Supervisory Control and Carrier Systems

2020Handout5: Supervisory Control Carrier Methods

5.1 Introduction
The term multiplex means many into one.
Multiplexing is the sharing of a transmission medium by many signals. It answers the
challenge of transmitting more than one signal over a single-wire circuit or channel.

Illustration of the concept

A multiplex unit combines together many voice or data signals

to share a transmission medium or channel

The multiplexer is connected to the demultiplexer by a single data link. The

multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from these n input lines and transmits them
through the high capacity data link, which is being demultiplexed at the other end
and is delivered to the appropriate output lines.
Thus, Multiplexing can also be defined as a technique that allows simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link.

The main characteristic feature of the channel is that the supported channel
bandwidth exceeds by far the bandwidth needed for each channel.
Multiplexing makes the most effective use of the available channel capacity. The
most common use of multiplexing is in long-haul communication using coaxial cable,
microwave and optical fibre.

The multiplexing can be accomplished through time-division, frequency-division or

phase division multiplexing.

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is commonly used for multiplexing digitised

voice stream. The users take turns using the entire channel for short burst of time.
Frequency-Division multiplexing (FDM) is used extensively in radio and TV
transmission. Here the frequency spectrum is divided into several logical channels,
giving each user exclusive possession of a particular frequency band.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 1
Components of a Multiplexing System
1. The Multiplexer – to combine data from n input lines
2. The Link – to carry the multiplexed signal carrying n separate channels
3. DeMultiplexer – to separate the data according to the n channels and deliver
them to appropriate output lines

5.2 Multiplexing Techniques

5.2.1 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that allows several connections

to share the high bandwidth of a line. In time-division multiplexing, time on the
information channel, or fibre, is shared among the many data sources.

Time-Division Multiplexing System

The multiplexer MUX can be described as a type of rotary switch, which rotates at
a very high speed, individually connecting each input to the communication channel
for a fixed period of time. The process is reversed on the output with a
demultiplexer, or DEMUX. After each channel has been sequentially connected, the
process repeats itself. One complete cycle is known as a frame. To ensure that each
channel on the input is connected to its corresponding channel on the output, start
and stop frames are added to synchronise the input with the output.

The amount of data that can be transmitted using TDM is given by the MUX output
rate and is defined by:

MUX output rate = N x maximum input rate

Where N is the number of input channels and the maximum input rate is the highest
data rate in bits/second of the various inputs.

The bandwidth of the communication channel must be at least equal to the MUX
output rate.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 2
Another parameter commonly used in describing the information capacity of a TDM
system is the channel-switching rate . This is equal to the number of inputs
visited per second by the MUX:

Channel switching rate = Input data rate × Number of channels

Time-Division Multiplexing is a digital multiplexing technique for combining

several low-rate channels into one high-rate one.

Example from the North American Digital Telephone Hierarchy

The North American digital telephone hierarchy defines how the low-data-rate
telephone signals are multiplexed together onto higher-speed lines. The system uses
pulse code modulation (PCM) in conjunction with time-division multiplexing to
achieve this.
The basic digital multiplexing standard established in the United States is called the
Bell System Level 1 PCM Standard or the Bell T1 Standard. This is the standard used
for multiplexing 24 separate 64-kbps (8 bits/sample × 8000 samples/s) voice
channels together. Each 64-kbps voice channel is designated as digital signalling
level 0 or DS-0.

North American Digital Telephone Hierarchy

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 3
Notes:
1. The first bit is a framing bit, used for synchronisation
2. Voice channels:
● 8-bit PCM used on five of six frames
● 7-bit PCM used on every sixth frame; bit 8 of each channel is a signalling bit
3. Data channels:
● Channel 24 is used for signalling only in some schemes
● Bits 1–7 used for 56-kbps service
● Bits 2–7 used for 9.6-, 4.8-, and 2.4-kbps service

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 4
Some Computations

T1 = 24 voice channels = Digital Service 1 = DS-1

Each channel carries data (voice) digitised at a rate of 8, 000 samples per second
with 8 bits per sample.

A frame contains 24 channels plus one framing bit per frame.

Thus, the required transmission rate for DS-1 is:

8000 x (24 x 8 + 1) bits per second = 1.544 Mbit/s

Each frame in the 24-channel multiplexer consists of:

8 bits/channel × 24 channels + 1 framing bit = 193 bits

The total data rate when transmitting 24 channels is determined by:

193 bits/frame × 8000 frames/s = 1.544 Mbps = T1 designation

TDM is implemented in two different schemes: synchronous and statistical.

In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it
is not sending data.

American TDM Carrier Standard

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 5
Time Slots and Frames
In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is divided into units,
where each input occupies one input time slot. A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or
one block of data.
Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot.
However, the duration of an output time slot is ntimes shorter than the duration of
𝑇
an input time slot. If an input time slot is Ts, the output time slot is (𝑛)s, where nis
the number of connections. In other words, a unit in the output connection has a
shorter duration meaning that it travels faster.

Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing

In synchronous TDM, a round of data units from each input connection is collected
into a frame. If we have nconnections, a frame is divided into ntime slots and one
slot is allocated for each unit, one for each input line. If the duration of the input
𝑇
unit is T, the duration of each slot is (𝑛)and the duration of each frame is T(unless
a frame carries some other information).
The data rate of the output link must be ntimes the data rate of a connection to
guarantee the flow of data.

In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is ntimes faster, and
the unit duration is ntimes shorter

Time slots are grouped into frames. A frame consists of one complete cycle of time
slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending device. In a system with ninput lines,
each frame has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data from a specific input
line.

The whole bandwidth is used all the time, but – alternatively – by different channels!

Interleaving of Data Segments

TDM can be visualised as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side
and the other on the demultiplexing side. The switches are synchronised and rotate
at the same speed, but in opposite directions.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 6
On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that
connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called
interleaving. On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a
connection, that connection has the opportunity to receive a unit from the path.

concept of interleaving

Empty Slots
Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be. If a source does not have data to
send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

Statistical TDM can improve the efficiency by removing the empty slots from the
frame.

Statistical Division Multiplexing

One drawback of the TDM approach is that many of the time slots in the frame are
wasted. The reason for this is that if a particular terminal has no data to transmit at
particular instant of time, an empty time slot will be transmitted. In synchronous
TDM, each input has a reserved slot in the output frame.

An efficient alternative to synchronous TDM is Statistical TDM, also known as

Asynchronous TDM or Intelligent TDM. With statistical TDM, time slots are not
pre-assigned to particular data sources.
As with Synchronous TDM, statistical multiplexers also have many I/O lines with a
buffer associated to each of them. During the input, the multiplexer scans the input
buffers, collecting data until the frame is filled and send the frame. At the receiving

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 7
end, the de-multiplexer receives the frame and distributes the data to the
appropriate buffers.

The difference between synchronous TDM and asynchronous TDM is illustrated

below.

Original input pattern

Synchronous TDM output

Asynchronous TDM output

NOTE: 1. Many slots remain unutilised in case of synchronous TDM

2. Slots are fully utilised in case of asynchronous TDM, leading to smaller time for
transmission and better utilisation of bandwidth of the medium.

In case of statistical TDM, the data in each slot must have an address part, which
identifies the source of data.

Addressing
An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data. In statistical TDM, a
slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing. Synchronisation and pre-
assigned relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address.
In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and
outputs because there are no pre-assigned or reserved slots. We need to include the
address of the receiver inside each slot to show where it is to be delivered.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 8
Since data arrive from and are distributed to I/O lines unpredictably, address
information is required to assure proper delivery as shown below:

address data
one source per frame

address length length data address length length data

multiple sources per frame

The addressing can be nbits to define Ndifferent output lines with n = log2N. For
example, if N = 8 different output lines, n = 3. We need a 3-bit address.

Slot Size
Since a slot carries both data and an address in statistical TDM, the ratio of the data
size to address size must be reasonable to make transmission efficient.
In statistical TDM, a block of data is usually many bytes while the address is just a
few bytes.

No Synchronisation Bit
The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronised, so we do not need
synchronisation bits.

Bandwidth
In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum of the
capacities of each channel. The designers of statistical TDM define the capacity of
the link based on the statistics of the load for each channel.

Comparison with European Standards

E1-frame

|-------------- 125 µs = 32 time slots = 2.048 Mbps --------------------------|

0 1 2 1 31
6

frame synchronisation signalling channel

30 voice channels + 2 control channels

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 9
TDM Carrier Standards

North America International (CCITT)

digital number of data rate level number of data rate
signal voice (Mbps) number voice (Mbps)
number channels channels
DS-1 24 1.544 1 30 2.048
DS-1C 48 3.152 2 120 8.448
DS-2 96 6.312 3 480 34.368
DS-3 672 44.736 4 1920 139.264
DS-4 4032 274.176 5 7680 565.148

Digital Carrier Comparison

Applications of TDM

1. In PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy) system, also known as the PCM

(Pulse Code Modulation) systems
2. In synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)/synchronous optical networking (SONET)
network transmission standards
3. TDM can be further extended into the time-division multiple access Channel
(TDMA) scheme, where several stations connected to the same physical medium,
for example sharing the same frequency channel, can communicate. Application
examples include the widely used GSM telephone system.

