Chapter 2 : Carbon Compound

2.1 Types of carbon compounds

1. A carbon compound is a compound that contains carbon, C as their constituent element.

2. Carbon compounds are divided into two groups; organic and inorganic compounds.

3. An organic compound is a carbon compound found in, produced by, or derived from living
organisms.
- Organic compound contains carbon element bonded with hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and
phosphorus.
-The combustion products of organic compounds are carbon dioxide and water.
- Examples: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, urea, organic acid such as ethanoic acid, plastic,
detergents, medicines

4. Example of inorganic compounds ,

(i) carbonate salts; calcium carbonate,CaCO3 ; zinc carbonate, ZnCO3; magnesium
carbonate,MgCO3
(ii) carbon dioxide, CO2 , carbon monoxide, CO
(iii) carbonic acid, H2CO3
(iv) cyanide compounds such as sodium cyanide, NaCN

5. Organic compounds are divided into hydrocarbon and non hydrocarbon

(a) A hydrocarbon is an organic compound that contains carbon, C and hydrogen,H atoms only
Example : Methane, CH4 , benzene, C6H6

(b) Non hydrocarbon is an organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen and other elements,
such as oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus or halogens.
Example : Glucose,C6H12O6 , ethanol C2H5OH

6. A saturated hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon that has only single covalent bonds between carbon
atoms.

7. An unsaturated hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon that has double or triple covalent bonds between the
carbon atoms.

Note : Petrochemical indusry is a branch

of industry that deals with
petroleum and its products to
produce other products such as
natural gases, plastic, rubber,
detergent, soap, cosmetic products
8. The main source of hydrocarbons is petroleum or crude oil,
coal and natural gases
.
9. There are two main uses of hydrocarbon compounds
(a) As fuels.
(b) As raw materials for the petrochemical industry.

1
2.1B : PETROLEUM

1. Petroleum is formed from the remains of plants and animals that died at the bottom of the ocean,
millions of years ago.
2. Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons with different boiling point and can be separated through
fractional distillation
3. The process of fractional distillation of petroleum and how the products are used in daily life

4. CRACKING
(a) is the process of breaking long chain hydrocarbons into smaller hydrocarbons
at a high temperature with the presence of catalyst.( a mixture aluminium oxide, Al2O3 and
silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2

Example : (I) C7H16 ------> C2H4 + C5H12

(ii) C10H22 ----> 2C5H10 + H2

(b) In the cracking process, compounds of large hydrocarbon molecules are heated at a high
temperature and pressure.
A catalyst such as a mixture of aluminium oxide, Al2O3 and silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2 are usually
used to increase the rate of reaction.

(c) Why it is important??

(i) The cracking process produces smaller sized hydrocarbons that can be used as fuel
and raw materials in the petrochemical industry
(ii) The demand for small size hydrocarbons is very high .
(iii) The separation of petroleum to its fractions by fractional distillation does not meet
the demand for small-sized hydrocarbons..
-

2
5. The alternative energy sources to replace petroleum and hydrocarbons is biomass such as
biodiesel, biogas and bioethanol

2.2 Homologous series

1. A homologous series is a family of organic compounds with the same functional group and with
similar chemical properties but each member differs from the next one in the series by a fixed unit of
structure.

2. Six homologous series

Homologous series General Formula Functional group Type of organic
compound
Alkane CnH2n +2 Single bond between hydrocarbon
carbon atom(C—C )
Alkene CnH2n Double bond between hydrocarbon
carbon atom
( C = C)
Alkyne CnH2n-2 Triple bond between hydrocarbon
carbon atom
( C = C)
Alcohol CnH2n+1OH Hydoxyl group( -OH) Non hydrocarbon

Carboxylic Acid CnH2n+1COOH Carboxyl group Non hydrocarbon

Ester CmH2m+1COOCnH2n+1 Carboxylate group Non hydrocarbon

3. Five general characteristics of homologous series

i. Members in the same homologous series have the same general formula.
Example, the general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2 and alkenes is CnH2n

ii. Successive members differ from each other by one carbon and two hydrogen atoms(CH2 ) because
the relative molecular mass differ by 14 from each other.

