Chemistry – TEST 1: THE PERIODIC TABLE AND CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS

4.1 ELEMENT’S DISTRIBUTION

Periodic table has: 7 periods and 18 groups.
ELEMENTS DISTRIBUTION: COLUMNS AND ROWS:

 Columns are called: groups or families, they usually have similar physical and
chemical properties due to similar electron configurations.

 Rows are called: periods or series, they are in corresponds to the highest
energy level, n, that electrons occupy in ground-state atoms of that element.

BLOCKS: 4 TYPES OF BLOCKS

1. S block: includes the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, soft ans
reactive metals. Ex: Calcium, Beryllium, Hydrogen
2. P block: elements with quite varied properties, contains non-metals,
metalloids and metals. Ex: Oxygen, Boron, Gallium.
3. D block: “transition metals”, metals that are hard and dense. Ex: Zinc,
Copper, Silver.
4. F block: lanthanides and actinides, soft metals and radioactive. Ex:
Cerium, Uranium, Fermium.
TYPES OF ELEMENTS:

 Metals: they are solid, shiny, ductile, and good conductors of heat and
electricity. Ex: Transition, Metalloids, Alkali, Alkaline Earth.

 Nonmetals: they are gasses or soft solids. Ex: halogens, noble gases, Reactive
nonmetals.

Exception of Metals: manganese is a brittle solid and mercury is liquid.

Exception of Nonmetals: Bromine is a liquid and Diamond a carbon.
4.2 PERIODIC TRENDS
- Ionic Radius: is the atomic radius of ions (cations and anions). When an atom loses
an electron, the atom becomes smaller, when it gains one, it gets bigger. EX: Li and Be
Ionization energy: to form compounds, atoms have to lose or take electrons to some
extent, but some lose them easily, while other stubbornly hold on to them.
-Ionization energy: the minium energy required to remove the outermost electron.
This trend:

 Decreases as you move down - Decreases as you move right.

-Electron affinity: Is the energy required to add an electron. Depends on the fullness of
the levels and sublevels. OPPOSITE OF IONIZATION ENERGY.
-Electronegativity: the measure of the attraction between the nucleus and valence
electrons. The ability of an atom to attract and hold electrons in a molecule.

4.3EXCEPTIONS TO ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

Aufbau Principle states: In the ground state of an atom, atomic orbitals are filled by
electrons in the order of their increasing energies.
In other words, ELECTRONS WILL OCCUPY THE LOWEST-ENERGY ORBITAL FIRST
BEFORE FILLING HIGHER-ENERGY ORBITALS.
OJO: As you fill the electrons with atoms, the atom will always want to be in the lowest
energy state possible.

4.4 GROUPS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Hydrogen: colorless, tasteless gas, the most abundant element in the universe.
Alkali Metals: solids , and conductors.
Alkaline-Earth Metals: tenser and tougher, have the same metallic properties.
Transition Metals: more complex, they have more real-life uses.
Inner transition Metals: the fisrt row is called “rare-earth elements”, they are difficult
to identify and purify their ores. The second row is called actinide metals.
Boron Family: has one metalloid, and the rest are soft metals.
Gallium is liquified at 30 C degres.
Carbon Family: is complex, it has one nonmetal, two metalloids, and three metals.
Nitrogen Family: has two nonmetals, two metalloids, and two metals.
Oxygen Family: three nonmetals, one metalloid, and two metals.
Halogen Family: they are all nonmetals.
Noble Gas Family: are all nonmetals and more specifically gasses.

5.1 WHAT ARE SOLUTIONS

Solutions: substances, which components: never clump together, separate from each
other, or fall to the bottom of a container. Ex: shampoos, soft drinks, perfumes.
Some shampoos are not solutions.
Solutions: they are “homogeneous mixtures of variable composition in a single phase”.
Elements of Solutions:
-Solvent: the most abundant substances. -Solute: the lesser abundant substances.
Types of Solutions:
1- Liquid Solutions: are liquid because the solvent is liquid.
-Liquid-solid solutions
-Liquid-liquid solutions
-Liquid-gas solutions

 When two liquids mix and stay together (liquid-liquid): MISCIBLE.

 When two liquids separate when mixed: IMMISCIBLE.

2- Solid Solutions: they have solid solvents and have solutes of the three states of
matter, commonly found in jewelry.

3- Gaseous Solutions: can also be solvents, but only for gaseous solutes.

5.2 WHAT IS CONCENTRATION

Concentration: diluted or concentrated refer to the amount of solute in a solvent.
- Concentration: the measure of the number of solute particles in a certain
volume or mass of the solvent.

Concentration is expressed in percent by mass, volume,

molarity, and molality.

- Percent by Mass: this expression is born from comparing both masses: solvent
and solute.
 - Percent by Volume: this expression is born from comparing both volumes:
solvent and solute.

- Morality: is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

This expression is more used by chemists, they use it to analyze chemical reactions, it
enables them to measure a precise number of atoms, molecules, or ions.
Examples:
- Molality: is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.

Example: