MATHEMATICS IN

THE MODERN WORLD

Prepared by: ___________________________
Modules 1 to 14
Student: ________________________________ Year Level and Course: ______________
Subject Teacher: _____________________________

GOOD DAY OUR DEAR STUDENTS!

Welcome to MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD!
This module was created and designed for you to learn and for you to be provided with fun and
meaningful activities which will enhance your skills in independent learning.
Please be reminded of the important activities to be accomplished upon the use of this
module:
1. Please do the OPENING PRAYER before proceeding to the entire lessons and activities
given for the day.
Please take a moment of silence and proceed to the opening prayer.
Opening Prayer
Heavenly Father, who by the light of the Holy Spirit, did instruct the hearts
of the faithful, grant that by the same spirit that we may be truly wise and ever
enjoy His consolation. All of these we pray in Jesus’ name. Amen.
2. Please use and answer your module with love, eagerness and care.
3. All the instructions are clearly written on your module. Please read them carefully and make
sure to follow them faithfully.
4. Please read and understand the intended lesson for the day.
5. Please observe honesty and integrity in accomplishing the tasks given.
6. Please practice to have a motivating mood, patience and perseverance in understanding
and accomplishing the self – learning module.
7. You have to finish the tasks at hand before proceeding to the next. Make sure no activities
will be neglected.
8. Please be reminded that all the activities and lessons on the module must be finished on
the given time frame.
9. Once all the lesson and activities were accomplished, please do not forget to do the
CLOSING PRAYER. Please take another moment of silence and proceed to the closing
prayer.
If you encounter problems or difficulties in answering this module, please do not hesitate to
address your concerns to the responsible teacher. The contact number of the teacher and the
consultation hours are provided in this module. Please bear in mind that you have someone that
will guide and will help you in finishing your module.
It is with a positive mind that this material will really help you to have meaningful learning
and gain deep understanding of the most essential learning competencies intended for this

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 subject. We hope that you will be fully equipped with the necessary knowledge that will enhance
you into a wholesome human being.
TOGETHER EVERYONE ACHIEVES MORE!
Enjoy your module! Thank you and God bless!

Course Overview
Welcome to the Mathematics in the Modern World learning module! This module will
begin with an introduction to the nature of Mathematics as an exploration of patterns and
as an application of inductive and deductive reasoning. This module was created to
provide you with essential learning experiences and opportunities for guided and
independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the
contents of the learning resource while being an active learner.

In order for learners to gain competency in this course, this course pack has been
structured into fourteen modules as follows:

Module 1 - The Nature of Mathematics

Module 2 - Mathematical Language and Symbols
Module 3 - Mathematical Language and Symbols
Module 4 - Sets
Module 5 - Relations and Functions
Module 6 - Binary Operations
Module 7 - Problem Solving and Reasoning
Module 8 - Data Management
Module 9 - Measures of Central Tendency
Module 10 - Measures of Dispersion
Module 11 - Measures of Relative Position
Module 12 - Mathematics of Finance
Module 13 - Propositions
Module 14 - Truth Tables and Tautologies

At the completion of this course pack, learners should be able to:

 identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world, language, symbols, and
conventions of mathematics, data management and logic.
 appreciate the importance of mathematics in the modern world.
 use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.
 use mathematical concepts and tools in other areas such as in finance, voting,
logic, business, networks and systems.

Module 1
Nature of Mathematics
Module Overview
The emergence of digital technology has sparked a monumental rise in the rate at
which we consume and produce data. Before the internet, it could take hours to get

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several volumes of resources from the library. Today, a few minutes using your mobile
device’s browser could get you the same information, or even more.A few decades ago,
it took hours for photographs to be printed and shared. Now, it only takes a matter of
seconds for your perfect selfie to be uploaded and viewed by your relatives and friends
on the other side of the world.
In this module, we will be looking at patterns and regularities in the world, and how
mathematics comes into play, both in nature and human endeavors.

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify the patterns and numbers in nature and the world, golden ratio
and fibonacci sequence;
 Distinguish the next term of the pattern;
 Value the nature and concept of mathematics;
 Find the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence.

Abstraction
What is Pattern?
Patters are repeated or recurring forms or designs.

Examples: Patterns from the layout of the floor tiles, designs of skyscrapers and to
the way we tie our shoelaces

Studying patterns help students in identifying relationships and finding logical

connections to form generalizations and make predictions.

Example 1: Let’s take a look at this pattern:

Solution: What do you thinks will be the next shape in the sequence? Since the pattern
is made up of three shapes - circle,triangle, and pentagon. The shape that should follow
is circle.

Example 2: What number comes next in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, _____?