Advantages of TDM
1. It uses a single link
2. It does not require precise carrier matching at both end of the links
3. Use of the channel capacity is high
4. It can be used to expand the number of users on a system at a low cost
5. There is no need to include identification of the traffic stream on each packet

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 10
Disadvantages of TDM
1. The sensitivity to other users is very high and causes problems
2. Initial cost is high
3. Technical complexity is more

5.2.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is an analogue technique that can be applied

when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined bandwidths of
the signals to be transmitted. Stated differently, Frequency Division Multiplexing is
possible when the useful bandwidth of the transmission medium exceeds the
required bandwidth of signals to be transmitted.
A number of signals can be carried simultaneously if each signal is modulated onto a
different carrier frequency and the carrier frequencies are sufficiently separated that
the bandwidths of the signals do not significantly overlap.

In frequency division multiplexing, the available bandwidth of a single physical

medium is subdivided into several independent frequency channels. The signals
generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies. Each
modulated signal requires a certain bandwidth centred on its carrier frequency,
referred to as a channel. All the modulated signals are combined in a linear
summing circuit to form a composite signal for transmission across the link. Carrier
frequencies are separated by guard bands, which are unused portions of the
spectrum. These bandwidth ranges are the channels through which the various
signals travel. Channels are separated by strips of unused bandwidth (guard-bands)
to prevent signals from overlapping.
In addition, carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
Independent message signals are translated into different frequency bands using
modulation techniques and a linear summing circuit in the multiplexer in order to
produce a composite signal.

TDM – frequency held constant FDM – time held constant

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 11
 frequency-division multiplexing

Concept of Frequency Mixing

Question: How does one transform a baseband signal so that it occupies a higher
frequency band?
Answer: By heterodyning or mixing or modulating the signal with a fixed
frequency from a sine-wave oscillator.

If two input signals to a mixer are sinusoids with frequencies f A and fB, the mixing or
multiplication will yield new sum and difference frequencies [fA+B] and [fA-B].

Mixing is trigonometrically represented as:

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2

Example: Heterodyning (mixing)

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 12
 mixing operation

(b) mixer output spectrum (c) lower sideband (d) upper sideband

FDM Multiplexing Process

FDM is an analogue multiplexing technique that combines analogue signals.

FDM multiplexing process

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 13
 Spectrum of composite baseband modulating signal

Guard Bands are unused channels between each successive channel. Channels
must be separated by these strips of unused bandwidth to prevent inter-channel
cross talk.

FDM De-Multiplexing Process

At the receiving end the signal is applied to a bank of band-pass filters, which
separates individual frequency channels. The band-pass filter outputs are then
demodulated and distributed to different output channels

FDM de-multiplexing process

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 14
The de-multiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into
its constituent component signals. The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from their carriers and passes them to the output
lines.

Nomenclature for FDM Channels

nomenclature number of bandwidth spectrum

voice channels
Group 12 48 kHz 60 – 108 kHz
Super-Group 60 240 kHz 312 – 552 kHz
Master-Group 300 2.52 MHz 564 – 3084 kHz
Jumbo-Group 3600 16.984 MHz 0.564 – 17.584 MHz

Advantages of FDM:
1. Users can be added to the system by simply adding another pair of transmitter
modulator and receiver demodulators
2. FDM system supports full-duplex information (both direction simultaneous
Communication) flow which is required by most applications

Disadvantages of FDM:
1. In FDM systems, the initial cost is high. This may include the cable between the
two ends and the associated connectors for the cable
2. A problem with one user can sometimes affect the others
3. Each user requires a precise carrier frequency for transmission of the signals

5.2.3 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) is used when the communication link is an
optic fibre cable. Wavelength-Division Multiplexis the transmission of independent bit
streams at different optical frequencies.
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which multiplexes a number
of optical carrier signals onto a single optic fibre by using different wavelengths
(colours) of laser light.

Difference between Wavelength-Division Multiplex and

Frequency-Division Multiplex

1. WDM is applied to an optical carrier, which is described by its wavelength

2. FDM is applied to a radio carrier, which is described by frequency
3. WDM and FDM describe the same concept because wavelength and frequency are
tied together through a directly inverse relationship ( 𝜆 = 1⁄𝑓 . The main concept is
that we are combining different frequency signals, described as frequency or as
wavelength.
4. The difference is that the frequencies used in WDM are very high when compared
to those used in FDM.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 15
Concept of Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

WDM is expensive: for each WDM channel a complete set of hardware including
laser diodes is required. Therefore an economic incentive is to first increase the bit
rate as far as possible by TDM. This is achieved by using some fast electronics.
The common engineering practice is to first combine many telephone channels with
TDM to the highest frequency, which can still be conveniently worked with. The
resulting data rates are not exact multiples of 64 kbps but slightly more due to an
overhead from additional bits required for controlling the decoding.

Comparison of Time-Division Multiplex (TDM) and Wavelength-Division Multiplex (WDM) formats

For TDM several bit streams are interleaved temporarily. The resulting bit rate is the
sum of the individual bit rates.
For WDM each bit stream is coded onto its own carrier.
Both formats occupy the same bandwidth in frequency space.

In the final analysis, TDM and WDM use the same amount of bandwidth for the
transmission of the same amount of data per unit time.

Each wavelength is like a separate channel (fibre)

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 16
 WDM through optic fibre

With WDM, the light streaming through the fibre consists of many colours, or
wavelengths, each carrying a separate channel of data.

Components of Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 17
Passive/active devices are needed to combine, distribute, isolate and amplify optical
power at different wavelengths

Optical Isolator is used to minimise back reflection

Optical Circulator is employed to add or to drop some channels
EDFA ≡Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier: is used as in-line amplifier before signal gets
completely degraded

TDM compared with WDM

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 18
It is designed to utilise the high data rate capability of fibre-optic cable. Very narrow
band of light signal from different sources are combined to make a wider band of
light.

5.3 Hybrid Circuits

Hybrid technology, this is a mixture of integrated components: conductors, resistors,

capacitors, etc. that are manufactured as part of the substrate - and discrete
components that are soldered or bonded on top of the substrate.

Hybrid Technology

1. Thick film hybrid technologies

2. Thin film hybrid technologies
3. polymer thick film technology (PFT)
4. Multilayer ceramic technology

The main goal of using hybrid circuits (apart from PTF), is saving space, volume and
weight compared to ordinary printed circuit boards. However, we can also achieve
superior high frequency properties and very high reliability. This makes hybrid
circuits suitable for demanding military systems, space applications, medical
electronics, as well as computers, telecommunication equipment, etc.

Below we give a typical procedure for making hybrid circuit board.

1. Cleaning of the board

2. Printing of insulation layer, 2 prints, drying in between
3. Drying
4. UV curing
5. Printing of conductor
6. Drying
7. Curing in IR in-line furnace
8. Chemical plating of metal (Optional)
9. Printing of top layer
10. Drying
11. Curing in IR furnace.

Thick Film Hybrid Technology

Important properties/advantages of thick film materials are:

1. Good dimensional stability during high temperature processing
2. Good adhesion between substrate and printed materials
3. High thermal conductivity
4. A thermal coefficient of expansion matching that of other materials in the circuit
5. High electrical resistivity that gives isolation between components
6. Low dielectric constant

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 19
7. Low dielectric loss tangent (for microwave circuits)
8. Good machinability
9. Low price.

Some advantages of multilayer thin film:

1. Optimal thermal match between Si substrate and Si chip components
2. Very good thermal conductivity in Si substrate: 150 W/°C m
3. Termination resistors and decoupling capacitors may be integrated in the
substrate
4. Compatibility with wire bonding, TAB and flip chip. Also with gluing of discrete
components
5. Very high conductor density and package density
6. Very good high frequency properties due to short wire lengths and low losses in
the dielectric
7. Very good mechanical properties in the Si substrate materials
8. High reliability when it is hermetically encapsulated.

Some Disadvantages:
1. Thus far; low availability and high cost
2. Polyimide is hygroscopic, and the moisture uptake may give swelling and
corrosion over long time. Hermetic encapsulation is necessary.
3. Immature technology.

Polymer thick film technology (PTF)

The most important advantages of PTF are the following:
1. Low price.
2. Simple processes.
3. Quick production of prototypes and full production volumes.
4. PTF is well suited for repair/modification of regular printed wiring boards.
5. Printed resistors can be made.
6. Additive technology, little waste and environmental

Important disadvantage of PTF:

1. PTF circuits satisfy only moderate environmental requirements.
2. Only moderate complexity can be achieved.
3. High sheet resistivity in the conductors (> 10 x that of Cu foil), except
4. Special design rules.
5. Limited solderability.
6. The materials have limited shelf life before they are used.
7. Limited availability (i.e. few producers).

Advantages compared to high temperature multilayer ceramic technology are:

1. Low process temperature, normal process atmosphere, requires low investments
2. Flexibility in choice of conductor materials, low sheet resistivity
3. Plating is not necessary, bondable gold can be screen printed
4. Resistors may be screen printed internally and on the surface

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 20
Disadvantages:
1. New, immature technology
2. Low thermal conductivity
3. Brittle material, mechanically less robust
4. Low availability

5.4 Carrier Signal Modulation Methods

5.4.0 Introduction
Communication is the process of conveying message(s) from one location to
another. If the distance involved is beyond direct communication, then the
communication systems are appropriately dealt with by telecommunication
engineering.
Telecommunication engineering is classified into two types based on the
transmission medium involved. The transmission media which can be used are:
(a) Line Communication and (b) Radio Communication

In Line Communication the medium of transmission is a pair of copper conductors or

a pair of optic fibres. The transmission medium then is called transmission line. In
this technique signals are directly transmitted through the transmission lines.
The installation and maintenance of a transmission line is not only costly and
complex, but also overcrowds the open space.

In Radio Communication transmission the medium of transmission is open space or

free space. In this technique signals are transmitted through the free space in the
form of Electromagnetic waves by using an antenna.

In a communication system, two primary resources are employed: transmitted

power and channel bandwidth.
The transmitted power is the average power of the transmitted signal.
The channel bandwidth is the band of frequencies allocated for the transmission of
the message signal.

The communication system can be represented in the following ways:

communication system

source of
receiver user of
information
information
estimate of
transmitter
message signal

transmitted received
signalsignal
channel

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 21
elements of a communication system

More Specific Block Diagram of a Communication System

The transmitter converts the physical message, such as sound, words, pictures etc.,
into the corresponding electrical signal.
The receiver converts the electrical signal back to the physical message.
The channel may be either physical wires or free space and provides the
transmission path between transmitter and receiver.
The modulator changes some characteristic (i.e. amplitude, frequency, and phase)
of the carrier signal and varies it in accordance with the modulating wave.
The demodulator is used to get back the original message signal.

The transmission of an information-bearing signal over a band pass communication

channel, such as telephone line or a satellite channel, usually requires a shift of the
range of frequencies contained in the signal to another frequency range suitable for
transmission. The shift in the signal frequency range is accomplished by modulation.
Different types of media need different types of electromagnetic signals to carry
information from the source to the destination.
During modulation, the source information is impressed upon a carrier-wave
(essentially a sinusoid of a certain frequency) by changing or modifying some
characteristic of the sinusoidal wave.
The original source signal (e.g., audio, voltage pulse train carrying digital
information) is called the baseband signal. Modulation has the effect of moving
the baseband signal spectrum to be centred frequencies around the frequency of the
carrier. The resulting modulated signal is considered a band passsignal.

Purpose for Modulation

Modulation is needed in a communication system in order to achieve the following
basic needs:
1. Multiplexing to make use of aggregate higher channel capacity
2. To move the spectrum of a signal to a frequency that is less susceptible to
attenuation over a given medium.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 22
 Modulation translates a signal from its baseband to the operating range of the
channel.
3. To achieve practical antennae because higher frequencies (and thus smaller
wavelengths) can reduce the size of the antenna and the associated transceiver
4. To use the same circuit to process signals that occupy different frequency bands,
when the spectrum is translated to an intermediate frequency(IF) where the
circuit operates best

Principle of Modulation: modulation ≡ frequency shifting

How do we shift the Frequency of a Signal?

By multiplying or heterodyning with a sinusoid signal

Modulation obeys the following mathematical relationship:

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2

From this relationship we get two frequencies: f 1 = fA + fB called upper frequency

f2 = fA – fBcalled lower frequency

For Modulation: y(t) = x(t)cos2πfct

For Demodulation: w(t) = y(t) cos2πfct = x(t)cos2(2πfct)

1
From cos2(θ) = 2 [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃)]

1 1 1
w(t) = 2
[1 + cos(4πfct)] x(t) = 2
x(t) + 2
x(t)cos(4πfct)

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 23
Using a Low-Pass Filter will retain the first term and remove the second term.

Frequency Domain Interpretation of Modulation

Differentiating Modulation from Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the combining together of a number of signals to share a
transmission medium.
Analogue Modulation is the shifting of signals in frequency through either the
amplitude modulation or the frequency modulation of a pure-tone carrier wave.
Digital Modulation is the sampling and encoding of an analogue signal as a series
of binary pulses.

Types of Modulation

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 24
Continuous-Wave Modulation (CW): when the carrier wave is continuous in
nature
Pulse-Modulation: when the carrier wave is a pulse in nature
Terminology Related to Modulation

A modulated wave is a periodic wave of which the amplitude, frequency, or phase

is varied in accordance with a signal.
Modulation is the process by which this variation is accomplished.
Demodulation or detection is the process by which the original signal is
recovered from the modulated wave.
The unmodulated component of the original wave is a carrier wave or a carrier.
The frequency of the carrier is much higher than the highest frequency component
in the original signal.
The modulating wave or signal wave applied to the carrier may be a direct
representation of the original signal, or it may be a wave of a different carrier
frequencypreviously modulated by the original signal.
In this case the process is called double modulation, and the modulation appears
in new frequency groups associated with new carrier frequencies equal to the sum
and difference of the sub carrier and fixed-carrier frequencies.
Double modulation accompanied by the selection of one of the new carrier
frequencies to which the signal modulation has been transferred is often called
frequency conversion.
Amplitude modulation (AM) is the process by which the amplitude of the wave is
controlled by a signal for the transmission of intelligence.
In pulse modulation the amplitude is increased only during definite intervals,
repeated in a definite time sequence, for only a small fraction of the total time.
Frequency modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) are processes by
which the instantaneous frequency and, therefore, the phase of the wave relative to
that of the carrier are controlled by the signal for the transmission of intelligence.
The deviation either of the frequency or of the phase from the reference frequency
or phase of the carrier may be made proportional to the signal, thereby identifying
the modulation with one of the above types.

Radio Frequency Spectrum

frequency range designation abbreviation uses
3 – 30 kHz very low frequency VLF long distance telegraphy broadcasting
30 – 300 kHz low frequency LF long distance point-to-point service,
navigational aids, sound broadcasting, line
carrier systems
300 kHz – 3 MHz medium frequency MF sound broadcasting, ship-shore services,
line carrier systems
3 – 30 MHz high frequency HF medium and long-distance point-to-point
services, sound broadcasting, linear carrier
systems
30 – 300 MHz very high frequency VHF short-distance communication, TV and
300 MHz – 3 GHz ultra high frequency UHF sound broadcasting, radar
3 – 30 GHz super high frequency SHF outer-space radio communication, point-
30 – 300 GHz extra high frequency EHF to-point microwave communication
systems and radar

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 25
Frequencies above 300 GHz are not classified as radio waves.

5.4.1 Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation is defined as the process in which the amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the modulating signal or message signal.
The amplitude of the carrier frequency is varied in proportion to the instantaneous
amplitude of the information signal or the audio frequency (AF) signal.

Consider that a sinusoidal carrier signal c(t) is defined as

c(t) = A c cos(2π fc t + φ)

where A c = amplitude of the carrier signal

fc = frequency of the carrier signal
φ = phase angle

For our convenience, assume the phase angle of the carrier signal is zero. An
amplitude-modulated (AM) wave S(t) can be described as a function of time given by

SAM(t) = A c [1 + kam(t)] cos(2πfct) (only amplitude is modulated)

whereka = amplitude sensitivity of the modulator

When the message signal is sinusoidal, m(t) = A mcos(2πfmt)

Thus, SAM(t) = A c [1 + kaA mcos(2πfmt)] cos(2πfct)

= A ccos(2πfct) + ka A c A m [cos(2πfct)cos(2πfmt)]

From the following mathematical relationship:

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2

The two frequencies: f1 = fA + fB is called upper frequency

f2 = fA – fB iscalled lower frequency

The modulated signal becomes:

1
SAM(t) = A ccos(2πfct) + 2 (ka A c A m) {cos[2π(fc + fm)t] + [cos[2π(fc - fm)t]}

The amplitude modulated (AM) signal consists of both the modulated carrier signal
and the un-modulated carrier signal.

un-modulated carrier signal Sc(t) = A ccos(2πfct)

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 26
 Its amplitude is independent of the presence or absence of modulation.

modulated signal:
1
Upper Side-Band signal sUSB = 2 (ka A c A m) {cos[2π(fc + fm)t]}
Upper Side-Band frequency fUSB = fc + fm
1 1
Upper Side-Band signal amplitude A USB =2 (ka A c A m) = 2 (µ * A c)

1
Lower Side-Band signal sLSB =2 (ka A c A m) {cos[2π(fc - fm)t]}
Lower Side-Band frequency fLSB = fc - fm
1 1
Lower Side-Band signal amplitude A LSB =2 (ka A c A m) = (µ * A c)
2

The sidebands carry the intelligence that is being transmitted by the modulated
wave. The frequency of the sideband components relative to the carrier signal is
determined by the modulation frequency.
The relative amplitude of the sideband components is determined by the extent of
the amplitude variations that are impressed upon the wave – that is the degree of
modulation.

Significance of Sidebands
The various components of a modulated wave can be separated from each other by
suitable filter circuits.
The sideband frequencies can be considered as being generated as a result of
varying the wave. They are present only when the wave is being varied, and their
magnitude or frequency are determined by the character of the modulation.
The transmission of intelligence requires the use of a band of frequencies rather
than a single frequency.
The low-frequency signalhas been converted into a high-frequency electromagnetic
wave.

