Chapter Three Introduction To Digital Telecom Transmission and Applications

Chapter Three
Introduction to Digital
Telecom Transmission and
Applications
Telecommunication Networks by Tsega T.

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Lecture outlines
• Analog Transmission
• Digital Transmission
• Analog vs. Digital Transmission
• Channel Bandwidth and Capacity
• Multiplexing and multiple access tech.
 T-carrier, E-carrier, and J-carrier
 Overview of Plesio- Synchronous Digital Hierarchy ( PDH)
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy(SDH)
 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
 SDH/SONET Signal Hierarchy
 ATM
 Transmission Media
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Telecommunication Networks by Tsega T. 2
Analog Transmission
 Analog transmission is a transmission method of conveying information
using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other
property in proportion to that information.
 Analog waveform continuously varies in amplitude & time
• Examples: Human voice and television pictures
Example
• Human voice typically generate frequencies from 100Hz to 20,000Hz with a
bandwidth of 9,900Hz
• But the vast majority of sounds we make that constitute intelligible speech
fall between 250Hz and 3,400Hz
• Telephone companies typically allot a limited bandwidth of 4,000Hz for
voice transmission
• This means that they cannot support high-speed data
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Analog Transmission – Drawbacks
 In analog transmission there is noise accumulation as the signal traverses
the network
• This is the problem of basic amplifier used in such transmission, where
the noise level also increases along with an increased signal level
• As the signal moves across the distance, it loses power
(i.e., attenuated) and becomes impaired by factors such as
• Moisture in the cable
• Dirt on a contact
• Therefore, by the time the signal arrives at the amplifier, it is also
corrupted by noise (in addition to attenuation)

Digital Transmission
 Digital Transmission is the transmission of signals that
vary discretely with time between two values of some
physical quantity, one value representing the binary
number 0 and the other representing 1.
 Digital signals use discrete values for the transmission of
binary information over a communication medium such as
a network cable or a telecommunications link.
 On a serial transmission line, a digital signal is transmitted
1 bit at a time.

Digital Transmission - Advantage
• Most important advantages of digital technology includes:
• High scale of integration possible: Digital systems are ideal for
control via software
• Lower cost, better reliability and lower power consumption
• High-capacity digital systems: Because of low-cost multiplexing
and efficient use of optical transmission media.
• Better noise tolerance by using signal regeneration circuits and
operability at low signal-to-noise/interference ratios

Digital Transmission - Disadvantage
• Increased bandwidth
• Need for time synchronization
• Topologically restricted multiplexing
• Incompatibility with analog facilities

Analog vs. Digital Transmission Summary

Analog vs. Digital Transmission Summary . . .

Analog vs. Digital Transmission Summary . . .

Channel Bandwidth and
Capacity
•A very important consideration in data communication is how
fast we can send data, in bps, over a channel.
•Data rate depends upon 3 factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate the data
rate:
 Nyquist for a noiseless channel,
 Shannon for a noisy channel.

Channel Bandwidth and Capacity..
 Noiseless Channel : Nyquist Bit Rate –
For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines
the theoretical maximum bit rate(Capacity)
 Where L is the number of signal levels used to represent

data,
 Bandwidth is a fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed.
Hence, the data rate is directly proportional to the number
of signal levels.
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz
transmitting a signal with two signal levels. What can be the
maximum bit rate?

Channel Bandwidth and Capacity . . .
 Noisy Channel : Shannon Capacity –
In reality, we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is
always noisy.
 Shannon capacity is used, to determine the theoretical highest
data rate for a noisy channel:
C = B log2[1 + S/N]
Example
A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to
3300 Hz) assigned for data communication. The SNR is usually
3162. What will be the capacity for this channel?

