Factors Affecting Cropping Pattern

Cropping Pattern
• Cropping pattern of any region depends upon many factors e.g.
• Different crops grown in an area at a particular point of time is physical and technical factors, economic factors as well as on the
called cropping pattern. government policies and actions. Some of the important factors
• Cropping pattern depends on climate (temperature, rainfall, wind are:
• Geographical Factors
etc.), soil, support price, value, demand – market, labour
• Economic Factors
availability, historical setting, etc.
• Political Factors/Government Policies
• For example rice is cultivated extensively when the monsoons are
• Historical factors
good. But when monsoons are weak, millets are grown instead of
rice. Cotton in Maharashtra, tea in Assam and jute in West Bengal
remain the dominant crops due to highly favourable conditions for
cultivation.

Geographical Factors
The various Geographical factors affecting the cropping pattern of an area
are:

i. Relief

• Relief plays important role in deciding the cropping pattern of a

region.
• Rice is the main crop on the irrigated hill terraces (terraced
cultivation).
• Crop like tea and coffee can be grown only on well drained slopes
that receive good amount of rainfall.
• Rice (tropical crop) and sugarcane dominates well irrigated regions
with fairly warm climate.
• Wheat (temperate crop) grows well in plain regions with moderate
temperature and rainfall.
ii. Temperature
• Most crops require lower temperature at the time of sowing and
higher temperature at the time of ripening.
• Some crops require higher temperatures and are sown in the
summer season. Most of the growth period falls under the rainy
season. These are known as Kharif crops (rice, cotton, etc.). [They
are sown just before the burst of south-west monsoons]
• There are other crops that require lower temperature and moisture
and are sown in the winter season (wheat). These are known as
rabi crops.
• Sugarcane gives good yield in south India than in northern
plains. They need warm climates.
iii. Rainfall
• Rainfall is one of the major determinants of the cropping pattern of
a region. Variation in rainfall of different regions leads to different
cropping patterns which is discussed below:
• Areas of Heavy Rainfall
• These are the areas with more than 150 cm of
annual rainfall.
• It includes east India and the west coastal plains.
• Animal population is fairly high due to availability of
fodder and grazing area.
• Major crops include rice, tea, coffee, sugarcane, jute
etc.
• Areas of Medium Rainfall
• These are the areas with 75 to 150 cm of annual
rainfall
• 150 cm annual rainfall isohyets are suitable for the
cultivation of rice whereas 75 cm annual rainfall
isohyets are suitable for maize, cotton and
soyabean.
• These areas are rich in natural resources. E.g.
Eastern part of Utter Pradesh, Bihar, Odisha, eastern
parts of Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha region of
Maharashtra.
• Wheat is the principal rabi crop in these areas and
millets are the natural priority due to its less water
requirement.
• Wheat, maize, cotton, soybean, millets, etc. are the
major crops.
• Areas of Low Rainfall
• These are the areas with 25 to 75 cm (Semi-arid
stretches of India) of annual rainfall.
• Major crops in this belt are millets, jowar, and bajra
in the northern, jowar in central and ragi in the
southern part.
• Wheat is the main rabi crop which is grown in
irrigated areas.
• Mixed cropping is very common in which pulses are
mixed with cereals.
• Cropping has been developed in such a way that no
one crop dominates.
• Dry land farming is common practice in this region.
• Millets, oilseeds (Groundnut, sunflower, rapeseed
and mustard etc.), pulses etc. are the major crops
grown in this region.
iv. Soil

• Soil of a region is an important determinant of the cropping

pattern.
• Different crops require different edaphic conditions for their
growth and development.
• Rice is mainly grown in clayey soils while loamy soils are best for
wheat.
• The regur soil of the Deccan Plateau is ideal for the cultivation
of cotton.
• Coarse grains such as jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, barley, etc.
are grown in inferior soils (light sandy soils, light black soils, red
and literate soils, etc.)
• Delta soils of West Bengal are renewed by floods every year and
are very fertile. They are ideal for jute cultivation. The farmers
grow 2-3 crops in a year in this region.
• Soils of the Darjeeling hills contain sufficient quantities of humus,
iron, potash and phosphorus which are necessary for tea bush to
grow.
Economic Factors
Economic motivation is the most important in determining the cropping
pattern of the country. Among the various economic factors affecting
cropping patterns, the irrigation, power, size of land holdings, sale price of
crops, the income of farmers, insurance, and investment are important
ones deciding the cropping pattern of an area. Some of them are discussed
below:

• Irrigation
• Rice is a dominant crop in regions with reliable
irrigation and a warm climate (coastal plains and irrigated
belts of South India).
• North Indian plain regions are well irrigated and support 2-3
crops of rice a year.
• Crop diversification in certain regions has been negligible
due to the presence of irrigation. E.g. Rice dominates in
well-irrigated parts of south India. Wheat dominates the
north-western part of the country. Coarse grains like jowar,
bajra, maize, barley, ragi etc. are given comparatively less
importance in these regions.
• Size of Land Holdings
• In case of smallholdings, the priority of the farmers would
be to grow food grains for his family members (subsistence
farming).
• Farmers with large holdings can opt for cash and help in
crop diversification, leading to changes in the cropping
pattern (commercial farming).
• But in spite of crop diversification potential, large holdings
are used mostly for monoculture of rice, wheat, etc.
• Insurance against Risk
• The need to minimize the risk of crop failures not only
explains diversification but also some specific features of
crop patterns.
 • For e.g. in Southern states plantation crops are grown on a
large scale due to the availability of suitable crop insurance
schemes.
• Availability of Inputs:
• Seeds, fertilizers, water storage, marketing, transport, etc.
also affect the cropping pattern of a region.
• Value
• Millets in the hilly areas of Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand are replaced by high-value horticulture crops
like apple.
• Demand:
• Rice is the preferred crop in the densely populated regions
as there is a ready market and high demand.
Political Factors/Government Policies
• The legislative and administrative policies of the government may
also affect the cropping pattern. Food Crops Acts, Land Use Acts,
intensive schemes for paddy, for cotton and oilseeds, subsidies
affect the cropping pattern.
• Government can encourage or discourage certain crops due to
various reasons like drought, flood, inflation etc.
• Minimum Support Price (MSP): Rice and wheat which are offered
high MSP are preferred by farmers over other food crops.
Historical Factors
• Cropping pattern of a region is also defined by the historical factors
which includes the cultivation of various crops done in the area
from long time due to the various historical reasons. E.g. tea
plantation by British Kangra valley in Uttarakhand.
• Sugarcane is grown more extensively in North India even though
the conditions are most favourable in South India. This is because
the sugarcane cultivation was encouraged by British as an
alternative to indigo which lost its significance and market in states
like Uttar Pradesh due to introduction of artificial dyes.
• Diversification of crops due to surplus food grain production post
Green Revolution has led to significant changes in cropping pattern.
Other than rice and wheat, oilseeds and pulses also became more
prominent.
Major Food Crops of India
• A variety of food and non food crops are grown in different parts of
the country depending upon the variations in soil, climate and
cultivation practices.
• Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea,
coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and jute, etc.
• In this section we will discuss rice as a major food crop of India.
Rice
• Rice is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India.
Our country is the second largest producer of rice in the world
after China.
• It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C)
and high humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
• In the areas of less rainfall, it grows with the help of irrigation. It is
preferred staple food in Southern and North-Eastern India.
• Rice is making quick inroads into North-Western Plain.
 • Rice growing areas are well suited for Mixed farming (Crops +
Livestock).
• Unpolished rice has high nutritional value. It is rich in Vitamin A, B
and calcium. Polished rice lacks these vitamins.
Crop Season of Rice
• Rice is a Kharif crop (Wet and Warm climate is ideal for rice
cultivation). It is grown only in well irrigated areas in rabi season.
• Most of the rice growing regions lie barren during summer (April-
May).
• It can be grown as summer crop in deltaic regions where water and
irrigation is available through the year. E.g. Deltaic regions of West
Bengal, Krishna-Godavari delta etc.
• Rice has three cropping seasons – rice is grown as Kharif, rabi and
summer crop. E.g. Deltaic regions of West Bengal, Krishna-Godavari
delta etc.
Climatic Conditions for Growth
• Rice crop needs plenty of heat, rain and labour.
• It can be grown between 0 to 2,500 meters above the sea level.
• Rice cannot tolerate the cold climate that exists above 2,500
meters.
• Rice is Tropical and Kharif crop. It requires warm climate. Rice is
grown almost throughout the year (2-3 crops) in hot and humid
regions of eastern and southern parts of India.
• In the northern and hilly parts of the country, the winters are too
cold for rice cultivation and only one crop is grown (in summer) in
those areas.
• Rice requires semi-aquatic conditions (rainfall or irrigation
throughout the season), the soil should never be dry during the
growing season.
• The fields during the rice cultivation must be flooded under 10-12
cm deep water at the time of sowing. The requirement of rice
makes it primarily a crop of plain areas.
• Rice grown in well watered lowland plain areas is called wet or
lowland rice.
• Rice can be grown in areas just below sea level like in Kuttanad
region of Kerala.
• Terraced cultivation of rice in followed in sloped regions. E.g. Hills
of NE states (shifting cultivation or jhumming).
• The supply of water in hill terraces is low and the rice grown in
hilly areas is called dry or upland rice.
• Average annual rainfall of rice growing areas is above 150 cm is
good for the crop.
• The 100 cm isohyets (imaginary line joining the points of equal
rainfall) form the limit of rice growing areas in rainfed regions.
• Rice is grown in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P (rainfall less than
100 cm) with the help of intensive irrigation.