Solution: Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each terms
being two more than the previous terms: 3 = 1+2; 5 = 3+2; 7 = 5+2; 9 = 7+2. Therefore
the next term should be 11 = 9+2.

Example 3: What number comes next in 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ___?

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Solution: Looking at the given numbers, each term of the sequence is the square of a
number: 12 = 1; 22 = 4; 32 = 9; 42 = 16; 52 = 25. Therefore the next term should be 62 =
36.

Understanding a pattern can help us to:

• extend the pattern

• create new patterns

The Beauty and Reality of Mathematics

Mathematics and Physical Beauty

What has mathematics got to do with beauty? Actually, a lot. Physical attraction
depends on ratio. Our attraction to another person’s body increases if that body is
symmetrical and in proportion. Likewise, if a face is in proportion, we are more likely to
notice it and find it beautiful. Scientists believe that we perceive proportional bodies to be
more healthy.

Why do we find people to be attractive? Because the proportions of the length of the
nose, the position of the eyes and the length of the chin all conform to some aspect of the
Golden Ratio.

What is the Golden Ratio?

Well, before we answer that question let's examine an interesting sequence (or
list) of numbers. Actually the series starts with 0, 1 but to make it easier we’ll just start
with: 1, 1

To get the next number we add the previous two numbers together. So now our
sequence becomes 1, 1, 2. The next number will be 3. What do you think the next number
in the sequence will be? Remember, we add the previous two numbers to get the next.
So the next number should be 2+3, or 5. Here is what our sequence should look like if we
continue on in this fashion for a while:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, …

Now, I know what you might be thinking: "What does this have to do with the
Golden Ratio?
This sequence of numbers was first “discovered” by a man named Leonardo of
Pisa, who was better known by his nickname Fibonacci, and hence is known as
Fibonacci's sequence. He discovered the sequence as he looked at how a
hypothesized group of rabbits bred and reproduced.

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 The Golden Ratio is based on Fibonacci Numbers, where every number in the
sequence (after the second) is the sum of the previous two number:

0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, …

The Golden ratio is equal to 1.6180339887….Where did 1.6180339887… come

from? Let’s look at the ratio of each number in The Fibonacci sequence to the one before
it:

If we keep going, we produce an interesting number which mathematicians call “phi”

(Golden Ratio or Golden Section):   1.6180339887...

The Golden Ratio is what we call an irrational number: it has an infinite number of
decimal places and it never repeats itself! Generally, we round the Golden Ratio to
1.618.

Example 1: Measure the length and width of your face. Divide the length by the width.
This should give approximately 1.6, which means a beautiful person’s face is about 11/2
times longer than it is wide.

Example 2: Look at the following rectangles

Now ask yourself, which of them seems to be the most naturally attractive rectangle?
If you said the first one, then you are probably the type of person who likes everything to
be symmetrical. Most people tend to think that the third rectangle is the most appealing.

If you were to measure each rectangle's length and width, and compare the ratio of
length to width for each rectangle you would see the following:

Rectangle one: Ratio 1:1

Rectangle two: Ratio 2:1
Rectangle Three: Ratio 1.618:1

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 Have you figured out why the third rectangle is the most appealing? That's right -
because the ratio of its length to its width is the Golden Ratio! For centuries, designers of
art and architecture have recognized the significance of the Golden Ratio in their work.

The Golden Ratio: Some Other Examples

In seed heads such as the sunflower shown here and the coneflower previously,
spirals curve left and right. The number of spirals curving left and the number of spirals
curving right are neighbours in the Fibonacci sequence, for example, the number of
spirals curving left is 34 and the number of spirals curving right is 55.

These are Leonardo da Vinci’s paintings having the application of the Golden Ratio.
Leonardo da Vinci's talent as an artist may well have been outweighed by his talents as
a mathematician. He incorporated geometry into many of his paintings, with the Golden
Ratio being just one of his many mathematical tools.

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 The Parthenon and Pyramid are said to exhibit the application of the Golden Ratio.

The ratio of your forearm to hand is Phi.

Finding nth term of the Fibonacci Sequence

Example 1: What is the 13th term of Fibonacci Sequence?

Solution:

Using 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,… let’s get the sum of the previous two
number. So we have Fib(13) = 55+89= 144.

Example 2: What is the 15th term of the Fibonacci Sequence?

Solution:

Based on Example 1 Fib(13) is 114, to get Fib(15) we should determine the value of
Fib(14). To get Fib(14), we will get the sum of Fib(12) and Fib(13) which is
Fib(12)+Fib(13)=89+144= 233. Since we have now the values of Fib(13) and Fib(14) we
can now determine the value of Fib(15).

Fib(15) = Fib(13)+Fib(14)

= 114 + 233

= 377

Example 3: What is the 22nd term of Fibonacci Sequence?