Example: Alkane group Alkene group

CH4 C2H4

C2H6 C3H6

C3H8 C4H8

iii. All members have similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group.
Example: all alkenes undergo addition reaction with bromine, Br2 and their functional group is
the double bond between the carbon atoms,

iv. All members can be prepared using similar methods because they have the same chemical
properties.
Example: Alkenes can be prepared by the dehydration reaction of alcohol

v. All members show a gradual change in their physical properties.

Example : the melting point, the boiling point and the density of alkenes increase gradually as
the number of carbon atoms per molecule of alkene increases.

3
2.3 Alkane
1. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
2. The general formula of alkanes are CnH2n +2 in which n = 1, 2,3,4 ......
3. The functional group of alkanes is the single bond between the carbon atoms, C—C
bond.
4. The molecular formulae, names and the physical properties of alkanes.
Note : (a) Molecular formula is a chemical formula that shows the actual number
of atom of each element in a compound
(b) Structural formula is a chemical formula that shows the type of bond and
how atoms are bonded in the molecule

n Molecular Structural formula and name Relative Meltin Boiling Physical Densit
molecular
formula g point point state y
mass
(oC) (oC) (gcm-3)
1 CH4 16 -182 -162 Gas -

2 C2H6 30 -183 -89 Gas -

3 C3H8 44 -188 -42 Gas -

4 C4H10 58 -138 -0.5 gas -

5 C5H12 72 -130 36 liquid 0.626

6 C6H14 86 -95 69 liquid 0.659

7 C7H16

4
5. The physical properties of alkanes
i. The first four alkanes namely methane, ethane, propane and butane are gases at
room temperature. The alkanes containing 5 to 15 carbon atoms per molecule
are liquids and alkanes with more than 15 carbon atoms per molecule are solid.

ii. Alkanes have low melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling points of
alkanes increase as the number of carbon atoms per molecule alkanes increase
because
 The molecular size of alkanes increases when the number of carbon
atoms per molecule increases
 The force of attraction ( van der Waals force) between the molecules
becomes stronger
 So, more heat energy is needed to overcome the stronger force between
the molecules

iii. Alkanes have low density. Alkanes are less dense than water.
The density of alkanes increases as the number of carbon atoms per molecule
alkanes increases.
This is because
 The molecular size of alkanes increases when the number of carbon
atoms per molecule increases
 The force of attraction ( van der Waals force) between the molecules
becomes stronger
 So, the molecules are packed closer.

iv. Alkanes are insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents.
v. Alkanes cannot conduct electricity because they exist as covalent molecules and
do not contain free moving ions.

6. The chemical properties of alkanes

i. Alkanes are less reactive hydrocarbons.
ii. Akanes undergo combustion reaction(+O2) and substitution reaction(Cl2 , Br2).
a) Combustion reaction
 Alkanes undergo complete combustion in excess oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide,CO2 and water, H2O.

Example: i)

ii)

 In insufficient oxygen, alkanes undergo incomplete combustion to produce

water, H2O, carbon, C and carbon monoxide,CO.

Example: i)

ii)

5
 7. Uses of alkanes
(a) Butane -cooking gas
b) Substitution reaction (b) Triacontane, C30H62 - waxy layer on
Alkanes undergo substitution reaction with chlorine and bromine in fruits
the present of ultraviolet light. (c) Ethane(liquefied natural gas, LNG) -
fuel in power station
Example : i) CH4 + Cl2 ---> CH3Cl + HCl (d) Liquid alkane - used as solvent
chloromethane (e) Alkane with 17 -20 carbon atoms -
ii) CH4 + Br2 ---> CH3Br + HBr lubricants
bromomethane (f) Solid alkane used to make candle and
based for cosmetic product
2C: Alkenes

1. Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

2. The general formula of alkenes are CnH2n in which n = 2,3,4 ......
3. The functional group of alkenes is the double bond between the two carbon atoms, C = C

4. Naming alkenes
n Molecular formula Structural formula and name
2 C2H4

3 C3H6

4 C4H8

5 C5H10

6 C6H12

5. The physical properties of alkenes

i. The first three alkenes namely ethene, propene and butene are gases at room
temperature. The alkenes containing 5 to 15 carbon atoms per molecule are liquids and
alkenes with more than 15 carbon atoms per molecule are solid.

ii. Alkenes have low melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling points of alkenes
increase as the number of carbon atoms per molecule alkenes increase because
 The molecular size of alkenes increases as the number of carbon atoms per
molecule increases
 The force of attraction ( van der Waals force) between the molecules
becomes stronger
 So, more heat energy is needed to overcome the stronger force between the
molecules

iii. Alkenes have low density. Alkenes are less dense than water.
The density of alkenes increases as the number of carbon atoms per molecule alkenes
increases.

iv. Alkenes are insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvent.

6
 v. Alkenes cannot conduct electricity because they exist as covalent molecules and do not
contain free moving ions.

6. The chemical properties of alkenes

i. Alkenes are more reactive hydrocarbons.
ii. Alkenes undergo combustion reaction, addition reaction and polymerisation.

a) Combustion reaction
 Alkenes undergo complete combustion in excess oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide,CO2 and water, H2O.

Example: i)

ii)

 In insufficient oxygen, alkenes undergo incomplete combustion to produce carbon,

C, carbon monoxide,CO and water, H2O

Example: i)

ii)

b) Addition reaction
i. Addition with hydrogen (hydrogenation)
 A mixture of alkene vapour and hydrogen gas is heated to 180 oC and passed
over nickel/ platinum(catalyst). The corresponding alkane is produced.

 CnH2n + H2 CnH2n+2
alkene alkane

Example: i)

ii)

ii. addition with halogens, chlorine,Cl2;/ bromine,Br2 to form dihaloalkane.

CnH2n + X2 CnH2nX2

Example: i)

ii)

iii. addition with hydrogen halides, HCl/ HBr/ HI to produce haloalkane.

CnH2n + HX CnH2n+1X

Example: i)

ii)

7
 iv. addition with water(hydration reaction)
- When a mixture of alkene vapour and steam is passed over phosphoric acid, H 3PO4
(catalyst) at 300oC and a pressure of 60 atmospheres, a corresponding alcohol is
produced.

CnH2n + H2O CnH2n+1OH

Example: i) C4H8 + H2O -----> C4H9OH

ii)

v. addition with acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution, KMnO 4 (oxidation reaction)

- Alkenes decolourise the purple colour of acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution,
KMnO4 to form a diol compound

CnH2n + [O] + H2O CnH2n(OH)2

Example: i)

ii)

d) Polymerisation
- Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which small molecules (monomers) join together
to form a large molecule called polymer.

- A polymer is a long chainlike molecule made up of smaller molecules called monomers.

Example: i) nC2H4 ---> (C2H4)n

Ethene polyethene

ii)nC3H6 ----> (C3H6)n

Propene polypropene

Comparing alkanes(CnH2n+2) and alkenes(CnH2n)

Similarities
1. Both alkanes and alkenes are hydrocarbon.
2. Both alkanes and alkenes burn in excess oxygen to form carbon dioxide,CO 2 and water,
H2O.
3. Both alkanes and alkenes have similar physical properties such as
i. both have low melting and boiling points.
ii. the physical state changes from gas to liquid to solid as the number of carbon atoms per
molecule increases
iii. both have low densities.
iv. both are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvent.
v. both cannot conduct electricity in any state.