Multiplexing and multiple access tech.
 Multiplexing: the process of combining a number of
communication channels and transmitting them over one
physical medium.
 De-multiplexing: to separate and recover the original
channels at the receiver.
 The main multiplexing techniques are:
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
• Time division multiplexing (TDM)
• Code division multiplexing (CDM)

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
 FDMA is an analog technique where each transmitter is assigned a
portion of the frequency spectrum (or band)
 A technique that allows transmission of multiple signals using different
frequency slots over a common link. but the total available bandwidth is
utilized among the various signals
• From the figure shown above, it is clear that a single channel is divided
into multiple parts.
• And each part is nothing but a separate channel carrying a signal or
data stream.
Frequency division multiplexing - Drawbacks
1. It is prone to noise problems and has been overtaken

by TDM, which is better suited for digital data
2. De-multiplex requires a series of band pass filters
that are relatively complicated and expensive. Therefore
the receivers in an FDM system are generally expensive

Time division multiplexing (TDM)
 It is a multiplexing technique that allows transmission of multiple
signals over a common channel but in different time slots.
 Each signal will get transmitted very quickly over the channel but at
a time only one signal will be transmitted.
 So basically in TDM, the overall transmission time is divided
according to the multiple signals required to be transmitted over
the common link.

Types of TDM:
1.Synchronous TDM (STDM):
• In synchronous TDM, the system does not care whether each source is
having signal or data for transmission or not.
• It pre-assigns the slots to each individual source in the beginning.
• So, at the time of transmission, in the absence of data unit from an
individual source, that particular time slot will not get totally utilized.
2. Asynchronous TDM (ATDM):
• Unlike synchronous TDM, in case of asynchronous TDM, the time slot is
assigned to only that particular source that holds a data or signal to
transmit.
• Therefore, in this case, it is not necessary to have an equal number of
frames as that of the number of sources to be transmitted.
Example: T1 digital system
• Transmission System 1 (T1) refers to a type of data
transmission line that relies on PCM and TDM to transmit 24
channels, each carrying 8-bits of data.
• Digital Signal 0 (DS0): is a basic digital signaling rate of 64
kbps, corresponding to the capacity of one voice channel
• 24 time slots are multiplexed to form a frame

• Each time slot is an 8-bit encoded word and one more bit is
added for frame synchronization and alignment.
• If we combine these 64Kbps channels together, we can
achieve wideband transmission rate of 1.544 Mbps
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Telecommunication Networks by Tsega T. 19
T-1 Digital System
T-1 Carrier (1.544 Mbps)

T-1 Digital System . . .
 The resulting PCM stream forms a rate of 1.544 Mbps, as
follows:
• 24 voice time slots x 8 bits per slot = 192 bits
• 192 bits + 1 framing bit = 193 bits / frame
• 8000 frames/second x 193 bits/frame= 1.544 M
bits/second
• This data rate of 1.544 M bits per second and the
frame
structure is called T1 or DS1 (digital signaling 1).
High-Level Multiplexing
 A hierarchy of further multiplexing is built up in stages from the

basic T1 signal
• Based on bit interleaving

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High-Level Multiplexing . . .
 T2 or DS2 is generated by multiplexing four T1 lines in
M12 multiplexer
• 17 bits for frame synchronization
(193x4 + 17)x8000 = 789 x 8000= 6.312 Mbps
 T3 or DS3 is formed from seven T2 lines in multiplexer M23
• 69 bits for frame synchronization and plus stuffing results in 5592
bits frame (789x7+69)
• T3 bit rate is 5592x8000 = 44.736 Mbps
• T4 or DS4: from six T3 lines and adds 720 bits for
synchronization and pulse stuffing
• Thus, T4 rate is 274.176 Mbps
Time division multiplexing - Drawbacks
•There is a one-to-one correlation between each

user/device and time slot, so that if the device is not
available, nobody else can make use of the time slot
assigned to that device.
•I.e., bandwidth is wasted when vacant slots occur
because of idle stations.