Process of Amplitude Modulation

sinusoidal message signal carrier signal to be used to transmit the message signal

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 27
 resulting amplitude modulated signal

Notes:
1. Fluctuations in the amplitude of the carrier (modulated) signal depend on the
amplitude of the message signal to be transported
2. The rate of fluctuation of the carrier signal depends on the frequency of the
message signal to be transported

In reality, the channel spacing for an AM broadcast is 10kHz, meaning that the
bandwidth of the AM signal is 10kHz, giving a maximum modulating frequency
of5kHz.
If the amplitude of the modulating signal increases, the amplitude of the side
frequencies will also change.
If the frequency of the modulation increases, the frequencyof the upper component
will increase but that of the lower component willdecrease.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 28
Requirements for Ensuring that the AM Signal Envelope is same as the
Baseband Signal shape

The unique property of Amplitude Modulation is that the envelope of the modulated
carrier has the same shape as the message.

1. The amplitude of [kam(t)] is always less than unity i.e., |k am(t)| < 1 for all ‘t’
2. The carrier signal frequency f c is far greater than the highest frequency
component W of the message signal m(t) i.e., fc>>W

Concept of Modulation Index

The concept of modulation index is associated with the concept of percent
modulation. Percent Modulation indicates the degree to which the message signal
modulates the carrier signal.

Calculation of degree of amplitude modulation from time-domain and frequency-domain displays

m = 50% m = 100% m > 100%

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 29
 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
%modulation %m = x 100
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
= x 100
𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

𝐵
%m = x 100 = [(Ec(max) – Ec(min)) / (Ec(max) + Ec(min))] x 100
𝐴

𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
Modulation Index is the fraction 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

Therefore modulation percentage is equal to modulation index * 100

Modulation Index is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the message signal to
the amplitude of the carrier signal.

Interpretation of Modulation Index and Percent Modulation

1. Modulation varies from 0% to 100% without introducing modulated signal

distortion
2. When the amplitude of the modulating signal = 0, the carrier signal is un-
modulated
3. When %modulation = 100%, maximum undistorted power of a radio transmitter
is obtained.
4. When %modulation < 100%, transmitter power output is reduced but the power
content of the carrier signal is not.
5. When %modulation > 100%, there is severe distortion and splatter (interference)
in the transmitter output

Example:
Assume the message signal m(t) is band-limited to the interval –W ≤ f ≤ W

spectrum of the message signal

The Fourier Transform of the AM signal S(t) is

S(f) = (A c/2) [δ(f - fc) + δ(f + fc)] + (kaA c/2) [M(f - fc) + M(f + fc)]

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 30
 Spectrum of the AM signal

Components of the AM Signal

1. Two impulse functions located at ±fc and weighted by A c/2

2. Two Upper Side Bands (USBs) with band frequencies from f c to (fc + W) and
band frequencies from (-fc – W) to –fc

3. Two Lower-Side Bands (LSBs) with band frequencies from (f c – W) to fc and

band frequencies from -fc to (-fc + W)

4. The difference between highest frequency component and the lowest frequency
component is known as transmission bandwidth i.e. BT = 2W

5. The envelope of the AM signal is A c [1+ka m(t)]

Single-Tone Modulation

In single-tone modulation, the modulating signal consists of only one frequency

component whereas in multi-tone modulation the modulating signal consists of
more than one frequency component.

Let S(t) = A c [1+ka m(t)] cos(2π fc t) ………..(i)

m(t) = A m cos(2π fmt)

Substitute m(t) in equation (i)

S(t) = A c [1+kaA m cos(2πfmt)] cos(2πfct)

Replace the term (kaA m) by µ which is called the modulation index or modulation
factor.

Modulation Index µ = Am/ Ac

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 31
The modulation index can also be expressed in terms of A max and A min

µ = (A max - A min) / (A max + A min)

where A max = maximum amplitude of the modulated carrier signal

A min = minimum amplitude of the modulated carrier signal

S(t) = A ccos (2πfct) + A c µ/2 [cos2π(fc + fm)t]+ A c µ/2 [cos2π(fc - fm)t]

The Fourier transform of S (t) is

S(f) = A c/2[δ(f - fc) + δ(f + fc)] + A cµ/4 [δ(f - fc - fm) + δ(f + fc + fm)]
+ A cµ/4 [δ(f - fc + fm) + δ(f + fc - fm)]

Spectrum of Single-Tone AM signal

Power Calculations on Single-Tone AM Signals

In radio transmission, the AM signal is amplified by a power amplifier and fed to the
antenna with a characteristic impedance that is ideally, but not necessarily, almost
pure resistance. The AM signal is made up of several signal voltages: the carrier and
the two sidebands. Each of these signals produces power in the antenna.
The total transmitted power (P T) is the sum of the carrier power (P c) and the power
in the two sidebands (P LSB and PUSB)
PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

The modulated AM signal can be represented as follows:

vAM(t) = V ccos (2πfct) + (V m/2) [cos2π(fc + fm)t]+ (V m/2) [cos2π(fc - fm)t]

or
SAM(t) = A ccos (2πfct) + A c µ/2 [cos2π(fc + fm)t]+ A c µ/2 [cos2π(fc - fm)t]

For power calculations, rms values must be used for the voltages.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 32
We can convert from peak to rms by dividing the peak value by ( √2) or multiplying
by 0.707.

The rms carrier and sideband voltages are then

vAM(t) = (V c/√2)cos2πfct + (V m/2√2)[cos2π(fc + fm)t] + (V m/2√2)[cos2π(fc - fm)t]

The power in the carrier and sidebands can be calculated by using the power
formula
P = V2 / R

where P is the output power, V is the rms output voltage, and R is the resistive part
of the load impedance, which is usually an antenna.

Using the coefficients on the sine and cosine terms in the power formula:

Carrier Power

Power in each side-band

Total Power

Expressing the modulating signal (V m) in terms of the carrier (A c):

modulation index μ = m = V m / V c and Vm = mV c

Expressing sideband power in terms of the carrier power:

Total Power

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 33
After further simplification

P T = (Vc2 / 2R) [1 + m2/4 + m2/4] or P T = Pc (1 + m2/2)

The standard time-domain equation for Single-Tone AM Signal is given by

SAM(t) = A ccos (2πfct) + A c µ/2 [cos2π(fc + fm)t] + A c µ/2 [cos2π(fc - fm)t]

Power of any signal is equal to the mean square value of the signal

Summary:

Carrier Power P c = (A c2)/ 2

Upper Side-Band Power P USB = (A c2) µ 2 / 8
Lower Side-Band Power P LSB = (A c2) µ 2 / 8

Total Power PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB

= (A c2)/ 2 + (A c2) µ2/ 8 + (A c2) µ2/ 8

P T =P c [1 + µ 2 / 2]

Practically, it is difficult to determine AM power by measuring the output voltage and

calculating the power with the expression P = V 2 / R.
Therefore practically, it is easy to measure the current in the load.

When the antenna impedance is known, the output power is calculated by using the
formula:
P = (IT)2R

𝜇2
whereIT = Ic√(1 + 2 )

Here Icis the unmodulated carrier current in the load, and

μis the modulation index

One way to find the percentage of modulation is to measure both the modulated
and the unmodulated antenna currents.
Then, the modulation indexcan be calculated directly:

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 34
 𝜇2
μ2 = 2[(IT/Ic)2 – 1] or (IT/Ic)2 = 1 + 2

Multi-Tone Modulation
In Multi-Tone Modulation the modulating signal consists of more than one frequency
component whereas in Single-Tone Modulation the modulating signal consists of only
one frequency component.

Let S(t) = A c [1+ka m(t)] cos(2π fc t) ………..(i)

m(t) = A m1 cos(2π fm1 t) + A m2 cos(2π fm2 t)

Substitute m(t) in equation (i)

S(t) = A c [1 + kaA m1 cos(2π fm1 t) + kaA m2 cos(2π fm2 t)] cos(2π fc t)

Replace the term (kaA m1) by µ 1 and (kaA m2) by µ 2

S(t) = A ccos (2πfct) + A c µ1/2 [cos2π(fc + fm1)t]+ A cµ1/2 [cos2π(fc - fm1)t]

+ A c µ2/2 [cos2π(fc + fm2)t]+ A cµ2/2 [cos2π(fc - fm2)t]

The Fourier transform of S (t) is

S(f) =A c/2[δ(f - fc) + δ(f + fc)] + A cµ1 /4 [δ(f - fc - fm1) + δ(f + fc + fm1)]
+ A cµ1/4 [δ(f - fc + fm1) + δ(f + fc - fm1)]

+ A cµ2 /4 [δ(f - fc - fm2) + δ(f + fc + fm2)]

+ A cµ2/4 [δ(f - fc + fm2) + δ(f + fc - fm2)]

Spectrum of Multi-Tone AM signal

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 35
Power Calculations on Multi-Tone AM Signals

The standard time-domain equation for Single-Tone AM Signal is given by

PT = Pc [1 + µ12/ 2 + µ22/ 2 + … + µn2/ 2 ]

P T = P c [1 + µ t 2 / 2]

where µt2 = µ12 + µ22 + …… + µn2

Transmission efficiency (η ):-

Transmission efficiency is the ratio of the total side-band power to the total
transmitted power.

