Fluid Properties Jean Piaget 15a

Outline
Course Objectives
Reservoir fluids
Phase behaviour
Reservoir fluid properties and phase behaviour
Dr. Lateef Akanji
Jean Piaget University Angola Training
June 5, 2015
Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk)

Outline
Course Objectives
Reservoir fluids
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Reservoir fluids
Reservoir fluids
Gas properties
Oil properties
Properties of formation water
Phase behaviour
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope
Flash calculations
Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 1/66

Outline
Course Objectives
Reservoir fluids
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
I Learn about the composition of hydrocarbon fluids

I Learn the basic fluid properties of hydrocarbon reservoirs
I Classify hydrocarbon reservoir fluids based on in-situ conditions
I Understand the properties of ideal and real gases: compressibility,
gas formation volume factor, viscosity, density etc
I Understand the properties of liquids (oil and water)

Outline Reservoir fluids
Course Objectives Gas properties
Reservoir fluids Oil properties
Phase behaviour Properties of formation water
Reservoir fluids
I Reservoir fluids are petroleum

fluids found in underground
deposits
I The underground deposits is
referred to as petroleum reservoirs
I The fluids found in petroleum
reservoirs are crude oil plus the
gas dissolved in it and the
reservoir water

Reservoir fluids
I Although the state of the

hydrocarbon mixture at the
surface depends on the
composition of the fluid as
produced from the well, it also
depends upon the P and T at
which it is captured
I The fluid remaining in the
reservoir will continually undergo
physical changes as the pressure
reduces during depletion

Why fluid composition and PVT analysis?
Fluid composition and PVT are

important for:
I Value and market
I Field development planning
I Reservoir - gas, oil, heavy oil
I Wells and flowlines
I Processing - subsea, platform,
onshore plant
I Pipeline transport to shore - gas,
condensate, oil
I Offloading to ship - condensate
and oil

Why carry out fluid composition and PVT analysis?
I Wells and flowlines

I Pressure and temperature drop
I Phase transfer (gas/oil split)
I Densities
I Viscosities
I Surface tension
I Conductivities
I Heat capacity
I Wax, hydrates, asphaltenes

Compositions of gas and oil
I Saturated hydrocarbon (or I Unsaturated HCs have one or

alkanes) only contain single more double (ie alkenes) or one
bonds between all carbon atoms or more triple (ie alkynes)
bonds between carbon atoms
I Alkanes are the basis of
petroleum fuels and are found in I They contribute more CO2 per
linear and branched forms pound than do saturated HCs
H H
I H C H I H C C H
H H
Methane Ethene

Compositions of gas and oil

I Cycloalkanes contain one or I Aromatic hydrocarbons have
more ring structures
specialised ring structures
I In addition to functions of the where bonds between carbon
non-cyclic alkanes, they can be atoms are an intermediate
used in creating certain plastics between single and double
and pharmaceutical bases bonds
H H H I Molecules in this class include
H C C H the industrial solvent benzene
I H C C
H C C H I
H H
H H
Benzene
Cyclo-hexane
Fluid samples
Figure 1 : PVT fluid samples
Component Black Volatile Gas Wet Dry

oil oil condensate gas gas
N2 0.007 0.0161 0.005 0.015 0.0292
CO2 0.02 0.0217 0.0393 0.01 0.0107
C1 0.33 0.6065 0.7257 0.901 0.8763
C2 0.066 0.0796 0.085 0.042 0.0477
C3 0.07 0.0471 0.0493 0.021 0.0185
i − C4 0.024 0.021 0.0102 0.002 0.0049
n − C4 0.028 0.022 0.0105 0.0015 0.0058
i − C5 0.018 0.021 0.0035 0.0021 0.002
n − C5 0.017 0.011 0.0045 0.0024 0.002
C6 0.029 0.019 0.005 0.002 0.0029
C7+ 0.391 0.135 0.062 0.001
C7+ molecular weight 249 199 182 128
C7+ specific gravity 0.853 0.802 0.807 0.75

Physical properties of liquids & gases
Since facilities are designed to transport or store liquids or gases

(collectively referred to as fluids), we discuss some important physical
properties of fluids
I In liquid systems
I specific gravity
I viscosity
I specific heat
I bulk modulus
I vapour pressure

Physical properties of liquids & gases
I In compressible fluids, such as natural gas systems

I specific gravity
I viscosity
I molecular composition
I heating value
I specific heat
I compressibility factor