Soil Condition for Growth
• Rice is a dominant crop of river valleys, flood plains, deltas and
coastal plains (plains can be easily flooded with the help of
irrigation).
• Loamy soils require frequent irrigation and more water as the
water holding capacity is low. E.g. Delta regions, Punjab, Haryana
and North Indian plains.
• Clayey soils on the other hand have good water holding capacity.
E.g. Coastal plains of south India, irrigated regions of Karnataka,
Telangana etc.
• Rice can tolerate acidic as well as alkaline soils.
Labor Requirement
• Rice cultivation is traditionally a labour intensive crop.
• Rice is primarily grown in areas of high population density (here
labour and ready market is available).
• In Punjab and Haryana, rice cultivation mainly depends upon the
migrant labourers from Bihar and eastern U.P.
Methods of Rice Cultivation
• Broadcasting Method
• In this method the seeds are sown (broadcast) by hand.
• This method is practiced in:
• Areas of dry and/or less fertile soils, and
• Areas with labour shortages.
• This is the easiest method requiring minimum input.
• The yields in this method are minimum.
• Drilling Method
• In this method one person ploughs the land and the other
person sows the seeds.
• This method is confined to dry regions of peninsular India.
• The yields in this method are low.
• Transplantation Method
• It is the advanced method of rice cultivation in India.
• It has less scope for mechanization and is labour intensive.
• It is practiced in areas of fertile soil with abundant rainfall
or irrigation.
• In this method seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are
prepared. After a month the seedlings are uprooted and
transplanted to a different field.
• This is a difficult method that requires heavy inputs. But, it
gives some of the highest yields.
• Japanese Method
• This is the highly mechanized and most advanced rice
cultivation.
• It is mostly followed in developed countries like Japan,
South Korea etc.
• In this method seedlings are transplanted in rows with the
help of machines. Weeding and fertilizing are fully
mechanized.
• Heavy dose of fertilizers are required in this method.
• Very high yields are obtained by this method of cultivation
of rice.
Production and Productivity
• India is the 2nd largest producer and consumer of rice in the world
after China.
• Low productivity: The average yield of rice in India is 2.3
tonne/ha against the global average of 4.374 tonne/ha. China (6.5),
Australia (10), US (7.5) leads in productivity figures of rice
• The state wise information about the rice production is summed in
the table below.
• The other major producers are Bihar (2,258 kg/hectare),
Chhattisgarh (low yield 1,749 kg/hectare), Assam (Brahmaputra
valley), Tamil Nadu (Cauvery delta) (2,785 kg/hectare), Telangana,
Haryana, Karnataka, Jharkhand, etc.
Trade
• Domestic rice production meets the domestic demand. There is
very little surplus for external trade.
• But now India occupies second position in rice exports, next only to
Thailand.
• India is the biggest exporter of basmati rice.
• Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh produce best
qualities of Basmati rice.
• Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh
are surplus states. They supply to deficit states – West Bengal,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala and Delhi.
Wheat
• Wheat is being cultivated in India for more than 5000 years and the
original species Triticum sphaerococcum was grown in Indus Valley
Civilization. This species is now disappeared and has been replaced
by present day species-Triticum aestivum or the common Bread
Wheat, Triticum durum or the Macaroni wheat and the Triticum
dicoccum or the Emmer Wheat
• Wheat is the second most important staple food for Indian
population.
• It is a rich source of calcium, thiamine, riboflavin and iron.
• Preferred staple food in northern and north-western parts of the
country.
Climatic Conditions For Cultivation of Wheat
• Wheat is a temperate crop which requires a cool climate with
moderate rainfall.
• It shows great adaptability & can be grown in tropics as well (yields
are low in tropics).
• It is a rabi crop (winter crop – requires cool and less moist climate).
• Wheat requires 75 cm of temporally (time) well distributed
rainfall for its cultivation. 100 cm rainfall is the highest limit.
• The isohyets of 100 cm separate wheat growing areas from rice
growing areas.
• In the Kharif season, rice replaces wheat in the ‘winter wheat belt’
region – Punjab, Haryana etc.
• Light drizzles and cloudiness (E.g. Weather brought by Western
Disturbances) at the time of ripening help in increasing the yield.
• During flowering period a frost or hail storm is very harmful for the
wheat.
Soil Requirement For Wheat
• Well drained fertile, friable barns (mostly alluvial) and clay loams
(good proportion of sand) are the best for wheat cultivation.
• It also grows well in the black soil of the Deccan plateau.
• Thus, wheat cultivation is more flexible than rice cultivation as the
limiting factors are low.
 • Cultivation of wheat depends on mechanization as compare to
rice, however, wheat requires less labour work.