η = PSB / PT = µ2 / (2 + µ2)

Advantages of Amplitude Modulation

1. Generation and detection of AM signals are very easy
2. It is very cheap to build, due to this reason it I most commonly used in AM radio
broad casting

Disadvantages of Amplitude of Modulation

1. Amplitude modulation is wasteful of power
2. Amplitude modulation is wasteful of band width

Applications of Amplitude Modulation

1. AM Radio Broadcasting

Generation of Amplitude Modulation Waves

The AM waves are generated in two ways:
1. Square-Law Modulation 2. Switching Modulation

Square-Law Modulator

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 36
A Square-Law Modulator requires three features:
1. A means of summing the carrier and the modulating waves
2. A nonlinear element, and
3. A band-pass filter for extracting the desired modulation products.

Semiconductor diodes and transistors are the most common nonlinear devices used
for implementing square-law modulation.
The filtering requirement is usually satisfied by using a single or double tuned filters.

When a nonlinear element such as a diode is suitably biased and operated in a

restricted portion of its characteristic curve, that is, the signal applied to the diode is
relatively weak, the transfer characteristic of diode-load resistor combination can be
represented closely by a square law.

V o(t) = a1Vi(t) + a2V i2 + … where a1, a2 are constants

With the input voltage V i(t) as the sum of both carrier and message signals:
V i (t) = A c cos2πfct + m(t)
When ka = 2a2 / a1, Vo(t) = a1A c [1 + 2a2/a1 m(t)] cos2πfct

We can remove the unwanted terms by passing this output voltage V 0(t) through the
band-pass filter and finally get required AM signal.

Assume the message signal m(t) is band limited to the interval –W ≤ f ≤ W

spectrum of message signal

After Fourier transformation the output voltage V O(t) is given by

V o(f) = a1A c/2 [δ(f - fc) + δ(f + fc)] + a2A c [M(f - fc) + M(f + fc)]

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 37
 spectrum of AM signal

The AM spectrum consists of

1. Two impulse functions which are located at f c and -fc
and weighted by [A ca1/2] and [a2A c/2]
2. Two USBs of frequencies from [fc] to [fc + W]
and band of frequencies from [-fc – W] to [–fc] and
3. Two LSBs of frequencies from [fc – W] to [fc] and [-fc] to [-fc + W]

Switching Modulator

Assume that carrier wave C(t) applied to the diode is large in amplitude, so that it
swings right across the characteristic curve of the diode. We assume that the diode
acts as an ideal switch, by presenting zero impedance when it is forward-biased and
infinite impedance when it is reverse-biased. This way the transfer characteristic of
the diode-load resistor combination can be approximated by a piecewise-linear
characteristic.

The input voltage applied V i(t) applied to the diode is the sum of both the carrier
and the message signals.
Vi(t) =A ccos2πfct + m(t)

Operation
During the positive half cycle of the carrier signal (i.e. c(t) > 0), the diode is forward
biased, and then the diode acts as a closed switch. Now the output voltage V o(t) is
same as the input voltage V i(t).

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 38
During the negative half cycle of the carrier signal (i.e. C(t) < 0), the diode is
reverse biased, and then the diode acts as an open switch. Now the output voltage
Vo(t) is zero.
The output voltage varies periodically between the values input voltage V i(t) and
zero at a rate equal to the carrier frequency fc.

Vo(t) = [A ccos2πfct + m(t)] gP(t)

Where gp(t) is the periodic pulse train with duty cycle one-half and period T c= 1/fc
and which is given by

periodic pulse train

When ka = 4/πAc, Vo(t) = A c/2 [1+ka m(t)] cos2πfct

We can remove the unwanted terms by passing this output voltage V 0(t) through the
band-pass filter and finally we will get required AM signal.

Assume the message signal m(t) is band limited to the interval –W ≤ f ≤ W

spectrum of message signal

After Fourier transformation the output voltage V O(t) is given by

V o(f) = A c/4 [δ(f - fc) + δ(f + fc)] + A c/π [M(f - fc) + M(f + fc)]

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 39
 spectrum of AM signal

1. Two impulse functions which are located at f c and -fc

and weighted by [A ca1/2] and [a2A c/2]
2. Two USBs of frequencies from [fc] to [fc + W]
and band of frequencies from [-fc – W] to [–fc] and
3. Two LSBs of frequencies from [fc – W] to [fc] and [-fc] to [-fc + W]

Demodulation of AM Waves:
There are two methods to demodulate AM signals:
1. Square-Law Detector
2. Envelope Detector

Square-Law Detector
When the Square-Law Detector output is filtered the following output is obtained:

V o(t) = A c2 a2m(t)

After Fourier transformation, Vo(f) = A c2 a2M(f)

spectrum of output signal

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 40
Envelope Detector

The Envelope Detector is used to detect high-level modulated signals, whereas the
Square-Law Detector is used to detect low-level modulated signals (those below 1v).
It is also based on the switching action or switching characteristics of a diode. It
consists of a diode and a resistor-capacitor filter.

Operation
On a positive half-cycle of the input signal, the diode is forward-biased and the
capacitor C charges up rapidly to the peak value of the input signal.
When the input signal falls below this value, the diode becomes reverse biased and
the capacitor C discharges slowly through the load resistor R L. The discharging
process continues until the next positive half-cycle.
When the input signal becomes greater than the voltage across the capacitor, the
diode conducts again and the process is repeated.

The charging time constant R sC is very small when compared to the carrier period of
1/fc.
That means RsC<< 1/fc

Where Rs = internal resistance of the voltage source

C = capacitor
fc = carrier frequency

This makes the capacitor C charge rapidly to the peak value of the signal.

The discharging time constant R lC is very large when compared to the charging time
constant.
That means 1/fc<< RLC << 1/W

Where RL = load resistance value

W = message signal bandwidth

This makes the capacitor discharge slowly through the load resistor.

Advantages
1. It is very simple to design
2. It is inexpensive
3. Efficiency is very high when compared to Square-Law detector

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 41
Disadvantages
1. Due to large time constant, some distortion occurs which is known as diagonal
clipping i.e., selection of time constant is somewhat difficult

Applications
1. It is most commonly used in almost all commercial AM Radio receivers.

Types of Amplitude Modulation

1. Double Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) Modulation
2. Single Sideband (SSB) Modulation
3. Vestigial Sideband (SSB) Modulation

5.4.2 Angle Modulation

Angle Modulation is a modulation technique in which the angle of the carrier signal is
varied according to the information-bearing signal. In this modulation technique, the
amplitude of the carrier signal is maintained constant.
In Angle Modulation either the phase or frequency of the carrier signal is varied
according to the message signal.
The two commonly used types of Angle Modulation techniques are frequency
modulation and phase modulation.

Properties of Angle Modulated Signals

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 42
 carrier wave or signal

sinusoidal modulating signal

amplitude-modulated signal

phase-modulated signal

frequency-modulated signal

Property 1: Constancy of Transmitted Power

The amplitude of PM and FM waves is maintained at a constant value equal to the
carrier amplitude (A c) for all time t, irrespective of the sensitivity factors (k p) and
(kf ).
Consequently, the average transmitted power of angle-modulated waves is a
constant
1
Pav = (A c)2 assuming load resistor of 1 ohm
2

Property 2: Nonlinearity of the Modulation Process

Both PM and FM waves violate the principle of superposition.

Suppose that the message signal is made up of two different components, m 1(t) and
m 2(t) such that:
m(t) = m 1(t) + m 2(t)

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 43
Let s(t), s1(t) and s2(t) denote the PM waves produced by m(t), m 1(t) and m 2(t)

The PM signals can be expressed as follows:

s(t) = A ccos[2πfc(t) + kp(m 1(t) + m 2(t))]

s1(t) = A ccos[2πfc(t) + kpm 1(t)] and

s2(t) = A ccos[2πfc(t) + kpm 2(t)]

Violation of Principle of Superposition:

Although m(t) = m 1(t) + m 2(t)
s(t) ≠ s1(t) + s2(t) violation

Property 3: Irregularity of Zero-Crossings

A consequence of allowing the instantaneous angle θ i(t) to become dependent on
𝑡
the message signal m(t) or its integral ∫0 𝑚(𝜏)d𝜏 is that, in general, the zero-
crossings of a PM or FM wave no longer have a perfect regularity in their spacing
across the time-scale.
Zero-Crossings are defined as the instants of time at which a waveform changes
its amplitude from a positive to negative value or the other way around. In a way,
the irregularity of zero-crossings in angle-modulated waves is also attributed to the
nonlinear character of the modulation process.

Exceptional Cases
1.The message signal m(t) increases or decreases linearly with time t, in which case
the instantaneous frequency fi(t) of the PM wave changes from the unmodulated
carrier frequency fc to a new constant value dependent on the slope of m(t).
2.The message signal m(t) is maintained at some constant value, positive or
negative, in which case the instantaneous frequency f i(t) of the FM wave changes
from the unmodulated carrier frequency to a new constant value dependent on
the constant value of m(t).

In Angle Modulation, the information content of the message signal m(t) resides in
the zero-crossings of the modulated wave, provided the carrier frequency f c is large
compared to the highest frequency component of the message signal m(t).