Gas properties
In classifying gases, a number of its physical properties are of great
importance to the petroleum engineer and the petroleum industry.
Some of these are:
I Specific gravity (γg )
I Viscosity (µg )
I Formation Volume Factor (Bg )
I Solubility (R)
I Other thermo-chemical and thermo-physical properties:
I heating value
I heat capacity
I latent heat
I thermal conductivity
I enthalpy
I entropy etc.
Behaviour of ideal gases
I Boyle’s law (at constant T)

1
I P ∝ V
I Charles’ law (P constant)
I V ∝T
I Gay-Lussac’s law (V constant)
I P ∝T

Behaviour of ideal gases
I Avogadro’s law (for ideal gases A and B at same T and P and

given volume)
I NA = NB
I Amagat’s law (P and T constant)
n
X
I V = Vi
i=0
I Dalton’s law (V and T constant)
n
X
I P = Pi
i=0

Ideal gas equation of states

An ideal gas is a theoretical gas composed of a set of randomly-moving,
non-interacting point particles. The general equation of state for an
ideal gas can be written as
m
PV = RT = nRT (1)
M
Apparent Molecular Weight (AMW) is an average molecular
weight assigned to a gas mixture; since it behaves like a single gas.
From the combination rule, it follows that:
n
X
M Wapp , (Ma ) = (yi Mi ) (2)
i=0

Graph of pseudo-reduced compressibility

I The deviation from ideal
behaviour is known as
super compressibility,
deviation or z-factor at
that temperature
I The z-factor can be
written as:
Vactual
Z= (3)
Videal
Figure 2 : Compressibility
factor chart for natural
gases. Courtesy of the
GPSA.
Natural gas mixtures

When a gas consists of mixtures of different components, the critical
temperature & pressure are called pseudo-critical temperature (Tpc )
and pressure (Ppc ), respectively
I the pseudo-critical temperature and pressure
X
Tpc = yi Tc
i
X
Ppc = yi Pc (4)
i
I pseudo-reduced temperature and pressure

T
Tpr =
Tpc
P
Ppr = (5)
Ppc
Pseudo-critical graphs
Figure 3 : Pseudo-critical temperatures and pressures for heptanes and

heavier (from Matthews et al., 1942)

Pseudo-critical graphs
Figure 4 : Pseudo-critical properties of Oklahoma city gases (from Matthews

et al., 1942)

Real gas equation of states
I The equation of state for real gas can be written as:

Vactual
P = nRT (6)
Z
or
P Vactual = ZnRT (7)
I The gas density, ρg can be written as:
PM
ρg = (8)
ZRT

Specific gravity of gas (γg )
Specific gravity of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of dry air.
Mgas P
ρgas ( m )gas
γgas = = Vm = RT
Mair P
(9)
ρair ( V )air RT
Because gas is assumed ideal,
Mg Mg
γgas = = (10)
Mair 29
If the gas is a mixture, Mg = Ma

Gas viscosity (µg )

I Viscosity is the internal tendency of a fluid to resist flow
I Its unit is centipoise
I Viscosity of pure gases can be read from charts
I When the composition is known, we can use the equation:
X
(µi Mi0.5 yi )
i
µgas = X (11)
(Mi0.5 yi )
i
where:
µi = viscosity of component i in the gas phase
yi = mole fraction of component i in the gas phase
Mi = molecular weight of component i in the mixture
Gas formation volume factor (Bg )

I Bg of a fluid is the volume occupied by that fluid at reservoir
temperature and pressure compared to the volume of the same
mass of gas at standard conditions
V res
I Bg = V std
ZT
Bg = S (12)
P
P std
S= (13)
Z std T std
Units: Bg = res-cu-ft/scf-gas where the standard conditions (std) P
and T are generally defined in
Europe: P = 1.00 bar ; T = 273.15 K
USA: P = 14.7 psia (1.01325 bar); T = 60.0o F (15o C).
Gas compressibility (Cg )
Isothermal compressibility for gas is how much a change in volume per

unit volume will undergo if it experiences a unit change in pressure at
the same temperature.