Production Of Wheat
• India is the second largest producer of wheat in the world next
only to China.
• Wheat is grown on 13 per cent of the cropped area of India.
• India has done better in wheat by achieving the yield closer to the
global average. It has recorded an average yield of 2.9 tonne per
hectare as against the global benchmark of 3.0 tonne/ha.
• However, it’s still far from countries like France (7.0 tonne), US
(3.11 tonne) and China (4.8 tonne).
• Production of wheat can be increased by the following measures:
• Area specific Technology has to be used. Example – Micro
irrigation in Dry Areas of Deccan Region.
• Improved Supply of Better Seeds.
• Better supply of fertilizers.
• Control of weeds, pest and diseases.
• Extending wheat cultivation to non -traditional areas like
Assam valley and in Orissa. West-Bengal has already started
growing wheat in sufficient quantity.

Distribution of Wheat In India

• Wheat production is mainly confined to North-Western parts of
the country.
• Punjab, Haryana and the western parts of U.P have earned the
distinction of being called the ‘Granary of India’.
• Other important wheat producing states are Bihar (2423
kg/hectare), Gujarat, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Uttarakhand and
Himachal Pradesh.
Maize
• Maize is often known as Indian corn. Maize (‘Zea mays L’) is one of
the most versatile emerging crops having wider adaptability under
varied agro-climatic conditions. Globally, maize is known as queen
of cereals because it has the highest genetic yield potential among
the cereals.
• In India, maize is the third most important food crops after rice
and wheat. It is used as both food and fodder.
• In addition to staple food for human being and quality feed for
animals, maize serves as a basic raw material as an ingredient to
thousands of industrial products that includes starch, oil, protein,
alcoholic beverages, food sweeteners, pharmaceutical, cosmetic,
film, textile, gum, package and paper industries etc.
• USA produces maize mainly to beef up the cattle. Very little is used
as food (Climatic regions: Gulf type).

Conditions for Growth For Maize

• Maize is a rainfed Kharif crop.
• Mostly grown in regions with semi-arid conditions (25 – 75 cm
rainfall) where rice and wheat production is not possible.
• It cannot be grown in areas of more than 100 cm rainfall.
• In Tamil Nadu it is a rabi crop and is sown a few weeks before the
onset of winter rainy season in Sept and Oct [because the rains
occur mostly in November and December in eastern TN] [Prelims
point].
• Maize can be grown successfully in variety of soils ranging from
loamy sand to clay loam. However, soils with good organic matter
content having high water holding capacity with neutral pH are
considered good for higher productivity. Soil with welldrained and
fertile loams, free from coarse materials and rich in nitrogen are
ideal for the cultivation of maize.
 • Being a sensitive crop to moisture stress particularly excess soil
moisture and salinity stresses, it is desirable to avoid low lying
fields having poor drainage and also the field having higher
salinity. Therefore, the fields having provision of proper drainage
should be selected for cultivation of maize.
• The cultivation of maize in India is characterized by inter-culture i.e.
along with pulses, vegetables and oil seeds.

Distribution of Maize In India

• The maize is cultivated throughout the year in all states of the
country for various purposes including grain, fodder, green cobs,
sweet corn, baby corn, pop corn in peri-urban areas.
• The predominant maize growing states that contributes more than
80 % of the total maize production are Andhra Pradesh (20.9 %),
Karnataka (16.5 %), Rajasthan (9.9 %), Maharashtra (9.1 %), Bihar
(8.9 %), Uttar Pradesh (6.1 %), Madhya Pradesh (5.7 %), Himachal
Pradesh (4.4 %). Apart from these states maize is also grown in
Jammu and Kashmir and North-Eastern states.
• Hence, the maize has emerged as important crop in the non-
traditional regions i.e. peninsular India as the state like Andhra
Pradesh which ranks 5th in area (0.79 m ha) has recorded the
highest production (4.14 m t) and productivity (5.26 t/ha) in the
country although the productivity in some of the districts of Andhra
Pradesh is more or equal to the USA.
Major Cash Crops Of India Unfavourable Factors

• Cash crops are the crops that are grown for sale in the market. E.g.
cotton, jute, sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds etc.
• Cash crops are the major contributors to agricultural GDP of India.
• They occupy only 15 per cent of the cropped area but account for
over 40 per cent of the agricultural production by value.
Cotton
• Out of about 50 species of cotton plants in the world, only above
four have been domestically cultivated for cotton fibers. India is
the only country in the world which grows all the 4 species of the
cotton cultivated. These species are:
• Gossypium arboreum (Asian Cotton)
• Gossypium herbaceum (Asian cotton)
• Gossypium barbadense (Egyptian cotton)
• Gossypium hirsutum (American Upland cotton)
• Cotton is most important fiber crop. Its seed is used for vanaspati
industry and fodder for milch cattle.
• The growth is retarded below 20 °C.
• Frost is enemy number one of the cotton plant.
• It is grown in areas having at least 210 frost free days in a year.
• Moist weather and heavy rainfall at the time of boll-opening and
picking (rains lead to fiber damage) are detrimental to cotton as
the plant becomes vulnerable to pests and diseases.
• Almost 65 per cent of the area under cotton is rainfed with erratic
and poorly distributed rains. It is also subjected to severe attack of
pests and diseases.
Crop Season
• Cotton is a kharif crop which requires 6 to 8 months to mature.
• Its time of sowing and harvesting differs in different parts of the
country.
• Most of the crop is grown mixed with other kharif crops (maize,
jowar, ragi, sesamum, castor, groundnut etc.).