Solution:

Since the term is a higher number compare to the 1 st and 2nd examples, we will now
use the Binet’s Formula.

1 1 5 n 1 5 n
Binet’s Formula: Fn  [( ) ( ) ]
5 2 2

Solution:

1 1  5 22 1  5 22
F22  [( ) ( ) ]
5 2 2

1
F22  [(39,602.99997)  (0.000025251)]
5

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 1
F22  (39,602.9995)
5

F22  17,771

Module 2
Mathematical Language and Symbols:
Expression vs. Equation
Module Overview
The aim of this module is to introduce you to a mathematical way of thinking that can
serve you in a wide variety of situations. Often when you start work on a mathematical
problem, you may have only a vague sense of how to proceed. You may begin by looking
at examples, drawing pictures, playing around with notation, rereading the problem to
focus on more of its details, and so forth. The closer you get to a solution, however, the
more your thinking has to crystallize. And the more you need to understand, the more you
need language that expresses mathematical ideas clearly, precisely, and unambiguously.
At the completion of this module, you should be able to:
 Identify mathematical language, mathematical symbols, expressions
and equations;
 Distinguish some common mathematical symbols and parts of An
expression;
 Value the importance of mathematical language and symbols;
 Translate algebraic expression to verbal expression and vice-versa.

Abstraction
Mathematical Language

Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax and rules. Mathematics
has its own language, much of which are already familiar with. For example the digits 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … are part of our everyday lives. Whether we refer to 0 as “zero”, or “nothing”
as in a telephone number, we understand its meaning. There are many symbols in
mathematics and most are used as a precise from of shorthand.

Characteristics of Mathematical Language

1. Precise - able to make very fine distinctions
2. Concise - able to say things briefly.
3. Powerful - able to express complex thoughts with ease

Some Common Mathematical Symbols

The symbol ＋.
Words associated with this symbols are plus, add, increase, and positive
The symbol －.
Words associated with this symbols are minus, subtract, decrease, take away,
difference, and negative.
The symbol ×.
Words associated with this symbols are multiply, times, and lots of.
The symbol ÷.
Words associated with this symbols divided and ratio.

Expressions vs. Sentences

Expression

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 It is a finite combination of symbols that is well-formed according to the rules that
depend on the context. It is a mathematical phrase and does not contain equal sign.
Types of Expression
1. Numerical Expressions - include numbers and operation symbols.
Examples: 2 ＋ 5
3－6
5×3
14 ÷ 2
2. Algebraic Expressions - include number, operation and variable
Examples: n ＋ 1
4＋6－n
When variables are used with other numbers, parentheses, or operations, they create
an algebraic expression.
a＋2
(a) (b)
3m ＋ 6n － 6

Parts of an Expression

1. Operation - a mathematical process. The most common are addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and division.
Examples:
Algebraic Expression Operation(s)
6m + 5 Addition (+)
8r + 7m - 4 Addition (+) and Subtraction (－)
14b - 8 Subtraction (－)
n+1 Addition (+)

2. Coefficient - is the number multiplied by the variable in an algebraic expression.

Examples:
Algebraic Expression Coefficient(s)
6m + 5 6
8r + 7m - 4 8, 7
14b - 8 14
n+1 1

3. Variable - is an unknown quantity generally represented by a letter.

Examples:
Algebraic Expression Variable(s)
6m + 5 m
8r + 7m - 4 R, m
14b - 8 b
n+1 n

4. Constant - is a number that cannot change its value. It is most often represented by a
positive or negative number.
Examples:
Algebraic Expression Constant
6m + 5 5
8r + 7m - 4 -4
14b - 8 -8
n+1 1

5. Term - is the name given to a number, a variable, or a number and a variable combined
by multiplication or division.

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Examples:
Algebraic Expression Term(s)
6m + 5 6m, 5
8r + 7m - 4 8r, 7m, -4
14b - 8 14b, -8
n+1 n, 1

Translating Algebraic Expressions

There is no single strategy for translating math phrases into algebraic expression. As
long as you can remember the basics, you should be able to tackle more challenging
ones. To build skills in writing algebraic expressions, we will go over different ways of how
each operation may show up as a word or phrase in the problem. Here are the key words
for the four arithmetic operations:
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
sum* difference* product* quotient*
increase decrease times divided
plus minus multiplied ratio
add subtract
more than less than
total
Writing Algebraic Expressions into Verbal Expression
Examples:
Write a verbal expression of the following:
1. 8 + a
2. m/r
3. 2x + 9
4. 16 + 5x
5. x2 + 2x
6. x3 – 4
Answers:
1. the sum of 8 and a or 8 increase by a
2. the ratio of m to r
3. 9 increased by twice a number
4. the sum of 16 and five times a number
5. the sum of a number squared and twice a number
6. four less than the cube of a number