1 ∂Vg
cg = (14)
Vg ∂p T
For an ideal gas:
1
cg = (15)
P

Gas compressibility (Cg )
For a real gas:
1 1 ∂Z
cg = − (16)
P Z ∂P
For gas mixtures:
1 1 ∂Z
cr = cg Pc = − (17)
Pr Z ∂Pr

Oil properties
I If the reservoir exists above the
bubble point pressure, an infinite
amount of gas can dissolve in the
oil, and the reservoir is said to be
undersaturated
I A reservoir may also exist at the
bubble point with or without an
initial gas-cap
I Oil properties normally
encountered in the governing flow
equations include density,
compressibility, formation volume
factor, viscosity and solubility of Figure 5 : Gas cap drive reservoir
gas in oil
Specific gravity of reservoir oil (γo )
Specific gravity of oil is the ratio of the density of oil to density of

water, both taken as the same T and P .
ρo lb − oil/cuf t. − oil
γo = = (18)
ρw lb − H2 O/cuf t. − H2 O
In the petroleum industry another gravity known as AP I gravity is
used and is defined as:
o 141.5
AP I = − 131.5 (19)
γo

Graph of oil formation volume factor (Bo )
Figure 6 : Typical graph of oil formation volume factor (reservoir volume of

oil/surface volume of oil, Bo ) against pressure, (units rb/stb). Typical range:
1.0 (heavy oils) to 1.8 (light oils)

Graph of pseudo-reduced compressibility
Figure 7 : Pseudo-reduced compressibility for undersaturated reservoir fluids

(Trube, 1957)

API gravity of liquids
In the petroleum industry another gravity known as AP I gravity is

used in relation to specific gravity and is defined as:
o 141.5
AP I = − 131.5 (20)
γo
I The o AP I gravity of water is water 10

Solution Gas-Oil-Ratio (GOR) MScf/Stb
I Gas: infinite
I Gas condensate: 3 − 30
Mscf/stb
I Volatile oil: 2 − 3 Mscf/stb
I Black oil: 0.1 − 2 Mscf/stb
I Heavy oil: negligible
I Asphalts/bitumens: zero
Figure 8 : Typical graph of solution
GOR versus pressure

Reservoir oil compressibility and density
In order to estimate the density of reservoir fluid above the bubble

point, we need to:
I determine the densities at bubble point (using the simplified
Standing and Katz charts)
I compress from the bubble point to the required pressure by
adjusting for isothermal compressibility
1 ∂ρo
Co = ( )T (21)
ρo ∂P
ρo = ρob EXP (co (P − Pb )) (22)

Liquid viscosity
Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of the sliding friction between

successive layers of the liquid as it flows through a pipeline
I The higher the viscosity the more difficult it is to flow
I Viscosity of water is 1.0 centipoise (cP)
I Viscosity of natural gas is approximately 0.0008 cP
I Lower viscosity fluids cause less pressure drop due to friction

lb−s/f t2 kg/m−s
νkinematic f t2 /s or m2 /s = µabsolute

I
ρ lb/f t 3 or kg/m3

Viscosity of crude oil µo
Viscosity is usually determined experimentally as part of a formal PVT

analysis
I It can also be estimated or calculated
I Unlike other physical properties, viscosity is affected by both P
and T
I An increase in pressure causes increase in µo provided that the only
effect of that pressure is to compress the liquid
I An increase in T causes a decrease in µo
I An increase in the amount of gas in solution causes a decrease in
µo

Typical graphs of oil viscosity
Figure 9 : Viscosity of subsurface samples of crude oil (Hocott and Buckley,

1941, after BEAL, 1946)

Specific heat of liquids, Cp
The specific heat of a liquid is the amount of heat or thermal energy

required to increase its temperature by 1 degree.
I Specific heat of water at 1 atmospheric pressure and 68o F is
1 Btu/lb/o F or (4.182 kJ/kg/o C at 20◦ C)
I Comparatively, a sample of crude oil has a Cp value of
0.45 Btu/lb/o F or (1.88 kJ/kg/o C).

Bulk modulus of liquids, K
The bulk modulus of a liquid is the pressure required to cause a unit

change of volume of that liquid.
I The inverse of the bulk modulus (K) is the compressibility
I K of water is approximately 300, 000 psi (2.1 GP a) and therefore
a compressibility of 3.3 × 10−6 psi−1
I Comparatively, a typical diesel fuel has K = 243, 700 psi at 85◦ F
and a pressure of 285 psi

Vapour pressure of liquids
The vapour pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure at a given

temperature at which the liquid and vapour exist in equilibrium
I The normal boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which
the vapour pressure equals the atmospheric pressure
I The vapour pressure of a liquid is important when using
centrifugal pumps to transport the liquid in a pipeline

I Another reservoir fluid associated with underground petroleum

deposit is water
I Apart from encroaching the reservoir as moving body of water
from neighbouring acquifers, water exists within the interstices and
pores of the formation rocks on the intimate surface of the sands
even before the oil drops come in contact with the rock surface.
I Hence, the name connate, interstitial or formation waters

Some of the properties of the formation water includes:

I densities
I viscosities
I solubility of dissolved gases in water
I isothermal compressibility of connate water

Densities of oil-field waters
The density of reservoir water is usually determined at standard

conditions as a function of total dissolved solid at standard/surface
condition. To get the density at reservoir P and T, divide the density
at P and T by the FVF of water at reservoir P and T .