Property 4: Visualisation Difficulty of Message Waveform

In AM, the message waveform is the envelope of the modulated wave, provided the
percentage modulation is less than 100 percent for sinusoidal modulation. This is not
so in angle modulation.
In general, the difficulty in visualising the message waveform in angle-modulated
waves is also attributed to the nonlinear character of angle-modulated waves.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 44
Property 5: Trade-off of Increased Transmission Bandwidth
for Improved Noise Performance

Angle Modulation has better noise suppression than Amplitude Modulation. This
advantage is attributed to the fact that the transmission of a message signal by
modulating the angle of a sinusoidal carrier wave is less sensitive to the presence of
additive noise than transmission by modulating the amplitude of the carrier.
The improved noise performance is attained at the expense of a corresponding
increase in the transmission bandwidth requirement of angle modulation. In other
words, the use of angle modulation offers the possibility of exchanging an increase
in transmission bandwidth for an improvement in noise performance.
Such a trade-off is not possible with amplitude modulation because the transmission
bandwidth of an amplitude-modulated wave is fixed somewhere between the
message bandwidth W and 2W, depending on the type of modulation employed.

Relationship: Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation

1. Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation are very much related to each other.
2. In PM the angle is directly proportional to m(t).
3. In FM the angle is directly proportional to the integral of m(t), [i.e.∫ 𝑚(𝑡)dt]
4. A Frequency Modulated signal can be generated by first integrating the message
signal [m(t)] and then using the result as the input to a phase modulator
5. A Phase Modulated signal can be generated by first differentiating the message
signal [m(t)] and then using the result as the input to a frequency modulator

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 45
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation is a system in which the amplitude of the modulated carrier
iskept constant, while its instantaneous frequency and rate of change are
variedby the modulatingsignal.

Scheme for generating a Frequency Modulation wave by using a phase modulator

In frequency modulation, the number of times per second that the instantaneous
frequency is varied about the average (or carrier frequency) is the modulating
frequency, while the amount that the frequency varies away from the average,
called the frequency deviation, is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal.

In frequency modulation, the carrier amplitude remains constant and the carrier
frequency is changed by the modulating signal.
As the amplitude of the information signal varies, the carrierfrequency shifts
proportionately. As the modulating signal amplitude increases, the carrierfrequency
increases. If the amplitude of the modulating signal decreases, the carrier frequency
decreases.
The reverse relationship can also be implemented. A decreasingmodulating signal
increases the carrier frequency above its centre value, whereas an increasing
modulating signal decreases the carrier frequency below its centre value.

As the modulating signal amplitude varies, the carrier frequency varies above and
below its normal centre, or resting, frequency with no modulation.
The amount of change in carrier frequency produced by the modulating signal is
known as the frequency deviation fd. Maximum frequency deviation occurs at the
maximum amplitude of the modulating signal.
The frequency of the modulating signal determines the frequency deviation rate, or
how many times per second the carrier frequency deviates above and below its
centre frequency.

In frequency modulation the instantaneous angular frequency ω ivaries linearly with

the modulating signal m(t)
ωi = ωc + kf m(t)
𝑡
frequency modulated signal: SFM(t) = A ccos[2πfct + 2πkf ∫−∞ 𝑚(𝑥)dx]

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 46
where kf represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator or the frequency
deviation constant. Units: (kHz/volt or radians per volt-second)

If the modulation signal is a sinusoid of amplitude A m and frequency fm

Mathematical Representation of Frequency Modulation

frequency v time in FM

The instantaneous frequencyfof the frequency-modulated wave is given by

f = fc(1 + k VmCOSωm t)

where fc= unmodulated (or average) carrier frequency

k = proportionality constant
VmCOSωmt= instantaneous modulating voltage (cosine being preferred forsimplicity
in calculations)

The maximum deviation for this particular signal will occur when the cosineterm has
its maximum value, ± 1.
Under these conditions, the instantaneous frequencywill be

f = fc(1 ±k Vm)

The maximum deviation(δmax ) will be given by: δmax = k Vm fc

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 47
Modulation Index of FM
The modulation index mfis the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
mf = = (fd) / (fm)
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

where fd is the frequency deviation and fm is the modulating frequency.

Sometimes the lowercase Greek letter delta (δ) is used instead of fd to represent
deviation. Then m f = δ /fm

In most communication systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the
frequency deviation and the modulating frequency.

For example, in standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted frequency

deviation is 75 kHz and the maximum permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
This produces a modulation index of m f = 75/15 = 5

When the maximum allowable frequency deviation and the maximum modulating
frequency are used in computing the modulation index, mf is known as the
deviation ratio.

Equations for FM with Single-Tone Modulation

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 48
Interpretation of FM Modulation Index
1. When β << 1 radian, it is called narrow-band FM consisting of a carrier, an
upper side-frequency component, and a lower side-frequency component
2. When β >> 1 radian, it is called wide-band FM which contains a carrier and an
infinite number of side-frequency components located symmetrically around the
carrier
3. The envelope of an FM wave is constant, meaning that the average power of
such a signal is constant when dissipated in a 1-ohm resistor

Frequently, the modulating signal is a pulse train or series of rectangular

waves, e.g. serial binary data.
When the modulating signal has only two amplitudes, the carrier frequency has only
two values.

Frequency-modulating a carrier with binary data produces FSK

When the modulating signal is a binary 0, the carrier frequency is the centre
frequency value.
When the modulating signal is a binary 1, the carrier frequency abruptly changes to
a higher frequency level.
The amount of the shift depends on the amplitude of the binary signal. This kind of
modulation is called frequency-shift keying (FSK).
Frequency-shift keying is widely used in the transmission of binary data in Bluetooth
headsets, wireless speakers, and many forms of industrial wireless.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 49
Frequency Modulation Signal Bandwidth

In order to evaluate the value of a given pair of sidebands or the value of the
carrier, it is necessary to know the value of the corresponding Bessel Function.

Table of Bessel Functions of the First Order

Bessel Functions in Graphical Form

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 50
Observations

1. Frequency Modulation (FM) has an infinite number of sidebands, in addition to

the carrier.
They are separated from the carrier by f m, 2fm, 3fm, … and thus have a recurrence
frequency offm.
2. The J-coefficients eventually decrease in value as n increases, but not in any
simple manner.
The J-coefficient value fluctuates on either side of zero, gradually diminishing.
Since each J-coefficient represents the amplitude of a particular pair of sidebands,
these also eventually decrease, but only after a certain value of n.
The modulation index determines how many sideband components have
significant amplitudes.
3. The sidebands at equal distances from fc have equal amplitudes, so that the
sideband distribution is symmetrical about the carrier frequency.
The J-coefficients occasionally have negative values, signifying a 180 0 phase
change for that particular pair of sidebands.
4. From the Table, as mf increases, so does the value of a particular J-coefficient,
such as J 12.
Bearing in mind that m f is inversely proportional to the modulating frequency, the
relative amplitude of distant sidebands increases when the modulation frequency
is lowered. This is true when the deviation (i.e., the modulating voltage) has
remained constant.
5. In AM, increased depth of modulation increases the sideband power and therefore
the total transmitted power.
In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant, but with increased
depth of modulation the required bandwidth is increased.
To be quite specific, what increases is the bandwidth required to transmita
relatively undistorted signal. This is true because increased depth of modulation
means increased deviation, and therefore an increased modulation index, so that
more distant sidebands acquire significant amplitudes.
6. The theoretical bandwidth required in FM is infinite.
In practice, the bandwidth used is one that has been calculated to allow for all
significant amplitudes of sideband components under the most exacting
conditions. This really means ensuring that, with maximum deviation by the
highest modulating frequency, no significant sideband components are lopped off.
7. In FM, unlike in AM, the amplitude of the carrier component does not remain
constant.
FM carrier J-coefficient is J 0, which is a Junction of m f . This may sound somewhat
confusing but keeping the overall amplitude of the FM wave constant would be
very difficult if the amplitude of the carrier were not reduced when the amplitude
of the various sidebands increased.
8. It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to disappear completely.
This happens for certain values of the modulation index, called eigen values.
These disappearances of the carrier for specific values of m f form a useful basis
for measuring deviation.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 51
Bandwidth and Required Spectra

Using Table of Bessel Functions, it is possible to evaluate the size of the carrier and
each sideband for each specific or value of the modulation index.
When this is done, the frequency spectrum of the FM wave for that particular value
of mf maybe plotted.

FM spectrograms

Notes
1. Both the Table of Bessel Functions and the spectrograms illustrate that as
modulation depth increases, so does bandwidth, and also that reduction in
modulation frequency increases the number of sidebands, though not necessarily
the bandwidth.
2. Although the number of sideband components is theoretically infinite, in practice a
lot of the higher sidebands have insignificant relative amplitudes, and this is why
they are not shown in the spectrograms.
Their exclusion in a practical system will not distort the modulated wave unduly.
3. In order to calculate the required bandwidth accurately, the Table of Bessel
Functions is used to see the last J-coefficient shown for that value of modulation
index.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 52
The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant
sidebands and the wider the bandwidth of the signal.