T-carrier, E-carrier, and J-carrier
 A range of services that are provisioned wideband

capabilities are T-carrier, E-carrier, and J-carrier
services
 J-carrier is followed throughout Japan,
 T-carrier is followed throughout North America,
 E-carrier is followed throughout Europe, Asia, Latin
America, and Africa

T-carrier
The T- Carrier Digital Signal Hierarchy

Digital Signal Bit Rate DS-0 Channel Number of T-Line
Level
DS-0(T-0) 64 Kbps 1 ---
DS-1(T-1) 1.544 Mbps 24 1
Ds-2(T-2) 6.312 Mbps 96 4
DS-3(T-3) 44.736 Mbps 672 24
DS-4(T-4) 274.176 Mbps 4032 168

T-carrier
 The first subscriber level, Digital Signal Level 1 (DS-1),
provides 1.544Mbps and a total of 24 channels.
 The DS-2 level is not a subscriber level, nor is it used very
frequently in the PSTN.
 DS-3 is a high-bandwidth alternative for subscribers, & it is used
for interexchange trunks. Both users & carriers get 44.736Mbps
with DS-3, which is a total of 672 channels that can carry
combined voice, data, fax, and image traffic.
 The DS-4 level is used only within the telco, again on
interexchange trunks. DS-4 offers roughly 274Mbps & 4,032
channels
E-carrier
The E- Carrier Digital Signal Hierarchy

Digital Signal Bit Rate E-0 Channel Number of E-
Level Line
E-0 64 Kbps ---- ---
E-1 2.048 Mbps 32 1
E-2 8.488 Mbps 128 4

E-3 34.368 Mbps 512 16
E-4 139.246 Mbps 2048 64
E-5 565.148 Mbps 8192 256

E-carrier
 64Kbps is the basic increment in E-carrier.
 E-1 operates at 2.048Mbps and is delivered over

32 channels.
 E-2, like T-2, is not used much.
 E-3, the high-bandwidth alternative, offers 34 Mbps
and 512 channels.
 E-4 and E-5 are largely used within telcom networks,

Overview of Plesio- Synchronous Digital Hierarchy ( PDH)
 The term plesiochronous means "nearly synchronous". PDH

supports a data transmission rate of 2048 Kbps. The data rate is
controlled by a clock in the device that generates the data.
 Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) was designed to transport
the huge amounts of data over digital equipment like microwave
radio or fiber optic systems.
 PDH allows each stream of a multiplexed signal to be bit stuffed to
compensate for the timing differences so that the original data
stream could be reconstituted exactly as it was sent.
 PDH is now obsolete and has been replaced by synchronous optical
networking and synchronous digital hierarchy schemes, which
support much higher transmission rates.

PDH Example T-1
• Multiplexing is done hierarchically and by bite interleaving

• Each individual bit stream is called the “tributary”

SONET and SDH
1. Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

• A multiplexing protocols designed for optical transport (high bit rate)
• Developed by ANSI: Widely used in US and Canada.
• Direct mapping of lower levels into higher ones
• Lower rates can also be transferred with higher rates
•SONET simultaneously transports different circuits modes (e.g., T1,
T3) of differing origin within one single framing protocol
• Synchronization required

SONET and SDH
2. Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
• ITU version of SONET and used in the rest of the world
• SONET and SDH: Different terminology but interoperable

SONET
SONET Achievements :
1. Standard multiplexing that uses 51.84 Mbps as a building block
2. Optical signal standard to interconnect multiple venders
3.Extensive OAM (Operation, Administration, and Maintenance)
capabilities
• Evolving technologies must hold existing technologies
4. Introduces synchronous multiplexing formats to handle lower level

digital signals (e.g., T1, T2, etc)
• Different multiplexing standards at the low rate end

5. Supports the three different systems in PDH
•T1, E1, and J1 brought together (interpretability) and signals can
be transported anywhere in the world
6. Allow quick recovery from failure

SONET Features :
1. Uses octet/byte multiplexing
2. Uses extremely precise timing
• Called atomic clock and hence the name synchronous
3. SONET is superior to T3 & T4
• They feed into SONET
• Better transport performance
• Different streams come together, travel, and diverge
• Tributary: refers to sub-streams that are multiplexed together
4. Ability to identify tributaries
• Enable add-drop multiplexers to insert and extract tributaries
5. International connectivity
6. Enhanced control and administration functions
• Provides support for OAM
7. SONET encompasses optical and electrical specification