Conditions for Growth

• Cotton is chiefly a tropical and sub-tropical crop. Requires
uniformly high temperature (21°C to 30°C). It grows well within the
average annual rainfall range of 50-100 cm.
• Most of the irrigated area under cotton is in Punjab, Haryana,
Gujarat and Rajasthan.
• High amount of rainfall in beginning (helps in sprouting of seeds)
and sunny and dry weather at ripening time (moist weather during
ripening leads to pest attacks) are very useful for a good crop.
Soil
• Deep black soils (regur-lava soil) of the Deccan Plateau, Malwa
Plateau and those of Gujarat are best suited for cotton cultivation.
• It also grows well in alluvial soils of the Sutlej-Ganga Plain and red
and laterite soils of the peninsular region.
• Cotton quickly exhausts the fertility of soil.
Labours
• Since picking of cotton is not yet mechanized, a lot of cheap and
efficient labor is required.
• Normally the picking season is spread over a period of about three
months.
Types of Cotton
• Three broad types of cotton are generally recognized on the basis
of the length, strength and structure of its fiber.
• Long-staple cotton
• It has the longest fiber whose length varies from 24
to 27 mm.
• The fiber is fine and lustrous and is used for making
superior quality cloth. It fetches the best price.
• About half of the total cotton produced in India is
long stapled.
• It is largely grown in Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra,
Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Andhra
Pradesh.
• Medium staple cotton
• The length of its fiber is between 20 mm and 24 mm.
• About 44 per cent of the total cotton production in
India is of medium staple.
• Rajasthan, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra are its
main producers.
• Short staple cotton
• This is inferior cotton with fiber less than 20 mm
long.
• It is used for manufacturing inferior
cloth and fetches less price.
• About 6 per cent of the total production is of short
staple cotton.
• U.P, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab
are its main producers.
Distribution
• India has the sole distinction of growing all the four cultivated
species of cotton.
• In India, cotton is grown in three distinct agro-ecological zones, viz.,
0. Northern (Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan),
1. Central (Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh) and
2. Southern zone (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka).
• Gujarat is the largest producer of Cotton in India followed by
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Haryana is the fourth largest
producer of cotton in India.
• India exports inferior quality cotton mainly to U.K., where it is
mixed with superior quality cotton there.
• India has been a big importer of superior quality long staple
cotton mainly from the USA, Russia, Sudan and Kenya.
Production
• India’s cotton production in 2019 is projected as the highest ever:
354 lakh bales. This threefold increase in cotton production during
past two decades is used by proponent of GM crops to extend the
technology to other crops as well.
• India has the largest area under cotton cultivation in the world.
However, India’s productivity (yield per unit area), is much
lower than other major cotton-producing countries, meaning a
much larger area is used for cotton production.
• Indeed, India’s productivity has been only a third of these countries
for over four decades.
• The largest producers of cotton, currently are India and China,
with annual production of about 18.53 million tonnes and 17.14
million tonnes, respectively; most of this production is consumed
by their respective textile industries.