Viscosity of reservoir water
I Under its own vapor pressure, viscosity of pure water decreases

from 1.79 cp at 0.0886 psia to 0.174 cp at 89.6 psia
I The viscosity of pure water decreases from 1.4 to 0.3 cp with an
increase in T from 50 to 200 o F .
I Bridgman’s result show very little change in viscosity of pure
water over a range of 14.2 - 7, 200 psia
I For water with dissolved solids, brine viscosity increases with
salinity over a range of 32 − 300 o F at P not exceeding 5000 psia
I From the above, it is expected that the water viscosity should
increase as P increases and should increase significantly as brine
concentration is increased.

Solubility of dissolved gases in water

Dissolved gases are of interest in petroleum engineering because of
their ability to corrode
I The principal gases present are free CO2 , H2 S and O2 in minor
concentration
I CH4 or natural gas is dissolved in many waters in concentration
approaching saturation
I The solubility of natural gas in water has been found to depend on
P, T and salinity of the H2 O
I It is expressed in cu-ft of gas at 14.7 psia and 60 o F per barrel of
H2 O at 60 o F .
I Saline reservoir water has a lower gas solubility than does pure
water at the same P and T.

Isothermal compressibility of connate water
I Compressibility of connate water depends on the reservoir P, T

and the gas in solution in water
I The gas solution in water depends upon the salinity of the
reservoir water
I With water:
I initial increase in T reduces Cw but further increase in T increases
Cw
I increase in P reduces Cw
I Cw increases with gas in solution
I salinity affects gas solubility and therefore must be accounted for

Solubility of water in oil and natural gas
I Solubility of water in hydrocarbon liquid is very limited because

the mutual attraction between them is extremely small
I Solubility of water in natural gas is dependent upon P , T and the
composition of both water and the gas

Gas hydrates
I Natural gas and liquid water will combine to form gas hydrates
which are ice-like solids which forms at P and T normally
encountered in natural gas pipelines
I Gas hydrates are crystalline compounds formed by the chemical
combination of natural gas and water under P and T which are
not as low as the freezing point of water
Figure 10 : Typical gas hydrate

Applications
Practical applications
Please, turn to the practical application exercises provided in the

class!

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase behaviour
Figure 11 : Typical phase envelope

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Effect of composition on phase envelope
Figure 12 : Typical phase envelope and effects of composition

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - dry gas reservoir
Dry gas reservoir
Figure 13 is phase diagram of a dry gas reservoir system. The

critical temperature is significantly lower than the reservoir tem-
perature and the system remains in the single-phase (gaseous)
state from start of production to abandonment

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - dry gas reservoir
Figure 13 : Phase diagram of a dry gas reservoir (from Mccain, 1973)

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - wet gas reservoir
Wet gas reservoir
Fig. 14 is phase diagram of a dry gas reservoir system.
The system remains in a single-phase (gaseous) state in the reser-

voir during production but will drop out condensate under sepa-
rator conditions

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - wet gas reservoir
Figure 14 : Phase diagram of a wet gas reservoir (from Arnold and Stewart,
2008)

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - retrograde gas condensate
Retrograde gas condensate reservoir
Fig. 15 is phase diagram of a retrograde condensate reservoir

system.
Decreasing the pressure during production to a point 2, brings

about the dropping out of condensate inside the reservoir

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - retrograde gas condensate
Figure 15 : Phase diagram of a retrograde gas condensate reservoir (from

Arnold and Stewart, 2008)

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - high shrinkage oil
High shrinkage oil
The ”white oils” or high shrinkage oils (Fig. 16) have reservoir
temperature below the critical temperature.
Bubble point curve will be reached by the decrease in pressure

leading to an increased development of the vapour phase.