Translating Verbal Expression into Algebraic Expressions

Examples:
Write an algebraic expression for the following:
1. m increased by 5
2. 7 times the product of x and t
3. 11 less than 4 times a number
4. two more than 6 times a number
5. the quotient of a number and 12
6. 7 times a number decreased by 13
7. 28 less than three times a number
Answers:
1. m + 5
2. 7xt or 7(x)(t) or 7 • x • t
3. 4n - 11 (Note: You can change the variable)
4. 6n + 2 (Note: You can change the variable)
x
5. x ÷12, or x/12
12

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 6. 7x - 13
7. 3x - 28

Equation
Algebraic expressions like phrases in English are incomplete. An equation, like a
sentence, is complete. You will notice the inclusion of a very special symbol. An equation
is made up of numbers, variables, and an equal sign.
Examples: 3b + 5 = 26
n + 1 =2
3x2 + 4x -1 = 7

Module 3
Mathematical Language and Symbols:
Sets

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define sets and kinds of sets;
 Distinguish basic notations of sets:
 Value the importance of sets as mathematical language;
 Perform operations on sets.

Abstraction
Sets
It is a collection, group, or aggregate of objects of any kind.Usually, capital letters are
used to name sets and small letters, number, people, etc., are used to name the members
of a set.
Consider of the following examples:
1.The set of Mathematics Books in the Library.
2.The set of all odd numbers less than 19.
3.The set of letters in the word “Discrete”.
Elements of a set. In example 1, each object that belongs to a set is called an element.
In example 1, each book is an element of the set. The symbol  is used to indicate that
an object is an element or member of a set. Example: “ a  A ” is read: “a is an element of
A” or “a is a member of A”
Basic Notations of Set
A, B, C - denote a set
 - is an element of

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  - is not an element of
 - is a subset of
 - is not a subset of
- is an

element of - is equal to
- is asubset of - is equivalent to
= - is N(A)
equal to - the cardinal number of set A
er of set A - null or- empty
null set
set
Kinds of Sets
ds of Sets 1. Finite - a set whose elements are countable or limited up to the last element.
Examples: R = {a, b, c, d}
A = {1, 2, 3, … ,15}
Set of letters in the word “MATHEMATICS”
2. Infinite - a set whose elements are unlimited and uncountable.
Examples: A = {x/x is a counting number}
Set of stars in the galaxy
3. Unit - or Singleton; a set with only one element.
Examples: B = {5}
R = {x/x is an integer greater than 17 but less than 19}
4. Empty or Null - a set with no element.
Examples: C = { }
D = {x/x is an integer less than 12 but greater than 11}
5. Universal - the totality of elements of a set under consideration. It is expressed by
capital letter U.
Example: Suppose, set A = {1, 2} and set B = {3, 4, 5, 6} are given. The Universal Set
is U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Subset - a set whose elements are members of a given set. Given sets A and B, if all
elements of set A are found in in B, then A is a subset of B.
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 3}. Evaluate the truth and falsify of each of the
following statements.
a. A  B
b. B  A
c. A  A
d. B  A
Solution: (a) is true since the elements of A are not ALL contain in B.
(b) is true since the elements of B are in A.
(c) is true since all elements of A are in A.
(d) is false since all elements of B are in A. It must be B  A
6. Equal - Sets A and B are equal if and only if all the elements of set A are in set B,
and all the elements of B are in the set A.
Example: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 2,1} then sets A and B are equal sets since they have
the same elements (A = B)
7. Equivalent - set where one-to-one correspondence between the element of sets A
and B exists. A one-to-one correspondence exists between two sets A and B, if we
can pair an element exactly one element of B.
Example: If C = {1, 2, 3} and D = {1, b, c} then sets C and D are equivalent sets since the
numbers of their elements are the same.
8. Disjoint - sets which have no common elements.
Example: If E = {2, 4, 6, 8} and F = {1, 3, 5, 7} then sets E and F are disjoint sets since
they do not have same or common element.
Two methods of writing sets
1. Rooster Method – the elements of the set are enumerated and separated by a comma.
It indicates a set by listing the elements and enclosing them in braces.
Examples: M = {m, i, s, p}
R = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
2. Rule Method – a descriptive phrase is used to describe the elements of the set.
Examples: M = {distinct letters appearing in the word “Mississippi”}
F = {x/x is a counting number less than 5}

