SCIENCE REVIEWER

CHEMICAL BONDING
Ionic Bonding- Bonding by transferring.
Covalent Bonding- Bonding by sharing.

Ionic Compounds Covalent Compounds

Phase/s of matter Solid Solid, Liquid, Gas

Bond Metal-Nonmetal Nonmetal-Nonmetal, Metalloids-
Nonmetals
Conductivity- Ability of electricity to Low High
pass.
Hardness- Resistance of deformation Hard Not Hard
Melting and Boiling Points High Low
Malleability- State of being shaped. Non-malleable Malleable
(Being turned thin, hammering)
Ductility- Capacity to undergo change Non-ductile Non-ductile
in physical form without breaking.
Solubility- Ability to dissolve in Usually non soluble in Usually soluble in water but non
water. water but soluble in organic soluble in organic solvents
solvents (alcohol). (alcohol).

NAMING COMPOUNDS
Ionic Bonding and Covalent Bonding
Ionic (metal and non-metal) while covalent (both non-metal), if there is a number AFTER the METAL,
don’t mind it like (Mg2Cl3), it’s not Dimagnesium Trichloride but only Magnesium Chloride, if naman
both non-metals are present, only there will you mind the numbers like C²Br5 it should be Dicarbon
Pentabromide.

Organic compounds
 Group of compounds that contain the element, Carbon. Organic compounds contain Carbon and
Hydrogen combined with other elements namely Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Sulfur, and
Halogens (Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine).
 These kinds of compounds are produced by plants and animals. However, these carbon-
containing compounds can also be produced artificially.
Example: Ethyl alcohol, Acetone, Gasoline.

HYDROCARBONS - Organic compound consisting only of Hydrogen and Oxygen. They are classified
as saturated and unsaturated based on the type of bond between two carbon atoms. It is saturated when
all the carbon atoms are linked by a single bond and unsaturated if linked with double or triple
bonds.

Functional Group Hydrocarbons

Types: Saturated Unsaturated

Class Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Arenes

One or more One or more

Only sigle double triple carbon- One or more
Bondings carbon-carbon carbon- benzene like
 Prefix No. C atoms Prefix No. C atoms
Meth  Hydrocarbons containing
1 1-4 carbons are gases at room temperature, 5 – 11
Undec 17 are colorless liquids
Eth and 18 – or more are
2 white, waxy solid. Dodec 12
Prop 3 Tridec 13
But 4 Tetradec 14
Pent 5 Pentadec 15
Hex 6 Hexadec 16
Hept 7 Heptadec 17 LINE -
GENERAL MOLECULAR STRUCTURAL CONDENSED
Oct 8 Octadec 18 ANGLE
FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA FORMULA
FORMULA
Non 9 Nonadec 19
Dec 10 Eicos 20
HYDRO
CARBON
3 - Octene CnH2n C8H2(8) = HH HHHH
CH3(CH2)3HC=
C8H16 H-C-C-C=C-C-C-C-C-H
CH CH2 CH3
HH H HHHH
1 - Butyne CnH2n-2 C4H2(4)-2 =
C4H6 CH3CH2C≡CH

Decane CnH2n+2 C10H2(10) +2 =

C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3

Chemical Formula used in writing the structure of Hydrocarbons.

1. Molecular Formula – is a chemical formula that shows the total number and kinds of atoms in a
molecule, but not their structural arrangement.
2. Structural Formula – is a formula for a molecular compound that indicates the atoms present and
the bonding sequence of the atoms. It is sometimes referred to as Kekule or line bond structure.
This formula gives a clear illustration about the structure of a compound.
3. Condensed Formula – is a formula for a molecular compound that indicates the bonding sequence
without showing all the bonds.
4. Line - Angle Formula – a line represents a carbon – carbon bond and an angle represent a carbon
atom.

ALCOHOLS, ALDEHYDES, AND KETONES

Functional groups- Groups of atoms that occur within organic molecules and confer specific chemical
properties to those molecules. These are characteristic groups that distinguish each type of compound
from the other.

