (X and X) share:

H
IG
R
PY
O
1 pair of electrons ⇒ a single bond (X−X) is formed

[C
L
O
2 pairs of electrons ⇒ a double bond (X=X) is formed

O
H
SC
3 pairs of electrons ⇒ a triple bond (X≡X) is formed

H
IG
'H
TS
A single covalent bond contains only 2 electrons.
EN
C
O

Hence, a double bond will contain 2x2 = 4 electrons

N
IN

and a triple bond will contain 3x2 = 6 electrons.

LY
O
H
 H
O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS
'H
DOUBLE BOND

IG
H
SC
H
O
O
L
O=O [C
O
PY
R
IG
H
T]
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
Formation of an Oxygen molecule (O2)

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
O + O O O
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY

: electrons of O
O
H

: electrons of O
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
Formation of an Oxygen molecule (O2)

R
PY
showing only the outer shell

O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of O
: electrons of O
COVALENT BONDING
(NON-METAL + NON-METAL)

T]
If 2 atoms (X and X) share:

H
IG
R
PY
O
1 pair of electrons ⇒ a single bond (X−X) is formed

[C
L
O
2 pairs of electrons ⇒ a double bond (X=X) is formed

O
H
SC
3 pairs of electrons ⇒ a triple bond (X≡X) is formed

H
IG
'H
TS
A single covalent bond contains only 2 electrons.
EN
C
O

Hence, a double bond will contain 2x2 = 4 electrons

N
IN

and a triple bond will contain 3x2 = 6 electrons.

LY
O
H
 H
O
LY
IN
N
O
C
EN
TS

N
'H
IG
H
SC

N ≡
H
O
O
L
[C
O
PY
R
IG
TRIPLE BOND

H
T]
‘DOT -AND -CROSS’ DIAGRAMS OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
Nitrogen (N2)

IG
▪

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
N N
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of N N N
: electrons of N
MORE EXAMPLES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES
▪ Water (H2O)

T]
H
IG
Formation of a Water molecule (H2O) showing only the

R
▪

PY
outer shell

O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of O
: electrons of H
MORE EXAMPLES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES

T]
H
Methane (CH4)

IG
▪

R
PY
O
[C
H

L
O
O
H

H
SC
H
IG
H C H
TS
'H H C H
EN
C

H
O
N

H
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of H
: electrons of C
MORE EXAMPLES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES

T]
H
Ammonia (NH3)

IG
▪

R
PY
O
[C
H

L
O
O
H

H
SC
H
IG
H N TS
H
'H H N H
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of H
: electrons of N
MORE EXAMPLES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES

T]
H
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

IG
▪

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
O C O
IG
TS
'H O C O
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of C
: electrons of O
MORE EXAMPLES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES

T]
H
Fluorine oxide (F2O)

IG
▪

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
F O F
IG
TS
'H F O F
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

: electrons of O
: electrons of F
MORE EXAMPLES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES
Ethene (C2H4)

T]
▪

H
IG
R
PY
O
H H

[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
C C
IG
TS
'H
H H
EN
C

H C C
O

H
N
IN
LY
O

H H
H

: electrons of C
: electrons of H
 CHEMICAL FORMULA

T]
General guidelines:

H
IG
R
PY
Subscript t o indica t e num be r of a t om s for

O
[C
a n e le m e nt

L
O
O
H
SC
E.g . Chlorine , oxyg e n, hydrog e n

H
IG
C l2 O2 'HH2
TS
EN
C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H
PREFIX FOR NAMING

T]
Pre -fix Number of atoms

H
IG
R
PY
Mono -

O
[C
1

L
O
O
H
SC
Di- 2

H
IG
'H
TS
Tri -
EN

3
C
O
N

Tetra
IN

4
LY
O
H

Penta -
5
NAMING COMPOUNDS

T]
Pre -fix Formula

H
IG
R
PY
Sulfur dioxide SO2

O
[C
L
O
Sulfur trioxide SO3

O
H
SC
H
IG
Carbon monoxide CO
'H
TS
EN

Carbon dioxide CO2

C
O
N
IN
LY

Nitrogen Dioxide NO2

O
H

Dinitrogen monoxide N2O

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COVALENT
MOLECULES
▪ Simple molecular structure:

T]
H
IG
Each particle exists as small

R
PY
discrete molecule.