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Operations on Set
1. Union - is a set which the elements that belongs to both. If the two sets have elements
in common, such elements are written only once.
A  B  {x x  A  x  B}
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}, find the value of the following:
1. A  B
2. B  B
3. B  A
Solution:
1. A  B  {1,2,3,4,5}  {2,4,6}  {1,2,3,4,5,6}
2. B  B  {2,4,6}  {2,4,6}  {2,4,6}
3. B  A  {2,4,6}  {1,2,3,4,5}  {1,2,3,4,5,6}

1. 1

3 2 4
6

2. Intersection - 5is the set of elements that belongs to both.

A  B  {x x  A  x  B}
Example:Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6}, and C = {7}, find the value of the following:
1. A  B
2. B  B
3. A C
Solution:
1. A  B  {1,2,3,4,5}  {2,4,6}  {2,4}
2. B  B  {2,4,6}  {2,4,6}  {2,4,6}
3. A  C  {1,2,3,4,5}  {7}  {}

1. 1

3 2 4 6

3. Complement - If A is a set, the complement of A is the set of all elements that belong
to U but not to A.
A  {x x  U  x  A}
Example: Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {1, 3}, and B = {2, 4}, find the value of the following:
1. A
2. B
Solution:
1. A  {2,4,5}
2. B  {1,3,5}
4. Difference- If A and B are two sets, the difference of B with respect to A as the set of
all elements that belong to A but not to B. (A-B)
A  B  {x x  A  x  B}
B  A  {x x  B  x  A}
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 4}, find the value of the following:
1. A  B
2. B  A
Solution:

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1. A  B  {1,3,5}
2. B  A  {}
5. Set Product - If A and B are two sets, the set product of two sets is the set of all
possible ordered pairs (a, b) where a is in A and b is in B.
A  B  {(a, b) a  A, b  B}
Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {u, v}, find the following:
1. A A
2. B  A
3. A B
Solution:
1. A  A  {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}
2. B  A  {(u ,1), (u,2), (u,3), (v,1), (v,2), (v,3)}
3. A  B  {(1, u ), (1, v), (2, u ), (2, v), (3, u ), (3, v)}

Module 4
Mathematical Language and Symbols:
Relations and Functions

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define functions and relations;
 Distinguish the relation of sets;
 Value the importance of functions and relations;
 Find the composition or R;
 Evaluate functions.

Abstraction
There are many kinds of relationship in the world. For instance, we say that two
people are related by blood if they share a common ancestor and that they are related by
marriage if one shares a common ancestor with the spouse of the other. We speak also
the relationship between student and teacher, between people who work for the same
employer and between people who share a common ethnic background.
Similarly, the objects of mathematics may be related in a various ways. A set may be
said to be related to a Set B if A is a subset of B, or if A is not a subset of B, or if A and B
have at least one element in common.
Example: Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and let us say that an element x in A is related
to an element y in B, and only if, x is less than y. Let us use the notation xy (x is related
to y).Then we have 01 since 0<1, 02 since 0<2, 03 since 0<3, 12 since 1<2, 13
since 1<3, and 23 since 2<3.

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Relation
Let A and B be sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A×B. Given an ordered
pair (x,y) in A×B, x is related to y by R, written xRy , if and only if (x,y) is in R. The set A
is called the domain of R and the set B is called co-domain or range.
Example:
Let A = {1,2} and B = {1,2,3} and define a relation R from A to B as follows:
x y
( x, y )  R means that is an integer.
2
a. State explicitly which ordered pairs are in A×B and which are in R.
b. Is 1R3? Is 2R3? Is 2R2?
c. What are the domain and range of R?
Solution:
a. A  B  {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3)} To determine explicitly the composition of R,
examine each ordered pair in A×B to see whether its elements satisfy the defining
condition for R.
11 0
(1,1)  R because   0, which is an integer.
2 2
1 2 1
(1,2)  R because  , which is not an integer.
2 2
1 3  2
(1,3)  R because   1, which is an integer.
2 2
2 1 1
( 2,1)  R because  , which is not an integer.
2 2
22 0
(2,2)  R because   0, which is an integer.
2 2
2  3 1
(2,3)  R because  , which is not an integer.
2 2
Thus, R  {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}.
b. Yes, 1R3 because (1,3)  R.
No, 2R3 because (2,3)  R.
Yes, 2R2 because (2,2)  R.
c. The domain of R is {1,2} and the range is {1,2,3}.
Functions
A function is a rule that assigns to each element x in set A exactly one element, called
f(x), in set B. A function F from a set A to a set B is a relation with domain A and co-
domain B that satisfies the following two properties:
1. Every element of A is the first element of an ordered pair of F.
2. No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same first element.
Notation
If A and B are sets and F is a function from A to B, then given element x in A, the
unique element in B that is related to x by F is denoted F(x), which is read “F of x.”
Example: Let A = {2,4,6} and B = {1,3,5}. Which of the relations R, and T defined below
are functions from A to B?
1. R  {( 2,5), (4,1), (4,3), (6,5)}
2. T is defined by the arrow diagram.
2 1
3
4
5
6
Solution:
1. R is not a function because it does not satisfy the 2nd property. The ordered pairs {4,1)
and (4,3) have the same first element but different second elements.