Method 1: The total bandwidth of an FM signal can be determined by knowing the

modulation index in conjunction with the table of Bessel Functions.

carrier and sideband amplitudes for different modulation indexes of FM signals

based on the Bessel functions

Example: assume that the highest modulating frequency of a signal is 3 kHz and the
maximum deviation is 6 kHz.
This gives a modulation index of m f = 6 kHz/3 kHz = 2.

From the table above, this produces four significant pairs of sidebands.

The bandwidth can then be determined with the formula: BW = 2fm N

where N is the number of significant sidebands in the signal

According to this formula, the bandwidth of our FM signal is

BW = 2(3 kHz) (4) =24 kHz

In general terms, an FM signal with a modulation index of 2 and a highest

modulating frequency of 3 kHz will occupy a 24-kHz bandwidth.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 53
Method 2: Determining the bandwidth of an FM signal using Carson’s Rule
This rule recognises only the power in the most significant sidebands
with amplitudes greater than 2 percent of the carrier (0.02 or higher in
the table above).

Carson's Rule: the bandwidth required to pass an FM wave can be approximated

to twice the sum of the deviation frequency and the highest
modulating frequency

Bandwidth: BW = 2[fd(max) + fm(max)]

According to Carson’s rule, the bandwidth of the FM signal in the previous example
would be
BW = 2(6 kHz + 3 kHz) = 2(9 kHz) =18 kHz

Carson’s Rule will always give a bandwidth lower than that calculated with the
formula
[BW = 2fmN].

Practically, if a circuit or system has the bandwidth calculated by Carson’s rule, the
sidebands will be passed well enough to ensure full intelligibility of the signal.

Most modulating signals are not pure sine waves, but complex waves made up of
many different frequencies (Multi-tone Modulation).

When the modulating signal is a pulse or binary wave train, the carrier is modulated
by the equivalent signal, which is a mix of a fundamental sine wave and all the
relevant harmonics, as determined by Fourier Theory.

If the modulating signal is a square wave, the fundamental sine wave and all the
odd harmonics modulate the carrier. Each harmonic produces multiple pairs of
sidebands depending on the modulation index.
FM by a square or rectangular wave generates many sidebands and produces a
signal with an enormous bandwidth.
The circuits or systems that will carry, process, or pass such a signal must have the
appropriate bandwidth so as not to distort the signal.

In most equipment that transmits digital or binary data by FSK, the binary signal is
filtered to remove higher-level harmonics prior to modulation. This reduces the
bandwidth required for transmission.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 54
Frequency Spectrum of Frequency Modulation

The FM modulated signal in the time domain is given by

SFM(t) = A c∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝐽𝑚 (𝛽)cos[(ω c + nω m)t]

Notes:
1. The frequency spectrum of an FM waveform with a sinusoidal modulating signal is
a discrete frequency spectrum made up of components spaced at frequencies of
(ωc ± nω m)
2. By analogy with AM modulation, these frequency components are called
sidebands.
3. The expression for S FM(t) is an infinite series, meaning that the frequency
spectrum of an FM signal has an infinite number of sidebands
4. The amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands of an FM signal are given by the
corresponding Bessel functions, which are themselves functions of the modulation
index

Spectra of an FM Signal with Sinusoidal Modulation

The following spectra show the effect of modulation index, β, on the bandwidth of
an FM signal, and the relative amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands

Carson’s Rule: Bandwidth is twice the sum of the maximum frequency deviation
and the modulating frequency.

band-width BW = 2(Δf + fm) = 2(1 + βf )fm upper bound

nominal band-width BW ≈ 2(Δf) = 2(βfm) lower bound

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 55
Generation of FM Signals

1. Indirect FM: first proposed by Armstrong

In this method the modulating signal is first used to produce a narrow-band FM
signal, and frequency multiplication is next used to increase the frequency
deviation to the desired level.

2. Direct FM:
In this method the carrier frequency is directly varied in accordance with the
incoming message signal.

Detection of FM Signals:
To perform frequency demodulation we require a 2-port device that produces an
output signal with amplitude directly proportional to the instantaneous frequency of
an FM signal used as the input signal.

Common FM Detectors
1. Slope Detector
2. Balanced Slope Detector (Travis Detector, Triple-Tuned-Discriminator)
3. Phase Discriminator (Foster-Seeley Discriminator or Centre-Tuned Discriminator)
4. Ratio Detector
5. Phase-Locked-Loop (PLL) Demodulator and
6. Quadrature Detector

The Slope Detector, Balanced Slope Detector, Foster-Seeley Discriminator, and Ratio
Detector are forms of Tuned–Circuit Frequency Discriminators

Tuned-Circuit Discriminators convert FM to AM and then demodulate the AM

envelope with conventional peak detectors

Disadvantages of Slope Detector – poor linearity, difficulty in tuning, and lack of

provisions for limiting

A Balanced Slope Detector is simply two single ended slope detectors connected in
parallel and fed 180 o out-of-phase

Advantage of Foster-Seeley Discriminator: output voltage-vs-frequency deviation

curve is more linear than that of a slope detector, and it is easier to tune

Disadvantage of Foster-Seeley Discriminator: a separate limiter circuit must precede

it

Advantage of Ratio Detector over Foster-Seeley Discriminator: it is relatively immune

to amplitude variations in its input signal

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 56
Example:
Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index, and the
maximum deviation of FM wave represented by the voltage equation:
v = 12 sin (6 x 10 8t + 5 sin 1250t).
What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10-Ω resistor?

Solution:

From 2πf = 6 x108 fc = 6 x108 / (2π) = 95.5 MHz

fm = 1250 / (2π) = 199 Hz

From 5 sin 1250t modulation index mf = 5

Maximum deviation δ = m f * fm = 5 * 199 Hz = 995 Hz

From P = V 2 / R P = (V rms)2 / R = [12 / (√2)]2 / 10 = 72 / 10 = 7.2 W

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 57
Phase Modulation (PM)

Phase Modulation (PM) is a type of angle modulation in which the angular

argument θ(t) is varied linearly with the message signal m(t).

θ(t) = 2πfct + kp m(t)

where [2πfct] represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier

[kp] represents the phase sensitivity of the modulator (radians/volt)

Scheme for generating a Phase Modulation wave by using a frequency modulator

A phase-modulated wave (signal) is a sinusoidal wave in which the value of the

reference phase θ is varied so that its magnitude is proportional to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

When the amount of phase shift of a constant-frequency carrier is varied in

accordance with a modulating signal, the resulting output is a phase modulation
(PM) signal.

A frequency shift occurs in PM only when the modulating signal amplitudevaries

(a) Modulating signal (b) FM signal (c) PM signal

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 58
The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal,the greater the phase shift.
If a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency carrier sine wave is applied to the phase
shifter whose phase shift is varied by the intelligence signal, the output of the phase
shifter is a PM wave. As the modulating signal goes positive, the amount of phase
lag, and thus the delay of the carrier output, increases with the amplitude of the
modulating signal. The result at the output is the same as if the constant-frequency
carrier signal had been stretched out, or had its frequency lowered. When the
modulating signal goes negative, the phase shift becomes leading. This causes the
carrier sine wave to be effectively speeded up, or compressed. The result is the
same as if the carrier frequency had been increased.

When a modulating signal is applied to a phase modulator the output frequency

changes only during the time that the amplitude of the modulating signal is varying.
The maximum frequency deviation produced by a phase modulator occurs during
the time when the modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate. For a sine
wave modulating signal, the rate of change of the modulating signal is greatest
when the modulating wave changes from plus to minus or from minus to plus.

The phase modulated wave is given by: SPM(t) = A c cos[2πfct + kθ m(t)]

wherekθ is the phase deviation constant

For sinusoidal phase modulation at a frequency [f m = ωm/2π] we would have

θ(t) = 2πfct + kp sin(2πfmt)

wherekp is the maximum value of the phase change introduced by modulation, and
is called the modulation index for phase modulation

The phase modulated wave is now given by

SPM(t) = A c cos[2πfct + kθ sin(2πfmt)]

Note:
The phase-modulated wave contains the same side-band components as does the
frequency-modulated wave, and if the modulation indices in the two cases are the
same, the relative amplitudes of these different components will also be the same.

Thus the only difference between frequency modulation and phase modulation is
the process by which a definition of the modulation index is arrived at.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 59
 Frequency deviation as a function of
(a) modulating signal amplitudeand (b) modulating signal frequency

Comparison: Frequency Modulation v Phase Modulation

srl frequency modulation (FM) phase modulation (PM)

1 Frequency deviation is proportional to Phase deviation is proportional to
modulating signal m(t) modulating signal m(t)
2 Noise immunity is superior to PM (and of course Noise immunity better than AM but not
AM) FM
3 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is better than in PM Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is not as
good as in FM
4 FM is widely used for commercial broadcast PM is primarily for some mobile radio
radio (88 MHz to 108 MHz) services
5 Modulation index is proportional to modulating Modulation index is proportional to
signal m(t) as well as modulating frequency fm modulating signal m(t)

Phase-Shift Keying
Phase Modulation is also used with binary signals.

Phase modulation of a carrier by binary data produces PSK

When the binary modulating signal is 0V, or binary 0, the PM signal is simply the
carrier frequency.
When a binary 1 voltage level occurs, the modulator, which is a phase shifter,
changes the phase of the carrier (by 180°), not its frequency.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 60
Each time the signal changes from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0, there is a 180° phase shift. The
PM signal is still the carrier frequency, but the phase has been changed with respect
to the original carrier with a binary 0 input.
The process of phase-modulating a carrier with binary data is called phase-shift
keying (PSK) or binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).