Bt Cotton
• Genetically Modified (GM) pest resistant Bt cotton hybrids have
captured the Indian market since their introduction in 2002. These
now cover over 95% of the area under cotton, with the seeds
produced entirely by the private sector.
• Maharashtra has the largest area under Bt cotton, followed by
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
• In North, Punjab and Haryana are known for Bt cotton cultivation.
• Bt stands for the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (not
biotechnology).
• Bacillus thuringiensis produces a toxin called bt toxin which is
detrimental for certain kind of pest (bollworms) that infects
cotton crop.
• This trait of Bacillus thuringiensis is induced into cotton by genetic
modification.
• But with time yields decreased sharply due to other pest
population which could not be controlled by Bt cotton. [Bt toxin
controls only bollworm. Cotton attracts more than 100 different
species of pests].
• Other concern with Bt cotton is that the bollworm may develop
Cotton Corporation Of India
resistance like it happened in China.
• Cotton Corporation of India was established in 1970 under
Companies Act 1956.
• It’s a Government of India’s corporate agency, engaged in
diverse activities related to trade, procurement, and export of
cotton.
• CCI is governed by Textile Policy 1985 issued by Ministry of Textiles,
Government of India.
• CCI operates in the following states as of now – Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and Orissa.
Jute
• Jute is the second most important fiber crop of India after cotton.
It is used for manufacturing gunny bags, ropes, carpets, rugs,
tarpaulins, etc.
• There was great demand for jute because of its low price, softness
and strength. The introduction of synthetic alternatives has
resulted in decline of demand for jute.
• Conditions for Growth
• Jute is the crop of hot (24°C to 35°C) and humid climate
(120 to 150 cm) with 80 to 90 per cent relative humidity
during the period of its growth. Lot of water is required for
growing the crop.
• Sowing and raising of saplings are carried out in the pre-
monsoon season with 25 cm to 55 cm of rainfall. This is
done to take full advantage of the monsoon season.
• Jute is generally sown in February and harvested in
October (crop takes 8-10 months to mature).
• Alluvial (light sandy or clayey barns) are considered to be
best suited soils for jute.
• Just like cotton, jute also exhausts the fertility of soil
rapidly. It is necessary that the soil is replenished annually
by the silt-laden flood water of the rivers.
• Processing of Jute
• Large supply of cheap labor and lot of water are
necessary for processing the jute fiber post-harvest.
• The plants bundles (Sheaf) are immersed in stagnant water
for about 3 weeks for retting (soak in water to soften it).
High temperature of water quickens the process of retting.
• After retting is complete, the bark is peeled from the plant
and fiber is removed. Stripping, rinsing and cleaning of the
fiber are done after that.
• Fiber is dried in the sun and pressed into bales (a large
wrapped or bound bundle).
• All the processes mentioned about are done by human
hand. Therefore jute is cultivated only in areas of high
population density.
• Production
• After partition, 75 per cent of the jute producing areas went
to Bangladesh. But, most of the jute mills remained in India.
• There had been rapid increase in area, production and yield
between 1950 to 1980.
• Negative trends have been observed in area, production
and yield from 1981 till present. This is due to changes in
weather conditions, increase in rice cropped area,
introduction of synthetic alternatives to jute etc.
• Currently India accounts for about 56 per cent of world
jute production.
• Bangladesh is second with 25 per cent.
• Distribution
• Over 99 per cent of the total jute of India is produced in
just five states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra
Pradesh and Odisha.
• Andhra Pradesh (delta area) and Odisha are other important
producers.
•
 • Trade
• India imports raw jute from Bangladesh as the local
produce is not sufficient to feed the jute mills.
• It exports jute hessian to Bangladesh.
Sugarcane
• Sugarcane has the largest value of production among all the
commercial crops in India. It is the first choice of the farmers
wherever geographical conditions favor its growth.
• Sugarcane is indigenous to India. It belongs to bamboo family.
• Thickened sugarcane juice is used to make sugar, gur (jaggery) and
khandsari. Twothirds of the total sugarcane produced in India is
used for making jaggery and khandsari and the rest goes to sugar
factories.
• Molasses, bagasse and pressmud are the byproducts of sugar
industry. Molasses provides raw material for manufacturing
alcohol (ethanol). It is also an efficient substitute for certain
petroleum products.
• Bagasse (cane residue) is used for manufacturing paper and also
as fuel in the mills. Bagasse is more useful if it is used in paper
manufacturing rather than as fuel. [It can help to save trees; as fuel,
it is very inefficient]
• Pressmud is used as soil amendment (compost) to increase
fertility of the soil.
• Conditions for Growth: Climate
• Sugarcane is predominantly a tropical crop. It requires hot
(21°-27°C) and humid (75- 150 cm) climate.
• Sugar beet (tuber crop) is the temperate alternative for
sugarcane. It requires 10 to 18 months to mature depending
upon the geographical conditions.
• Too heavy rainfall results in low sugar content & deficiency
in rainfall produces fibrous crop.
• Temperature above 20°C combined with open sky in the
second half of the crop season helps in acquiring juice and
its thickening.
• Short cool dry winter season during ripening and harvesting
is ideal.
 • Frost is detrimental to sugarcane. It must be harvested • Ratoon crop is the second or any other successive crop
before frost season in northern parts where frost is a obtained from the roots left over in the field from the first
common phenomenon. crop. In this system the sugarcane is cut leaving the root
• On the other hand, hot dry winds like “Loo” are hostile to intact in the soil. This is widely practiced in different parts of
sugarcane. Both frost and loo are absent in South India. So the country.
south is ideal • Advantage of ratooning: Low cost of production, relatively
• Coastal plains and western side of Western Ghats are shorter maturation period, and low cost inputs and time is
generally avoided as the gusty winds (monsoon winds) saved as there is no need for fresh sowing and growing of
damage the crop. roots.
• Conditions for Growth: Soil • However, productivity decreases with each passing
• Sugarcane can tolerate any kind of soil that can retain year and ratooning becomes uncommercial after one or two
moisture. years.
• Sugarcane exhausts the fertility of the soil.
• Flat plain or level plateau is an advantage for sugarcane Distribution
cultivation (facilitates irrigation and transportation of cane
to the sugar mills). • Three distinct belts of sugarcane cultivation can be identified in
• Conditions for Growth: Labour India.
• Cheap abundant labor is a prerequisite for successful
cultivation of sugarcane.
• Production
• India has the largest area under sugarcane cultivation in
the world. But in production India lags behind Brazil –
world’s largest producer of sugarcane.
• Productivity is quite low compared to Columbia, Peru,
Indonesia, Egypt, etc.
• Shortages of fertilizers, improper and untimely use of
fertilizers, uncertain weather conditions, inadequate
irrigation, poor varieties of cane, small and fragmented
holdings and backward methods of cultivation are some of
the major causes of low yields in India (This is common for
rice and sugarcane).
• Sugarcane Research Institute, Coimbatore introduced the
system of ratooning to reduce the costs of sugarcane
cultivation.
 • More sugarcane cultivation has led to the setting up of more sugar
mills in the south. Apart from that most favorable weather
conditions are present (loo and frost absent).
• There has been the development of extensive irrigational facilities
in the past few decades.
• Year-long crushing season. (In the north, winter = very cold = There
is no Crushing period in winter)
• High maritime influence = moderate climate = doesn’t reduce sugar
content (very high temperature and low rainfall lead to fibrous
crop).