8
 Differences
1. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes.
2. Akenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons and alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
3. Alkenes undergo addition reaction while alkanes undergo substitution reaction
4. Alkenes burns with a yellow and more sooty flame compare to the corresponding alkanes. This is
because the percentage by mass of carbon in alkenes is higher than that of alkanes.

Example : i) The percentage of C in ethane, C2H6 = mass C/molar mass x 100%

= 24/30 x 100% = 80%

ii) The percentage of C in ethene, C2H4 = mass C/ molar mass x 100%

= 24/28 x 100% = 85.71%

5. Alkenes decolourise brown bromine water immediately while alkanes do not. This is because
 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbon while alkanes are saturated hydocarbon
 Alkenes undergo addition reaction with bromine to produce colourless compound
CnH2n + Br2 ---> CnH2nBr2 //
 Alkanes do not undergo addition reaction with bromine

6. Alkenes decolourise purple acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution, KMnO4 while alkanes do
not. This is because
 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons while alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons.
 Alkenes undergo addition reaction with acidified potassium Acidified KMnO4
manganate (VII) solution, KMnO4 to produce colourless compounds. solution
 CnH2n + H2O + [O] ---> CnH2n(OH)2
 Alkanes do not undergo addition reaction with
acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution, KMnO4

7. Test to compare Alkane and Alkene

Test Process Observation

Hexane Hexene
Combustion in air 1.Pour 2.0 cm3 hexane and hex-1- Hexane burns with a Hexene burn with a
ene into two different yellow sooty flame. more yellow and sooty
evaporating dish flame.
2. Ignite the liquid using a lighted
wooden splinter

Reaction with 1. Pour 2.0 cm3 hexane and hex- The brown bromine water The brown bromine
bromine water 1-ene into two different test remains unchanged. turns to colourless.
(Halogenation) tubes
2. Add a few drops of brown
bromine water to each liquid.
3. Shake the mixture.
4. Observe the colour change.

Reaction with 1. Pour 2.0 cm3 hexane and 2.0 The purple colour of The purple colour of
acidified cm3 hex-1-ene into two acidified potassium acidified potassium
potassium different test tubes manganate(VII) solution manganate(VII) solution
manganate(VII), 2. Add a few drops of acidified remains unchanged. turns to colourless.
KMnO4/H+ potassium manganate(VII)

9
solution solution
(Oxidation) 3. Shake the mixture.
4. Observe the colour change.

Observation
Experiment Observation
Hexane Hexene
A. Combustion Reaction Hexane burns with a yellow Hexene burns with a more
sooty flame. yellow sooty flame.
B. Reaction with bromine The brown bromine water The brown bromine water turns
remains unchanged. colourless

10
C Reaction with acidified The purple colour of acidified The purple colour of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) KMnO4 remains unchanged. KMnO4 turns colourless.

Discussion
1(a) the sootiness of flame produced by hexene is higher than hexane

(b)(i) % of carbon in Hexene, C6H12 = mass C / molar mass Hexene x 100%

= 72/ 84 x 100%

= 85.71%

(ii) % of carbon in Hexane, C6H14 = mass C / molar mass Hexene x 100%

= 72/ 86 x 100%

= 83.72%

(iv) The higher the percentage of carbon by mass per moecule, the higher the the sootiness of
flame

2(a) bromine water and acidified potassium mangante(VII) solution

Because hexene decolourised the brown bromine water and the purple colour of acidified
potassium manganate(VII) where as hexane does not

(c) -Hexene is more reactive than hexane

- This is because there is double covalent bond between the carbon atoms in hexene molecule
where as in hexane there is only single bond between the carbon atoms
- Due to the presence of double bond between the carbon atoms in hexene molecule enable it to
undergoes addition reaction

3 - Unsaturated hydrocarbon is the hydrocarbon that change the colour of bromine water from
brown to colourless and acidified KMnO4 from purple to colourles when the bromine water and
acidified KMnO4 is added to the hydrocarbon.