SONET Architecture

SONET Architecture
 SONET has 3 layers
1. Section (physical layer): Fiber link between adjacent elements
• Deals with the transmission of an STS-n signal across the fiber link
• When exceed fiber reach – regenerators
• Regenerators use their own overhead
2. Line: Link between adjacent multiplexers
• Encompasses several sections
• Transports aggregate multiplexed streams of user information
• Protect multiplexed SONET payload
• Called Multiplex section
3. Path: End-to-end data connection between two SONET terminals
• Multiplexes signals path of client data (PDH, ATM, packet data)
• Called Path Section
• Each layer has its own overhead to support needed functionalities

SONET and SDH Electrical Signal Hierarchy
1. SONET frame: Called Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)

 STS-1
• The basic STS (electrical) rate used primarily for transport within a
specific piece of hardware
• Transmission rate of 51.84 Mbps
• Multiple STS-1 combined into STS-n signal
• The optical equivalent of STS-1 is known as OC-1 and is used for
transmission across the fiber

• The bit format of STS-1 and OC-1 is the same except that use of
scrambling in optical signal

SONET and SDH Electrical Signal Hierarchy . . .
2. SDH frame: Synchronous Transport Module (STM)
 STM-1: Basic SDH rate at 155.52Mbps (STM-1)
• Multiple STM-1 combined into STM-n signal
• Both SONET and SDH converge at 155.52 Mbps
• I.e., rate of STS-3 = STM-1
• Compatibility
• Interworking b/n SDH and SONET is possible at matched bit rates
• STM-M = STS-N with N = 3M (e.g., STM-4 and STS-12)
• A slight modification to the overhead is required
• SDH rates increase by factors of 4

SONET and SDH Electrical Signal Hierarchy . . .
SONET Optical SONET Electrical SDH Level Voice Channels Transmission-Rate
Level Level :Synchronous :Synchronous Transport Mb/s
Transport Signal (STS) Module (STM).
OC-1 STS-1 — 672 51.840
OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 2016 155.520
OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 8064 622.080
OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 32,256 2488.320
OC-96 STS-96 STM-32 64,512 4976.64
OC-192 STS-192 STM-64 129,024 9953.280
OC-768 STS-768 STM-256 516,096 39,813.120

• OC-1— OC-1 offers about 51Mbps and is generally used as
customer access lines. Early adopter types of customers— such as
universities, airports, financial institutions, large government
agencies, and ISPs—would use OC-1.
• OC-3— OC-3 provides about 155Mbps. End users such as

companies in the aerospace industry and high-tier ISPs would
need this extensive level.
• OC-12— OC-12 provides about 622Mbps. It is another capacity

toward which high-tier ISPs are moving. It was originally
deployed for the metropolitan area fiber rings built out across
cities worldwide, although those rings are now moving to OC-48.

• OC-48— OC-48 offers about 2.5Gbps. This
capacity has been deployed for backbone, or
core, networks. Today the metropolitan area
rings are moving from OC-12 to OC-48, and the
backbone links are moving from OC-48 to OC-
192.
• OC-192— OC-192 supports about 10Gbps and is

being used for backbone networks.

SONET and SDH Tributaries
 STS/STM signals can carry PDH tributaries, for example:

• STS-1 carry 1 T3 or 28 T1s or 1 E3 or 21 E1s
• STM-1 carry 3 E3s or 63 E1s or 3 T3s or 84 T1s
• Frames of lower rate can be synchronously time-division multiplexed
into a higher-rate frame.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
 Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) is a switching
technique used by telecommunication networks
that uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing
to encode data into small, fixed-sized cells.
 ATM is the core protocol used over the SONET
backbone of the integrated digital services
network (ISDN).
 ATM is a connection-oriented protocol that can work with
either permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) or switched virtual
circuits (SVCs), depending on your WAN traffic needs.
 ATM networks use bandwidth at maximum efficiency while
maintaining a guaranteed (QoS) for users and applications that
require it.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

ATM Networks
• A transfer mode in which information is organized into cells
• A cell is defined as a small and fixed-size block of data
• ATM networks uses cells as the basic unit of data exchange
•In ATM, frames of different sizes and formats are split into multiple small
data units of equal length, i.e., cells
• Properties of cells
1. Cells are transmitted with complete predictability & uniformity