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - high shrinkage oil
Figure 16 : Phase diagram of a high shrinkage oil reservoir (from Arnold and
Stewart, 2008)

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - low shrinkage oil
Low shrinkage oil
In a ”black oil” or low shrinkage oil (Fig. 17), the separator

conditions are near the bubble point curve and about 85 mole %
of the produced hydrocarbon mixture is in the liquid phase at
separator conditions.
The shrinkage of the oil due to gas liberation is therefore less

pronounced compared to the ”white oils”

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Phase envelope - low shrinkage oil
Figure 17 : Phase diagram of a low shrinkage oil reservoir (from Arnold and
Stewart, 2008)

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Flash calculations
The amount of hydrocarbon fluid that exists in the gaseous phase or

the liquid phase at any points at the process is determined by a flash
calculation.
I An equilibrium value K can be assigned to each component in the
total composition of the fluids
I K value is a strong function of temperature and pressure and of
the composition of the vapour and liquid phase

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Flash calculations
I The K value is defined by
yi Vi /V
Ki = = (23)
xi Li /L
yi = mole fraction of vapour component i in the mixture
xi = mole fraction of liquid component i in the mixture
Vi = moles of component i in the vapour phase
V =total moles in the vapour phase
Li =moles of component i in the liquid phase
L =total mole in the liquid phase

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Flash calculations
The following are needed to estimate the

I If all the Ki and (V /L) are known, then (Vi ) and (Li ) can be
calculated from
Ki Fi
Vi = 1 (24)
V /L + Ki
Fi
Li = Ki
(25)
V /L +1
where Fi = total moles of component i in the fluid

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Flash calculations
I To solve either Eq. 24 or 25 it is necessary to first determine (V /L)

I However, this is done by an iterative solution using the relationship
F
L= (26)
1 + (V /L)

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Flash calculations
Estimate (V/L) ?
Calculate
?
Vi and Li
Sum to get
?
V and L
Compare
?
results

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
Flash calculations
Flash calculations exercise

Please, use the illustrated example provided to carry out a typical
flash calculation exercise

Outline
Phase behaviour
Course Objectives
Phase envelope
Reservoir fluids
Flash calculations
Phase behaviour
References
I Reservoir Fluids by Heinemann and Weinhardt (2005)

I Petroleum Reservoir Engineering Physical Properties by Amyx,
Bass, Whiting (1960)
I Volumetric and phase behavior of oil field hydrocarbon systems by
Standing, M. B. (1952)
I Gas Conditioning and Processing J. M. Campbell (1992)

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Outline

Reservoir fluid properties and phase behaviour

Dr. Lateef Akanji

Jean Piaget University Angola Training

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk)

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 1/66

I Learn about the composition of hydrocarbon fluids

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 2/66

I Reservoir fluids are petroleum

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 3/66

I Although the state of the

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 4/66

Why fluid composition and PVT analysis?

Fluid composition and PVT are

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 5/66

Why carry out fluid composition and PVT analysis?

I Wells and flowlines

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 6/66

Compositions of gas and oil

I Saturated hydrocarbon (or I Unsaturated HCs have one or

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 7/66

Compositions of gas and oil

Figure 1 : PVT fluid samples

Component Black Volatile Gas Wet Dry

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 9/66

Physical properties of liquids & gases

Since facilities are designed to transport or store liquids or gases

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 10/66

Physical properties of liquids & gases

I In compressible fluids, such as natural gas systems

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 11/66

Behaviour of ideal gases

I Boyle’s law (at constant T)

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 13/66

Behaviour of ideal gases

I Avogadro’s law (for ideal gases A and B at same T and P and

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 14/66

Ideal gas equation of states

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 15/66

Graph of pseudo-reduced compressibility

Natural gas mixtures

I pseudo-reduced temperature and pressure

Figure 3 : Pseudo-critical temperatures and pressures for heptanes and

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 18/66

Figure 4 : Pseudo-critical properties of Oklahoma city gases (from Matthews

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 19/66

Real gas equation of states

I The equation of state for real gas can be written as:

I The gas density, ρg can be written as:

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 20/66

Specific gravity of gas (γg )

Because gas is assumed ideal,

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 21/66

Gas viscosity (µg )

Gas formation volume factor (Bg )

Gas compressibility (Cg )

Isothermal compressibility for gas is how much a change in volume per

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 24/66

Gas compressibility (Cg )

For a real gas:

Fluid properties (l.akanji@abdn.ac.uk) 25/66

Specific gravity of reservoir oil (γo )

Specific gravity of oil is the ratio of the density of oil to density of