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2. T is a function: Each element in {2,4,6} is related to some element in {1,3,5} and no
element in {2,4,6} is related more than one element in {1,3,5} .
Evaluation of Functions
Evaluating a function means replacing the variable in the function.
Examples:
Find the value of f(x) given the value of x.
1. If f ( x)  x  2 , evaluate the following:
a. f (0)
b. f (2)
c. f (3)
d. f (3 x )
Solution:
a. f (0)  0  2  2
b. f ( 2)  2  2  4
c. f (3)  3  2  1
d. f (3 x)  3 x  2
2. If f ( x)  4 x 2  5 x  3 , evaluate the following:
a. f (5)
b. f (0)
c. f (1)
1
d. f ( )
4
Solution:
a. f (5)  4(5) 2  5(5)  3  4(25)  25  3  100  25  3  78
b. f (0)  4(0) 2  5(0)  3  0  0  3  3
c. f (1)  4(1) 2  5(1)  3  4(1)  5  3  4  5  3  12
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1  5  12 8
d. f ( )  4( ) 2  5( )  3  4( )      3   2
4 4 4 16 4 4 4 4 4

Module 5
Mathematical Language and Symbols:
Operations of Functions

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify the different operations on functions;
 Value the importance of functions;
 Perform addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of functions.

Abstraction
Four operations on functions
Let f(x) and g(x) be the functions.
 Sum: (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )

 Difference: (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )

 Product: (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥 )

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 𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
 Quotient: (𝑔) (𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥) , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0

Addition of Functions
 Apply the definition for adding functions. (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)
 Group similar terms and make sure that the terms are arranged in descending
order.
 Combine similar terms.
Subtraction of Functions
 Apply the formula for subtracting functions.
 Group similar terms and make sure that the terms are arranged in descending
order.
 Combine similar terms.
Multiplication of Functions
 Apply the definition for multiplying functions.
 Find the product of polynomials using the distributive law.
Division of Functions
 Apply the formula for dividing functions.
 Factor the numerator or denominator.
 Cancel common factors and simplify.
Examples:
Example 1: Given that 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 1, find the following:
𝑓
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (d) (𝑔) (𝑥 )

Solution:
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3) + (𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 3 − 1 = 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4
(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 )(2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3) − (𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 − 𝑥 + 1 = 2𝑥 2 − 2
(c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 −
4𝑥 + 3
𝑓 2𝑥 2 +𝑥−3 (2𝑥+3)(𝑥−1)
(d) (𝑔) (𝑥 ) = = = 2𝑥 − 3
𝑥−1 (𝑥−1)

Example 2: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8, find the following:

𝑓
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (d) (𝑔) (𝑥 )

Solution:
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = (𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 4) + (𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 8) = 𝑥2 + 𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 4 − 8 − 8 = 2𝑥2 +
7𝑥 − 4
(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = (𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 4) − (𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 8) = 𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 4 − 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 + 8 = 3𝑥 +
12 𝑜𝑟 3(𝑥 + 4)
(c) (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = (𝑥2 + 5𝑥 + 4)(𝑥2 + 2𝑥 − 8) = 𝑥4 + 2𝑥3 − 8𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 + 10𝑥2 − 40𝑥 + 4𝑥2 +
8𝑥 − 32 = 𝑥4 + 2𝑥3 + 5𝑥3 − 8𝑥2 + 10𝑥2 + 4𝑥2 − 40𝑥 + 8𝑥 − 32 = 𝑥4 + 7𝑥3 + 6𝑥2 −
32𝑥 − 32
𝑓 𝑥2 +5𝑥+4 (𝑥+4)(𝑥+1) 𝑥+1
(d) ( ) (𝑥 ) = = =
𝑔 𝑥2 +2𝑥−8 (𝑥+4)(𝑥−2) 𝑥−2

Composition on Functions
What would happen if the “output” of the function 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 1 is used as the
input for the function 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2? In order to do that you will perform another
operation which involves function and that is obtaining composite function of two given
operation.