2.As each cell is the same size and all are small, the problems associated with
multiplexing different-sized frames are avoided
3. Fixed sized cells enable hardwire switching

ATM Networks
• Typical speeds of ATM are 155 and 622 Mbps
• Minimal error and flow control capabilities like frame relay
• Results in reduced overhead
• Consider the MUX above

1. Frame X has been segmented into three cells: x, y, and z
• Cells from the two lines are interleaved so that none suffers a long
delay
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ATM Networks
2. The high speed of the links coupled with the small size of the
cells means that, despite interleaving, cells from each line
arrive at their respective destinations in an approximation of a
continuous stream.
• ATM network handle real-time transmissions (e.g., phone call)
without the parties being aware of the segmentation or
multiplexing.

ATM Characteristics Summary
 ATM cells
• Fixed size: Note variable vs. fixed and big vs. small
• 5 octet header and 48 octet information field (is relatively small)
• Small cells reduce queuing delay for high priority cells
• Small cells can be switched more efficiently
• Easier to implement switching of small cells in hardware
 In ATM
• No error protection or flow control on a link-by-link basis
• ATM operates in a connection-oriented mode
• The header functionality is reduced.
Transmission Media
1. Guided media: Constrain & guide the communication signals, e.g.,
• Copper wire-based: Open-wire lines, twisted pair, coaxial cable
• Fiber optics
• Unguided media: Permits signals to be transmitted but do not guide them
2. Wireless transmission: Radio transmission, microwave, satellite

 Important characteristics of a media
• Bandwidth: wired media has low BW
• Deployment: wireless is faster, less costly, and better when no infrastructure exists
• Susceptibility to noise and the subsequent error rate
• Distance required between repeaters/amplifiers
• Security

Transmission Media Open-wire lines
• Open wire consists of bare (un-insulated) pairs of wires supported
on poles
• The original telephone and telegraph transmission media for both
local and long-haul transmission
• Have low attenuation at voice frequencies; however, they are
sensitive to external interference from storms and high voltage
power lines

Transmission Media Twisted Pair
• A pair of insulated wires that are twisted together in a continuous spiral at

varying rates
• Twisting minimizes external interference and crosstalk
• Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair would occur on the other
wire
• When the noise appears on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the
receiving end
• Twisted Pair cables are most effectively used in systems that use a balanced line
method of transmission: polar line coding (Manchester Encoding) as opposed to
unipolar line coding (TTL logic)

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Categories of Twisted-pair
• There are two types of twisted-pair: UTP and STP
1. STP- a metallic shield around the wire pairs minimizes the impact of the outside
interference
• Most implementations today use UTP
• The following are cable types specified in cabling standards:
• Category 1 (Cat 1) cable is for voice telephony only; it does not support data
• Category 2 (Cat 2) cable can accommodate up to 4Mbps
• Category 3 (Cat 3) cable supports up to 10Mbps
• Category 4 (Cat 4) cable can carry up to 16Mbps
• Category 5 (Cat 5) cable can handle up to 100Mbps
• Category 5E (Cat 5E) (enhanced) operates over 100Mbps

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Categories of Twisted-pair . . .
• Advanced cable types include
•Category 6 (Cat 6): Is expected to support 1Gbps, but only over
short distances.
• There are currently no applications for Cat 6
• Category 7 (Cat 7) cable will operate over 600MHz over a range
of
100 meters and will use STP or screened twisted-pair (ScTP)
•The predominant cable categories in use today are Cat 3
and Cat 5E; Cat 6 and Cat 7 are not yet standardized.