O.D : What you see and what you do

Conclusion :Hypothesis is accepted

A. Hexene burns with a yellow and more sooty flame than hexane
B. Hexene decolourised brown bromine water where as hexane does not
C. Hexene decolourised the purple colour of acidified potassium mangante(VII) where as hexane does
not

11
Alcohol
1. Alcohol is an organic compound that contains the hydroxyl group.
2. The functional group of alcohols is the hydoxyl group, --OH
3. The general formula for alcohols is C nH2n+1OH
4. Naming and isomerisme in alcohols.
n Molecular Structural formula and name
formula
1 H
CH3OH
//CH4O H-- C--H Methanol

OH
2
Note : make sure the line is connected to the O
C2H5OH
not H
//C2H6O
Ethanol

3
C3H7OH
//C3H8O

4
C4H9OH
//C4H10O

5. In industries ethanol is prepared from the reaction between ethene and steam.
The mixture of ethene vapour and steam are heated to 300 oC and 60 atmospheric
pressure in the present of phosphoric acid, H 3PO4 as the catalyst.

C2H4 + H2O C2H5OH

12
 6. Ethanol can be prepared by fermenting starchy or sugary substances such as rice, barley
or fruits.
An enzyme called zymase in yeast acts as catalyst in the fermentation reaction.
How to prepared ethanol in the lab
 20 g of glucose is dissolved in 150 cm3 of distilled water contained in a clean conical
flask.
 10 g of yeast is added to the mixture and the mixture is shaken well
 The apparatus is left in a warm place for 3-4 days
 After four days, the contents in the conical flask is filtered
 The filtrate is heated in a water bath
 The portion that distilled at 78oC is collected. The distillate is ethanol
 C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Fermentation of sugar Fractional distillation to obtain a pure ethanol

yeast
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Impure ethanol → Pure ethanol

7. The physical properties of ethanol

i. It is a liquid at room conditions
ii. It is colourless
iii. It has a sharp smell
iv It is completely miscible with water
v. Its boiling point is 78 oC
vi. It is highly volatile

8. Chemical properties of alcohol

i. Neutral
ii. It burns easily in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

iii. Alcohol undergoes oxidation reaction to produce carboxylic acid

Example: Ethanol, C2H5OH undergoes oxidation reaction to produce ethanoic acid,
CH3COOH

C 2H5OH + 2 [O] CH3COOH + H2O

Procedure:
1. Pour 2 cm3 of acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4
in a boiling tube
2. Add 10 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid,H2SO4
3. Add 1.0cm3 of ethanol, C2H5OH and heat the mixture slowly
4. Collect the distillate

13
 5. The distillate is ethanoic acid, CH3COOH

Notes
1. The oxidising agent used is acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution, the purple
colour decolourises.
2. If the oxidising agent used is acidified potassium dichromate(VI) solution, the colour
of the solution turns from orange to green.
3. Concentrated sulphuric acid,H2SO4 is used as a catalyst.
4. Alcohol undergoes dehydration reaction to produce alkene.

CnH2n+1OH CnH2n + H2O

iv) Alcohol undergoes dehydration reaction to produce alkene

Example : Dehydration of ethanol produces ethene
Procedure:
1. Soak glass wool in ethanol , C2H5OH and place it
in a boiling tube.
2. Clamp the boiling tube horizontally at a retort stand
3. Pack some porcelain chips in the middle of
the boiling tube
4. Heat the porcelain chips strongly
5. Then warm the ethanol, C2H5OH
6. Collect the gas produce using water displacement
method into a test tube
7. The gas is ethene, C2H4

C2H5OH C2H4 +H2O

9 Alcohols are used mostly as solvents in industry, as fuel, preparing drugs and medicine

14
10. A person who consumes too much alcohol may
i. damages his/her heart, liver, stomach and brain.
ii. lose self control, suffer memory loss and reacts slower to pain and danger
iii. cause mental retardation and other birth defects to unborn foetus ( if she is pregnant)
iv. lose coordination of body movements and becomes clumsy

15