• Before the World War I, the northern plain area was mainly used
for growing indigo. With the introduction of cheap aniline dyes,
indigo lost its market by the time of WW I. Consequently, indigo’s
place was taken by sugarcane cultivation in the north.
• Other factors:
• Sugarcane needs good irrigational facilities throughout the
year. Such facilities were available in the north due to
perennial river systems.
• On the other hand, the south has only non-perennial rivers.
• Bihar, Gujarat (its recovery of 10.31 percent of sugar is one of the
Also, irrigational facilities were previously nonexistent in highest among the major sugar cane producing states of India),
most parts of the south. Uttarakhand (mostly hilly and mountainous – not much suitable.
• In the southern states, sugarcane had to face tough
However, parts of Haridwar, Nainital, and Dehra Dun districts are
competition for land from a number of other cash
crops such as cotton, tobacco, groundnut, coconut, etc.
plain areas or areas located at the foothills), Punjab (wheat took
over the sugarcane regions) are other important producers.

Tobacco
• Tobacco was brought to India by the Portuguese in 1508.
• Tobacco is mainly used for smoking and also for manufacturing
insecticides. Returns from this crop are high.
• Conditions for Growth: Climate
• Tobacco is a plant of tropical and sub-tropical climates.
• It can withstand a wide range of temperature varying from
16° to 35°C. As a result it can be grown in many agro
climatic regions of India.
• Tobacco needs fairly well distributed rainfall with an
annual average of about 100 cm.
• It can be grown from low lying plains up to a height of 1,800
meters.
• Frost is injurious to its growth.
• Bright rainless weather is helpful at the curing stage.
• Conditions for Growth: Soil
• For tobacco, soil is the most important geographical
distribution factor rather than the climate. Well drained
friable sandy loams are ideal for cultivation.
• Soils should be rich in mineral salts (facilitate full
development of roots) but not in organic matter.
 • Production
• India is the third largest tobacco producing country after
China and Brazil.
• India is followed by USA, Malawi, Indonesia and Argentina.
• Distribution
• Gujarat – 65% of the production
• Andhra Pradesh – 31% of the production
• The other tobacco producing states in India are Uttar
• Conditions for Growth: Labour Pradesh (15%), Karnataka (13%) Bihar (2%), Tamil Nadu,
• Cheap and abundant labor is required at all stages of its and Maharashtra.
cultivation. • Uttar Pradesh gives the highest yield – more than two
• Types of Tobacco times the national average.
• Mainly two types of tobacco are grown in India.
• Nicotiana Tobacum
• Nicotiana Rustica