O
[C
L
O
O
▪ Weak intermolecular bonds

H
SC
(Van der Waals’ forces of

H
IG
attraction) between molecules
TS
'H
EN
C

▪ Strong covalent bonds between

O
N
IN

atoms in molecules
LY
O
H

▪ Examples: water, methane,

ammonia, carbon dioxide
 SIMPLE MOLECULAR
• Swith
Simple molecules TRUCTURE
weak intermolecular forces

T]
H
have such structures

IG
R
PY
O
[C
• Examples:

L
O
O
H
(i) iodine molecules (ii) methane molecules

SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O

Weak
N

intermolecular
IN

forces
LY
O
H
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
Have low melting and boiling points

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
Reason:

O
H
SC
H
IG
It has a simple molecular structure.
'H
TS

Little amount of energy is required to overcome the

EN
C

weak Van der Waals’ forces of attractions between

O
N
IN

the molecules.
LY
O

Hence, it has a low boiling point.

H

Hence, they are mostly liquids or gases at r.t.p.

THINK…

T]
Since covalent molecules

H
IG
R
PY
have low melting points , can

O
[C
L
O
O
you conclude that covalent

H
SC
H
bonds are weak? IG
'H
TS
EN
C
O
N

NO!
IN
LY
O
H
THINK…

Question:

T]
H
IG
(Comparing between 2 different simple molecular compounds)

R
PY
O
Describe and explain the difference in the boiling point of

[C
L
iodine molecules and fluorine molecules.

O
O
H
SC
H
IG
▪ I2 has a larger molecular size than F2
'H
TS

I2 has stronger Van der Waals’ forces of attraction,

EN

▪
C
O

which requires more energy to overcome

N

▪
IN
LY

Hence, I2 has a higher boiling point than F2

O

▪
H
IMP ORTANT CONCEP TS

T]
1. Covalent bonds within the covalent molecules

H
IG
are strong. The intermolecular forces between

R
PY
the molecules are weak.

O
[C
L
O
Though simple covalent compounds have relatively

O
H
low melting and boiling points, the covalent bonds

SC
within the molecules are not broken down during

H
IG
melting and boiling.
TS
'H
EN
C

It is the weak intermolecular forces of attraction

O
N

(Van der Waals’ forces) holding the molecules that

IN
LY

are overcome during melting and boiling. Covalent

O

bonds are very strong bonds.

H
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
Do not conduct electricity at all states

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
Reason:

H
SC
H
IG
'H
It is a neutral molecule with no free moving
TS
EN

charged particles (ions or electrons) to

C
O
N
IN

conduct electricity.
LY
O
H
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
COVALENT MOLECULES

T]
H
IG
Insoluble in water (except alcohol,

R
PY
O
hydrogen chloride, chlorine)

[C
L
O
O
H
SC
Soluble in organic solvent

H
IG
'H
TS
EN

Mostly liquids or gases at r.t.p.

C
O
N
IN
LY
O
H

Made up of molecules
CHALLENGING QUESTION
Using what you have learnt about structures of solid,
suggest why durians have a smell but not common salt

T]
H
IG
that you add into food for flavouring?

R
PY
O
[C
L
O
O
H
SC
H
IG
'H
TS
EN
C

The compound that gives off Salt is sodium chloride

O
N

the smell has a simple which has a giant ionic

IN
LY

molecular structure, and thus lattice structure. It has

O
H

low boiling point. It vaporises high boiling point. It does

readily giving off the smell not change into vapour
easily.