1. Alcohol – are any of a class of organic compounds with one or more hydroxyl groups attached to a
carbon atom of an alkyl group. These organic compounds have very important uses. Some are used
as antiseptic or disinfectant, cleaning agents, others used as component of liquors and a few
alcohols as fuel for portable stoves or other types of burners. The general formula of alcohol is
alcohol is ROH, where R represents an alkyl group and –OH a hydroxyl group (functional
group). The presence of the hydroxyl group is the main factor in determining the properties of
alcohol. The simplest alcohol is methanol or methyl alcohol.

Properties:
a. Boiling Points- The boiling point of alcohol is always significantly higher than that of the
analogous alkane, and the boiling points of the alcohols increase as the number of carbon
atoms increases.
b. Solubility in Water- Alcohols are soluble in water. This is due to the hydroxyl group in the
alcohol which can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Alcohols with a smaller
hydrocarbon chain are very soluble. As the length of the hydrocarbon chain increases, the
solubility in water decreases, because it requires more energy to overcome the hydrogen
 bonds between the alcohol molecules as the molecules are more tightly packed together as the
size and mass increases.
c. Viscosity- is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow. The
viscosity of alcohol increases as the size of the molecules increases. This is because the
strength of the intermolecular forces increases, holding the molecules more firmly in place.
d. Flammability- Combustion breaks the covalent bonds of the molecules, so as the size and
mass of the molecules increases, there are more covalent bonds to break in order to burn that
alcohol. Hence, more energy is required to break the bonds, therefore the flammability of
alcohol decrease as the size and mass of molecules increases.

2. Aldehyde - any of a class of organic compounds in which a carbon atom shares a double bond
with an oxygen atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom, and a single bond with another atom
or group of atoms (designated R in general chemical formulas and structure diagrams). It is a
compound containing a functional group with the structure −CHO, consisting of a carbonyl
center (C = O) with the carbon atom also bonded to hydrogen and to any generic alkyl or side
chain R group The simplest aldehyde is methanal (IUPAC Name) or formaldehyde (common
name) which has an irritating and pungent odor and is soluble in water.
3. Ketone – is a compound containing a carbonyl group bonded to two carbons. The word ketone is
derived from Aketon, an old German word for 'acetone'. The simplest ketone is propanone
(IUPAC Name) or acetone (common name) which is colorless with a pungent and sweet odor. In
ketones, the carbonyl group has 2 hydrocarbon groups attached to it. These can be either the ones
containing benzene rings or alkyl groups. Ketone does not have a hydrogen atom attached to the
carbonyl group.

Difference between Aldehyde and Ketone

PARAMETERS ALDEHYDE KETONE
Definition Aldehyde is an organic compound Ketone is an organic compound
having the general chemical formula R – having the general chemical formula
CHO R – CO – R’
Functional Group The functional group occurs always at The functional group occurs always in
the terminus (end) of a carbon chain. the middle of a carbon chain.
Location Carbonyl group binds with a hydrogen Carbonyl group binds with carbon
atom from one end atoms from both sided.
Nomenclature Has the suffix – al Has the suffix – one
Reactivity Usually more reactive than ketone Usually less reactive than aldehydes
Oxidation Undergoes oxidation forming carboxylic Does not undergo oxidation without
acids breaking the carbon chain
Occurence Mainly as volatile compounds Mainly in sugars

Properties of aldehydes and ketones:

a. Boiling Points- Because the carbonyl group is polar, aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling
points than hydrocarbons. Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than alcohol because
there is no hydrogen bonding since there no attached Hydrogen (H) attached to the Oxygen (O)
atom. In general, as the size of the molecules increases, the boiling point of the molecule
increases due to the increase in Van der Waals forces between them.
b. Solubility/ Miscibility in Water- Aldehydes and ketones that have less than 5 carbons are
generally soluble/miscible in water because they can hydrogen bond with water. As the length of
the alkyl chain increases, the solubility of aldehydes and ketones decreases rapidly because the
number of carbon atoms increases in the chain. All aldehydes and ketones are fairly soluble in
organic solvents like benzene, ether, methanol, chloroform, etc. High Molecular weight aldehydes
and ketones are less polar and dissolve more readily in nonpolar organic solvents.
c. Aldehydes and ketones can be flammable and highly toxic to some extent.
d. Strong Odor- The lower aldehydes have sharp pungent odors. However, as the size of the
molecule increases, the odor becomes less pungent and more fragrant. Ketones generally have
pleasant odor and are usually used in flavoring, perfumery. The odor of aldehydes may vary;
some are pleasant like cinnamaldehyde and vanillin while others are unpleasant or having a
pungent odor like formaldehyde, acetone.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND

MOLAR MASS – refers to the mass of one mole of a particular substance expressed in grams.

Molar Mass = number of atoms x atomic weight

A compound is usually represented by a chemical formula that shows the number of atoms of
each element in a compound. It contains the symbols of the atoms of the elements present in the
compound as well as the number of each element present in the form of subscripts.

The percentage composition of any given compound is identified as the fraction of the amount
of each element on the total amount of individual elements present in the compound multiplied by 100. It
is simply an expression of its composition in terms of all the elements present.

no . of atoms∈the element ×atomic mass

% composition of each element = ×100
molar mass

Mass of element- is the total mass of one atom of the given element. Its unit is called the unified atomic
mass unit (amu) and is denoted by the symbol ‘u’. It can be taken from the Periodic Table of Element as
atomic mass.
Mass of the compound- is the total mass of a compound. It is equal to the sum of the individual
atomic masses of each atom in the molecule. It is referred to as molecular mass or molecular weight.
Molecular Mass/Weight- No. of atoms of the element x atomic mass, measured in g/mol.

MOLE
 All matter contains so many atoms so a unit of measurement
for amount of substance called the mole (mol) has been
established for use in counting atoms. It is the unit of
measurement for number of substances in the International
System of Units (SI).
 Avogadro’s Number (NA) is the number of particles in one
mole of a substance which is equal to 6.02 x 1023
representative particles of that substance.
 Representative particles can either be atoms, molecules, or
formula units.
 FORMULAS: (IMPORTANT ONLY!!!)
 No. of partcles= Mole x A.N. (6.02 x 1023)
mass
 Mole= (Substitute the formula of mole to
molar mass
the mole in the particle formula.).
 Atoms- Single element (Cl, H, Na).
 Formula Units/Ions- Metal-Nonmetal compounds (NaCl).
 Molecules- Nonmetal-Nonmetal compounds (H2O, O2).

VOLCANOES

 The Philippines is located along the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is the reason why our country is prone
to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
 Volcano is an opening or rupture on the Earth’s surface, tunneling deep into the crust that allows
molten rock, hot lava, volcanic ash, cinder, smoke, and gases such as sulfur dioxide (SO 2),
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) to escape from a
magma chamber below the surface.
  On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates are diverging (tectonic plates are
moving away from each other. or converging (plates are moving towards one another), and most
are found underwater. Volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one
another.
 All volcanoes are mountains but NOT all mountains are volcanoes.

5 characteristics of volcano that makes it different from a mountain.

1. A volcano is cone shaped.
2. It has an opening at the top (or in some case, on the sides)
3. It has a crater.
4. It gives off hot thick cloud of gas, ash forming a cauliflower shaped - cloud comes out of its
opening.
5. It emits hot molten rocks.

External Parts of a Volcano Summit

1. Base- is the lowest part, bottom, or supporting layer of the
volcano.
2. Summit- is the highest point or the apex of a volcano that Slope
has an either a crater or a caldera.