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 Given two functions f(x) and g(x), the composite function denoted by (f ∘ g)(x)
(read as “f composed with g”), is defined by (𝐟 ∘ 𝐠)(𝐱) = 𝐟(𝐠(𝐱)) and the domain of
(f ∘ g)(x) is the set of all numbers x in the domain of g(x), such that g(x) is the domain of
f(x). Similarly, we define (g ∘ f)(x) as (𝐠 ∘ 𝐟)(𝐱) = 𝐠(𝐟(𝐱)).
When computing for (f ∘ g)(x), apply first the function g to x and then function f to
g(x). The following examples demonstrate this procedure.
Example 1: If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 6 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 + 2, find:
(a) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) (b) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) (c) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) (d) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙)
Solution:
(a) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇[𝒈(𝒙)]
= (3𝑥 + 2)2 − 6
= 9𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 4 − 6
= 9𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 2
(b) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒈[𝒈(𝒙)]
= 3(3𝑥 + 2) + 2
= 9𝑥 + 6 + 2
= 9𝑥 + 8
(c) 𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝒈[𝒇(𝒙)]
( )( )
= 3(𝑥 2 − 6) + 2
= 3𝑥 2 − 18 + 2
= 3𝑥 2 − 16
(d) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) = 𝒇[𝒇(𝒙)]
= (𝑥 2 − 6)2 − 6
= 𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 2 + 36 − 6

Module 6
Mathematical Language and Symbols:
Binary Operations

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify binary;
 Value the importance of binary;
 Perform operations on binary.

Abstraction
The procedure in adding and subtracting decimals is the same with addition and
subtraction of binary. Binary is a number expressed in the base-2 numeral system, which
uses only two symbols: typically “0” and “1”.

Binary Operation

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 Number systems include decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal Each system have
four number base.
Number System Base Symbol
Binary Base 2 B
Octal Base 8 O
Decimal Base 10 D
Hexadecimal Base 16 H

Binary is a number system based only on the numerals 0 and 1.

Binary Addition
Rules:
0+0 =0
0+1 =1
1+0 =1
1+1 = 210
= 102 = 0 with 1 to carry
1+1+1 = 310
= 112 = 1 with 1 to carry

Example 1: Add binary 110111 to 11100

Solution:
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
+ 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 1
Explanation:
Col 1) Add 1 + 0 = 1
Write 1
Col 2) Add 1 + 0 = 1
Write 1
Col 3) Add 1 + 1 = 2 (10 in binary)
Write 0, carry 1
Col 4) Add 1+ 0 + 1 = 2
Write 0, carry 1
Col 5) Add 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 (11 in binary)
Write 1, carry 1
Col 6) Add 1 + 1 + 0 = 2
Write 0, carry 1
Col 7) Bring down the carried 1
Write 1
Checking:
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1101112 1 1 = 32+16+4+2+1 = 5510
+0111002 1 1 1 0 0 = 16+8+4 =+ 2810
10100112 1 0 1 0 0 1 1= 64 + 16 + 2 +1 8310

Example 2: Add 1111 to 111010.

Solution:
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 0
+ 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1

Checking:

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1110102 5810
+0011112 + 1510
7310
Binary Subtraction
In binary, the base unit is 2. So when you cannot subtract, you borrow from the column
to the left. The amount borrowed is 2. The 2 is added to the original column value, so you
will be able to subtract.

Example1: Subtract binary 11100 from 110011.

2 2
0 0 2 2
1 1 0 0 1 1
- 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 1

Checking:
1100112 5110
- 111002 - 2810
2310
Example 2: Subtract binary 10100 from 101001.
0 2 0 2
1 0 1 0 0 1
- 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
Checking:
1010012 4110
- 101002 - 2010
2110

Logical, Shift and Rotate Operations

A particular bit, or set of bits, within the byte can be set to 1 or 0, depending on
conditions encountered during the execution of a program.The logical, shift, and rotate
operations provide the means for manipulating the bits.
Logical OR Rules
OR Results in 1 if either or both of the operands are 1. The symbol of OR is ˅.
OR Table
0 OR 0 = 0
0 OR 1 = 1
1 OR 0 = 1
1 OR 1 = 1
To perform the OR operation, take one column at a time and perform the OR
operation using the OR table.
Example 1: 10010011 OR 1111
10010011
OR 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
10011111

Example 2: 11001001 OR 1010

11001001
OR 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0
11001011

Example 3: 0111 OR 0010

0111
OR 0 0 1 0
0111

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Logical XOR Rules
The exclusive OR. Similar to OR except that it now gives 0 when both its operands are 1.
Rules
1 XOR 1 = 0
1 XOR 0 = 1
0 XOR 1 = 1
0 XOR 0 = 0

Example 1:
10011001
XOR 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
10010110

Example 2:
0111
XOR 0 0 1 0
0101

Logical AND Rules

AND yields 1 only if both its operands are 1. The symbol of AND is ˄.
Rules
1 AND 1 = 1
1 AND 0 = 0
0 AND 1 = 0
0 AND 0 = 0

Example 1:
11010011
AND 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
00000011

Example 2: 0111
AND 1 0 0 1
0001
Logical NOT
NOT is a separate operator for flipping the bits. The symbol of NOT is ~
Rules
NOT 0 = 1
NOT 1 = 0

Example 1:
NOT 1010 = 0101

Module 7
Problem Solving and Reasoning

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify inductive and deductive reasoning, intuition, proof, and
certainty;
 Appreciate the importance of Polya's Problem Solving Strategy in
solving problems;
 Apply Polya's Problem Solving Strategy in solving problems.