•
• Trade
• India is world’s fourth largest exporter of tobacco.
 • Only 20 per cent of the total production of India is traded
externally. Bulk of India’s tobacco export consists of
unmanufactured tobacco.
• Russia and U.K. purchase about two-third of our total
tobacco exports. About 90 per cent of the tobacco export
trade is handled by Chennai alone.
Millets
II. Bajra (Bull Rush Millet)
• Millets are traditional grains, grown and consumed in the Indian
subcontinent from the past more than 5000 years. Millets are short
duration (3-4 months), small – grained, annual, warm – weather
cereals belonging to grass family.
• They are grown in less fertile areas. They are highly tolerant to
drought and other extreme weather conditions. They require low
or no purchased inputs, thus they are backbone for dry land
agriculture.
• Millets are highly nutritious, non-glutinous and non acid forming
foods. Millets have many nutraceutical and health promoting
properties especially the high fibre content. They provide food for
the poor people.
• Some of the important Millets are discussed below:
I. Jowar (Sorghum)
• Jowar has a high nutritional value. It is rich in protein, fibre,
thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid, and carotene.
• Sorghum proteins upon cooking are significantly less digestible than
other cereal proteins, which might be a health benefit for certain
dietary groups.
• Conditions for Growth for jowar:
• Jowar is a rainfed crop of dry farming areas.
• Jowar is grown both as Kharif as well as a rabi crop.
• It does not grow where the rainfall exceeds 100 cm.
• Clayey deep regur and alluvium are the best suited soils for
jowar.
• It can also be raised on gentle slopes up to 1,200 meters
height.
• Production and Distribution
• Maharashtra (37%) and Karnataka (26%) are the largest
producers.
• MP, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, are other
important producers of Jowar.
• Bajra is the second most important millet. It has been grown in
Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. It is well
adapted to growing areas characterized by drought, low soil
fertility, and high temperature. It performs well in soils with high
salinity or low pH.
• Just like jowar, it is also used as food and fodder in drier parts of
the country.
• Conditions for Growth:
• Bajra is a rainfed kharif crop of dry and warm climate.
• It is grown in areas of 40-50 cm of annual rainfall. Upper
limit is 100 cm.
 •Bajra can be grown on poor light sandy soils, black and red
soils.
• It is sown either as a pure or mixed crop with cotton, jowar
and ragi.
• Production and Distribution
• Rajasthan (1st), Uttar Pradesh (2nd), Gujarat and Haryana
are the important producers.
• Rajasthan accounts for 44.39 per cent of the total
production.
III. Ragi (Finger Millet)
• Ragi is mainly grown in drier parts of south India (Mostly drier
parts of Karnataka).
• Finger millet is the richest source of calcium (300-350 mg/100g)
• It requires warm climate and 50-100 cm rainfall.
• It is raised on a variety of soils. [Red, light black, sandy, well drained
alluvial loams].
• It is a rainfed kharif crop which is sown between May and August
and harvested between September and January.
• Production and Distribution
• Karnataka is the largest producer (73.23 per cent).
Uttarakhand is the second largest producer (tricky point for
prelims) and Tamil Nadu is the third largest producer.
• Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh are some other important
producers of Ragi.
IV. Barley
• Barley is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates
globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in
Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago.
• Barley has been used as animal fodder, as a source of fermentable
material for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a
component of various health foods.
• Besides food, it is used for manufacturing beer and whisky.
• Conditions for Growth
• It does not tolerate high heat and high humidity.
• It grows in areas with rainfall range of 75 cm to 100 cm.
• It is grown as a rabi crop in the Great Plains and valleys of
the western Himalayas.
• It can be grown up to an altitude of 1,300 meters as in
Uttarakhand.
• Production and Distribution
• Production has declined over time (just like most of the
millets).
• Rajasthan is the largest producer (40 per cent). Uttar
Pradesh is the second largest producer.
Some more facts related to Millets:
• Millet Village scheme: It is a special scheme to promote the
cultivation of cereals such as millet, ragi, bajra, and maize by setting
up a millet village at Attappady. The project aimed at protecting
seeds of traditional varieties of millets and ensures food security
and livelihood for tribals.
• International Year of Millets in 2023: 160th session of the Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Council, held in Rome in
December 2018, approved India’s proposal to observe an
International Year of Millets in 2023.
Pulses
• Pulses are the edible seeds of plants in the legume family. Pulses
grow in pods and come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colours.
• The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
recognizes 11 types of pulses: dry beans, dry broad beans, dry peas,
chickpeas, cow peas, pigeon peas, lentils, Bambara beans, vetches,
lupins and pulses nes.
• Besides serving as an important source of protein for a large
portion of the global population, pulses contribute to healthy soils
and climate change mitigation through their nitrogen-fixing
properties.
• India is the largest producer (25% of global production), consumer
(27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the
world.
• The important pulses are discussed below:

I. Gram

• Gram is the most important of all the pulses.

• It prefers mild cool (20 – 25 C) and comparatively dry climate (40-
50 cm).
• It is a rabi crop. It is cultivated as pure or mixed with wheat, barley,
linseed or mustard.
• Mixed cropping helps to check the gram blight disease to some
extent.
• Production and Distribution
• Gram like millets has suffered a lot at the hands of wheat.
• Most of the gram comes from Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Maharashtra.
• Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer (40%).
• Andhra Pradesh (Rayalseema region), UP, Karnataka, are
other major producers.
II. Tur or Arhar (Pigeon Pea or Recri Gram)

• Tur is the second most important pulse. It is consumed on a very

large scale in South Asia and is a major source of protein for the
population of the Indian subcontinent.
• It is the primary accompaniment to rice or roti (flat bread) and has
the status of staple diet throughout the length and breadth of
India.
• It is chiefly grown as a kharif crop.
• In areas of mild winters it is grown as a rabi crop.
• It is grown as a dry crop mixed with other kharif crops like jowar,
bajra, ragi, maize, cotton, groundnut, etc. and is seldom grown as a
single crop.
• Its conditions of growth are more or less similar to those of other
pulses and millets.
• Distribution
• Maharashtra is the largest producer of tur in India (29%).
• Madhya Pradesh is the second largest producer.
• Bihar has the distinction of giving highest yield per hectare.