3. Slope- a surface of which one end or side is at a higher level

than another; a rising or falling surface. Base

Description:
1. Magma- Molten rock beneath Earth's
surface.
2. Parasitic Cone- A small cone-shaped
volcano formed by an accumulation of
volcanic debris.
3. Sill- A flat piece of rock formed when
magma hardens in a crack in a volcano.
4. Vent- An opening in Earth's surface
through which volcanic materials escape.
5. Flank- The side of a volcano.
6. Lava- Molten rock that erupts from a
volcano that solidifies as it cools.
7. Crater- Mouth of a volcano - surrounds a
volcanic vent.
8. Conduit- An underground passage magma
travel through.
9. Summit- Highest point; apex
10. Throat- Entrance of a volcano. The part of
the conduit that ejects lava and volcanic
ash.
11. Ash- Fragments of lava or rock smaller
than 2mm in size that are blasted into the
air by volcanic explosions.
12. Ash Cloud- A cloud of ash formed by volcanic explosions.
13. Magma chamber- is a large underground pool of molten rock sitting underneath the Earth’s
crust.

Classification of Volcanoes
There are several ways by which volcanoes can be classified. PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology) have adapted a system where Philippine volcanoes are classified as active
or inactive.
I. According to their activity (Record of Eruptions)

A. ACTIVE VOLCANOES – are those that have a record of eruption within the last 500 years or those
that erupted 10.000 years ago based on analysis of their materials. A volcano is classified as active if
it is currently erupting or is expected to erupt soon.

B. INACTIVE VOLCANOES – are those that have not erupted for the last 10,000 years and their
physical form is being changed by agents of weathering and erosion through formation of deep and
long gullies.

 DORMANT VOLCANOES (Sleeping) – is one that is not currently erupting but has
erupted within recordable history and is expected to erupt again in the future. They are the
most dangerous as people are complacent living within their vicinity and are generally
unprepared when an eruption occurs.
 EXTINCT VOLCANOES (Dead) – are considered dead and are not expected to ever erupt
again.

II. According to structure and composition (Volcanic cones)

Volcanic cones – is a triangle- shaped hill formed as material from volcanic eruptions piles up around the
volcanic vent or opening in the Earth’s crust. Most volcanic cones have one volcanic crater or central
depression at the top.

A. SHIELD VOLCANOES
Low, dome – shaped or bowl-shaped mountains, shaped by lava that flows easily and covers a
large area, resembles a medieval knight’s shield lying on the ground, formed by the eruption
of highly fluid (low viscosity) lava, which travels farther and forms thinner flows, contains
lava with less silica content has low viscosity that it can travel a great distance, forming a thin
sheet, huge, gently sloping volcanoes built of very thin lava spreading out in all directions
from a central vent. Have wide bases several miles in diameter with steeper middle slopes and
a flatter summit. Eruptions are not generally explosive but are more like liquid overflowing
around the edges of a container.

B. CINDER CONE VOLCANOES

Simplest form which erupts from a single vent and usually have a bowl – shaped crater at the
summit, most common type of volcano having circular or oval cone or symmetrical cone –
shaped made up of fragments of lava from a single vent that have been blown into the air,
cooled, and fallen around the vent. Also known as scoria cones, small, generally only about
300ft (90 meters) tall and not rising more than 1,200ft (366 meters), lava is characterized
having a high silica content which is too viscous to travel far and tends to break up as it flows,
may occur as single volcanoes or as secondary volcanoes (parasitic cones) on the sides of
stratovolcanoes or shield volcanoes.
C. COMPOSITE VOLCANOES
Also known as Stratovolcanoes because they composed of many layers of volcanic rocks,
usually from high viscosity lava, ash, and rock debris, characterized as a tall mountain with
steep sides with alternating internal layers of rocks and magma, are larger than cinder cones
having up to 8,000 feet (2,438 meters), result from a conduit system of vents leading from a
magma reservoir beneath the surface. Can erupt with great violence that is why are considered
as the most violent. Lava has a low amount of gas and high silica content is very viscous and
does not flow out at all as it rises, forming a columnar plug in the vent.

D. LAVA DOMES
Circular mound – shaped protusion resulting from the slow extrusion of viscous lava from a
volcano. Also referred to as volcanic domes. Formed when erupting lava is too thick to flow
and makes an overturned bowl mound as the lava piles up near the volcanic vent, lava is
characterized having low amount of gas as it rises has high viscosity which piles up at a vent
resulting in a dome. May develop in the summit craters or completely away from any crater.