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Advantages Twisted-pair . . .
1. High availability: More than one billion telephone subscriber lines based
on twisted-pair have been deployed, and if it's there, we're going to use it. An
estimate of over US$250 billion is associated with the twisted-pair deployed
worldwide
2. Low cost of installation on premises: The actual cost of installing twisted
pair on premises is very low
3. Low cost for local moves, adds, and changes in places: An individual can
simply pull out the twisted-pair terminating on a
modular plug and replace it in another jack in the enterprise,
without requiring the intervention of a technician

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Disadvantages Twisted-pair . . .
1. Limited frequency spectrum: The total usable frequency spectrum
of twisted-pair copper cable is about 1MHz
2. Limited data rates: The longer a signal has to travel over twisted- pair, the
lower the data rate.
• At 100 meters, twisted-pair can carry 100Mbps, but at 5.5 kilometers,
the data rate drops to 2Mbps or less
3. Short distances required between repeaters: More components need to be
maintained and where trouble can arise, and this leads

to higher long-term operational costs
4. High error rate: Twisted-pair is highly susceptibility to signal
interference
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Coaxial Cable
• Coax consists of 2 conductors
• The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with the other
conductor woven around it providing a shield
•An insulating protective coating called a jacket covers the
outer conductor
•The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside
electrical signals

Coaxial Cable Application
• In the mid-1920s, coax was applied to telephony networks as interoffice
trunks
• In the 1950s, coax was deployed as submarine cable to carry international
traffic
• Early computer architectures required coax as the media type from the
terminal to the host
• LANs were predominantly based on coax from 1980 to about 1987
• Coax has also been used in community antenna TV (CATV, or cable TV)
and in the local loop, in the form of hybrid fiber cable (HFC) architectures
• In HFC, fibers are brought as close as possible to the neighborhood then
coax are used until the home premises

Coaxial Cable Advantages
1. Broadband system: Sufficient BW to support multiple channels, which allows
for much greater throughput
2. Greater bandwidth per channel: We can support a mixed range of
services, namely, voice, data, video, and multimedia
3. Lower error rates: Because of its insulation, coax has lower error rates and
therefore slightly better performance than twisted-pair
4. Greater spacing between amplifiers: The shielding in coax reduces noise
and crosstalk, which means amplifiers can be spaced farther apart than
with twisted-pair

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Coaxial Cable Disadvantages
1. High installation costs: Installation costs in the local
environment are high
2. High costs for local moves, adds, and changes: One can't easily
do away with the termination of a coax cable. We basically have to
pull in a whole new cable to a new locale; it's not a simple modular
plug environment
3. Susceptible to damage from lightening strikes: In areas with a
lot of lightening strikes, one must be wary because if that
lightening is conducted by the coax, it could very well fry the
equipment at the end of it
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Optical Fibers
What are optical fibers
• Thin strands of pure glass
• Carry data over long distances
• At very high speeds
• Fiber can be bent or twisted
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Optical Fibers . . .
• Consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information at frequencies in the visible
light spectrum and beyond
• The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand of glass called the core
• Around the core is a concentric layer of glass called the cladding
• Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called the
Jacket

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Fiber optic technology
• Sources
• Transmission medium
• Detectors

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Sources of light
• Light emitting diodes
• Lasers
• Modulate electrical signals into optical signals

• Mostly modulate at 850nm, 1300nm and 1550 nm
• Lasers give high intensity, high frequency light
• LEDs are economical
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Types of optical fibers
• Single mode
– only one signal can be transmitted
– use of single frequency
• Multi mode
– Several signals can be transmitted
– Several frequencies used to modulate the signal
Losses in optical fibers
• Attenuation loss
• Dispersion loss
• Waveguide loss
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Advantages of optical fibers
• Can carry much more information
• Much higher data rates
• Much longer distances than co-axial cables
• Immune to electromagnetic noise
• Light in weight
• Unaffected by atmospheric agents
• Non-flammable

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Disadvantage of fiber optic over copper
wire cable
• Optical fiber is more expensive per meter than
copper
• Optical fiber can not be join together as easily
as copper cable. It requires training and
expensive splicing and measurement
equipment.