The important thing to remember is that no frequency variation occurs. The PSK
signal has a constant frequency, but the phase of the signal from some reference
changes as the binary modulating signal occurs.

Modulation Index and Sidebands

Any modulation process produces sidebands.
When a constant-frequency sine wave modulates a carrier, two side frequencies are
produced. The side frequencies are the sum and difference of the carrier and the
modulating frequency.
In FM and PM, as in AM, sum and difference sideband frequencies are produced. In
addition, a large number of pairs of upper and lower sidebands are generated. As a
result, the spectrum of an FM or a PM signal is usually wider than that of an
equivalent AM signal.

In FM, only those sidebands with the largest amplitudes are significant in carrying
information. Sidebands containing less than 2 percent of the total power have little
overall effect on the intelligibility of the signal.

As the amplitude of the modulating signal varies, the frequency deviation changes.
The number of sidebands produced, and their amplitude and spacing, depends on
the frequency deviation and modulating frequency.

Frequency spectrum of an FM signal

The amplitudes depend upon the modulation index mf

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 61
Theoretically, the FM process produces an infinite number of upper and lower
sidebands and, therefore, a theoretically infinitely large bandwidth. However, in
practice, only those sidebands with the largest amplitudes are significant in carrying
the information.
Typically any sideband whose amplitude is less than 1% of the unmodulated
carrier is considered insignificant. Thus FM is readily passed by circuits or
communication media with infinite bandwidth. Despite this, the bandwidth of an FM
signal is usually much wider than that of an AM signal with the same modulating
signal.

Example:
A 25-MHz carrier is modulated by a 400-Hz audio sine wave. If the carrier voltage is
4 V and the maximum deviation is 10 kHz, write the equation of this modulated
wave for (a) FM and (b) PM
If the modulating frequency is now changed to 2 kHz, all else remaining constant,
write a new equation for (c) FM and (d) PM.

Solution
Calculating the frequencies in radians

ωc = 2πfc = 2 * 3.144 * 25 * 10 6 = 157 * 106 rad/s = 1.57 * 10 8 rad/s

ωm = 2πfc = 2 * 3.144 * 400 = 2513 rad/s

modulation index, m = m f = m p = fd / fm = 10 000 / 400 = 25

The equations:
(a) FM v = 4 sin(1.57 * 10 8 t + 25 sin 2513t)
(b) PM v = 4 sin(1.57 * 10 8 t + 25 sin 2513t)

When fm = 2 kHz modulation index, m = m f = fd / fm = 10 000 / 2 000 = 5

The equations:
(a) FM v = 4 sin(1.57 * 10 8 t + 5 sin 2513t)
(b) PM v = 4 sin(1.57 * 10 8 t + 25 sin 2513t)

Practical Effect
1. If an FM transmission were received on a PM receiver, the bass frequencies
would have considerably more deviation (of phase) than a PM transmitter would
have given them.
2. Since the output of a PM receiver would be proportional to phase deviation (or
modulation index) the signal would appear unduly bass-boosted.
3. Phase modulation received by an FM system would appear to be lacking in
bass.
This deficiency could be corrected by bass boosting the modulating signal
prior to phase modulation.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 62
This is the practical difference between phase and frequency modulation.

5.5 Filter Circuits in Carrier Systems

5.5.1 Filters
A filter is a circuit whose gain varies with frequency. A filter changes the amplitude
of an a.c. voltage as the frequency is changed.
The operation of a filter is described by frequency response, which is the way the
output of the filter circuit varies with frequency. This filter output is typically
presented in a graph of output voltage versus frequency.

The purpose of the filter is to allow some frequencies to pass through while blocking
others. Filter circuits are designed to select or reject a band of frequencies
depending on the particular application.
The pass or stop characteristic of a filter is implemented with either passive(using a
series or parallel combination of R, L and C) or active(using op-amps or transistors
and R, L and C) filter circuit design.

Examples of Filter Applications

1. Radio/TV: a “tuning” filter blocks all frequencies except the wanted channel
2. Loudspeaker: “crossover” filters send the right frequencies to different drive units

3. Sampling: an “anti-aliasing filter” eliminates all frequencies above half the

sampling rate
Phones: Sample rate = 8 kHz: filter eliminates frequencies above 3.4 kHz.
4. Computer cables: filter eliminates interference

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 63
Types of Filters
If the maximum output voltage of the circuit, at any frequency, be Vm , then

1. The frequency range for which the response of the filter is greater than (Vm/√2) is
termed the pass-band
2. The range of frequencies for which the output voltage falls to less than (Vm/√2) is
called the rejector stop-band.
3. The frequency at which the output voltage is (Vm/√2) is called a cut-off
frequency, or half-power frequency.

Based on their frequency response, there are four categories of filter:

1. Low-Pass Filter: preserves all frequencies below a certain point

This filter permits the passage of low-frequency signals while rejecting those at
higher frequencies. The frequency range for which the response of the filter (Vout)
lies above (Vm/√2) is at low frequencies.

frequency response logic symbol

f2 is the cut-off frequency, the frequency above which the response falls below
(Vm/√2)

2. High-Pass Filter: eliminates all frequencies below acertain point

This filter permits the passage of high-frequency signals while rejecting those at low
frequencies. The frequency range for which the response of the filter (Vout) lies
above (Vm/√2) is at high frequencies

frequency response logic symbol

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 64
f1 is the cut-off frequency, below which the response falls below (Vm/√2).

3. Pass-Band Filter or Band-Pass Filter:

Passes all the frequencies between two points and attenuates the others

This filter permits the passage of signals in a defined frequency range, in which the
response of the filter (Vout) lies above (V m/√2), while rejecting those signals outside
this range of frequencies.

frequency response logic symbol

The cut-off frequencies f1 and f2 determine the frequency range in which the
response lies above (Vm/√2). Below f1 and above f2 (fh), the response falls below
(Vm/√2). This response is that of the series resonant circuit. The range of
frequencies between f1 and f2 is termed the bandwidth.

4. Stop-Band Filter or Notch Filter or Band-Reject Filter:

Passes all frequencies except those between two points

This filter prevents the passage of signals in a defined frequency range, in which the
response of the filter (Vout) lies below Vm/√2.

The cut-off frequencies f1 and f2 determine the frequency range in which the
response lies below (Vm/√2). Below f1 and above f2 (fh), the response is greater than
(Vm/√2).

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 65
5.5.2 Filter Circuits

1st Order Low-Pass Filter

passive RC filter circuit frequency response

𝑌 1⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶 1 1
Filter Transfer Function𝑋=𝑅+1⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶=𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶+1=𝑗𝜔
+1
𝑝
𝑏 1
Corner Frequency: p = |𝑎| =𝑅𝐶
𝑝
Asymptotes: 1 and
𝑗𝜔

Operation
For very low ω: capacitor acts as an open circuit
For very high ω: capacitor acts as a short circuit

It is a low-pass filter because it allows low frequencies to pass but attenuates

(makes smaller) high frequencies.
The order of a filter is highest power of jω in the denominator of the filter transfer
function. It almost always equals the total number of L and/or C in the circuit.

Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) Filter

This is an inverting amplifier based circuit

active filter frequency response

𝑌 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶+1
Filter Transfer Function =-3x
𝑋 𝑗𝜔4𝑅𝐶+1

Advantages of Op-Amp Circuit:

1. Can have gain > 1
2. Low output impedance – loading does not affect filter
3. Resistive input impedance – does not vary with frequency

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 66
Integrator Op-Amp Filter

active integrator filter frequency response 20dB gain limit

𝑌 1
Filter Transfer Function =-
𝑋 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

−1 𝑡
Integrating Circuit Function y(t) = ∫0 𝑥𝑑𝑡 + y(0)
𝑅𝐶

Note: if x(t) = cosωt

𝑡 1
∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡= sin(ωt) => gain is inversely proportional to ω
𝜔

Filter Transfer Function for the gain limiting circuit

𝑌 10 0.1
𝑋
= -𝑗𝜔10𝑅𝐶+1 (ωc= - 𝑅𝐶
)

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 67
High-Pass Filter

active filter circuit frequency response

𝑌 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
Filter Transfer Function 𝑋
= 𝑅+1⁄𝑗𝜔𝐶
= 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶+1

1
Corner frequency: p= 𝑅𝐶

Asymptotes: jωRC and 1

Operation
For very low ω: capacitor acts as an open circuit, gain = 0
For very high ω: capacitor acts as a short circuit, gain = 1

We can add an op-amp to give a low-impedance output. Or add gain:

𝑍
𝑋
= (1 +𝑅𝐵
𝑅𝐴
𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶
) x 𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶+1

2nd order filter

𝑌
Filter Transfer Function =
𝑋

1
Corner frequency: p=
𝑅𝐶

Asymptotes: jωR2C and 1

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 68
Compared with 1st order Filter:
A 2nd order filter attenuates more rapidly than a 1st order filter.

Types of Filter Circuits and the associated Cut-off Frequencies

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 69
Standard Second-order Filter Responses

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 70