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Wireless Transmission
1. Radio Transmission
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of
the earth
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere
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Wireless
Transmission . . .
2. Microwave
• Microwave was deployed in the PSTN as a replacement for coaxial cable in the
late 1940s
• Better frequency spectrum and deployable than twisted-pair & coax
• Microwave range: 1GHz to 100GHz frequency band
• Current microwave systems largely operate up to the 50GHz range.
• Microwave is generally allocated in chunks of 30MHz to 45MHz channels
• Substantial amount of BW is available to end users and telecom operators

2. Microwave . . .

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Microwave : Advantage
• The advantages of microwave are:

1. Cost savings: Microwave is less expensive than using leased lines
2. Portability and reconfiguration flexibility: We can pick up
microwave and carry it to a new building, which is impossible
with cables.
3. Substantial bandwidth: High-speed data, video, and multimedia
can be supported.

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Microwave : Disadvantage
 The main disadvantages of microwave are:
1. Line-of-sight requirement: No obstacles between towers
2.Susceptibility to environmentally caused distortions: For
example, heavy rainstorms can cause distortion
3. Regulatory licensing requirement: One must have time
and
flexibility to deal with the spectrum agency
4 . Potential environmental restrictions: Some communities do not
allow microwave towers or require that they be camouflaged.

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Wireless Transmission . . .
3. Satellite
• NASA launched the first experimental satellite in 1963.
• The first commercial satellite was launched in 1965.
• So 1965 marked the beginning of the use of satellite communications
to support public telephony as well as television, particularly
international television.
• Currently, more than 250 communications-based satellites are in
space.

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3. Satellite . . .
• Also hundreds of other specialized satellites that are used for

meteorological purposes, defense, remote sensing, geological
exploration, and so on
 Communication Satellites: Classification based on height
• Geostationary Satellites (GEO)
• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites (MEO)
• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites (LEO)

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GEO Orbit
• Advantages of the the GEO orbit
– No problem with frequency changes
– Tracking of the satellite is simplified
– High coverage area
• Disadvantages of the GEO orbit
– Weak signal after traveling over 35,000 km
– Polar regions are poorly served
– Signal sending delay is substantial

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MEO Satellite Characteristics
• Circular orbit at an altitude in the range of 5000 to 12,000 km
• Orbit period of 6 hours
• Diameter of coverage is 10,000 to 15,000 km
• Round trip signal propagation delay less than 50 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time is a few hours
LEO Satellite Characteristics
• Circular/slightly elliptical orbit under 2000 km
• Orbit period ranges from 1.5 to 2 hours
• Diameter of coverage is about 8000 km
• Round-trip signal propagation delay less than 20 ms
• Maximum satellite visible time up to 20 min
11/14/2017
77
Satellite Orbits
• Communication satellites and some of their properties, including
altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and number of
satellites needed for global coverage

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Satellite Bands

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Transmission Media – Comparison

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Chapter Three Introduction To Digital Telecom Transmission and Applications

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Chapter Three

Telecommunication Networks by Tsega T.

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 Where L is the number of signal levels used to represent

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1. It is prone to noise problems and has been overtaken

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• 24 time slots are multiplexed to form a frame

T-1 Carrier (1.544 Mbps)

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 A hierarchy of further multiplexing is built up in stages from the

Telecommunication Networks by Tsega T.

•There is a one-to-one correlation between each

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 A range of services that are provisioned wideband

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The T- Carrier Digital Signal Hierarchy

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The E- Carrier Digital Signal Hierarchy

E-1 2.048 Mbps 32 1

E-2 8.488 Mbps 128 4

E-4 139.246 Mbps 2048 64

E-5 565.148 Mbps 8192 256

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 E-1 operates at 2.048Mbps and is delivered over

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 The term plesiochronous means "nearly synchronous". PDH

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• Multiplexing is done hierarchically and by bite interleaving

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1. Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

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4. Introduces synchronous multiplexing formats to handle lower level

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1. SONET frame: Called Synchronous Transport Signal (STS)

• The optical equivalent of STS-1 is known as OC-1 and is used for

transmission across the fiber

scrambling in optical signal

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OC-3 STS-3 STM-1 2016 155.520

OC-12 STS-12 STM-4 8064 622.080

OC-48 STS-48 STM-16 32,256 2488.320

OC-96 STS-96 STM-32 64,512 4976.64

OC-192 STS-192 STM-64 129,024 9953.280

OC-768 STS-768 STM-256 516,096 39,813.120

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