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Abstraction
Problem Solving and Reasoning
Most occupations require good problem-solving skills. For instance, architects and
engineers must solve many complicated problems as they design and construct modern
buildings that are aesthetically pleasing, functional, and that meet stringent safety
requirements. This module will help you to become a better problem solver and to
demonstrate that problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that form a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching general conclusion by examining
specific examples. When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in
the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
Example 1: Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following
lists.
a. 3,6,9,12,15,?
b. 1,3,6,10,15,?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict
that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and third numbers differ by 3. It
appears that the difference between any two numbers 1 more than the preceding
difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will
be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
Example 2: Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8,
add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different number. Use inductive reasoning
to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and
the size of the original number.
Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:
Original Number: 5
Multiply by 8: 5 × 8 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 －3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. The resulting number is
four times the original number. The conjecture is following the given procedure produces
a number that is four times the original number.

Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive Reasoning is
distinguished from inductive reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.
Example 1: Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a
number that is four times the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the
sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution
Let n represent the original number.
Original Number: n

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Multiply by 8: n × 8 = 8n
Add 6: 8n + 6
Divide by 2: (8n + 6) ÷ 2 = 4n + 3
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 －3 = 4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces
a number that is four times the original number.
Example 2: Suppose that the premises are “All students in the class have brown hair”,
and “Brian is a student in the class.” Then, I conclude with certainty that Brian has brown
hair.
Example 3: Determine whether each of the following is an example of inductive reasoning
or deductive reasoning.
a. Every research textbook examined contains a chapter on sampling. Therefore all
research textbooks contain a chapter on sampling.
b. All research textbooks contain a chapter on sampling. This book is a research text.
Therefore, this book contains a chapter on sampling.
c. All birds have feathers. All robins are birds. Therefore, robins have feathers.
d. Every quiz has been easy. Therefore, the test will be easy.
Solution:
(a) and (d) are examples of inductive reasoning since the reasoning makes specific
observations and then draws a general conclusion.
(b) and (c) are examples of deductive reasoning since (b) and (c) uses specific
conclusions follow a general theory.

Intuition, Proof, and Certainty

Intuition
It is something that is known or understood without proof or evidence. It is the direct
knowing or learning without the conscious use of reasoning. (yourdictionary.com)
Proof
A proof is a sequence of statements that form an argument. A mathematical proof
shows a statement to be true using definitions, theorems, and postulates. Proofs can be
direct or indirect. In a direct proof, the statements are used to prove that the conclusion
is true. An indirect proof, on the other hand, is a proof by contradiction. It begins by
assuming the opposite of the statement that is to be proven.
Certainty
It is the state of being or feeling certain about something. It is also an epistemic
property of beliefs which a person has no rational grounds for doubting.

Problem Solving Strategies

Polya: “The Father of Problem Solving”
 George Pólya was a Hungarian mathematician.
 He is noted for his work in heuristics and mathematics
education.
 In 1945 George Polya published the book How To Solve It which quickly became his
most prized publication.
 It sold over one million copies and has been translated into 17 languages.
 In this book he identifies four basic principles of problem solving.
Polya's Four-Step Problem Solving Strategy
1. Understand the problem
 Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
Example:
Yesterday, Alex saw 14 birds in his backyard. Today, he saw 12. How many birds
did he see in all?
In this problem, what are you trying to figure out?

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If you said:
“How many birds did Alex see in all?” then you’re right!
2. Devise a plan
 There are many reasonable ways to solve problems.
 The skill lies in choosing an appropriate strategy.
Example:
Yesterday, Alex saw 14 birds in his backyard. Today, he saw 12. How many birds
did he see in all?
In this problem, look for clues. Do you see any CLUE WORDS?
If you said:
“in all,” then you’re right!
3. Carry out the plan
 This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is care and
patience, given that you have the necessary skills.
 Persist with the plan that you have chosen.
Example:
Give it a try!
Yesterday, Alex saw 14 birds in his backyard. Today, he saw 12. How many birds
did he see in all?
Write a number sentence and SOLVE it.
If you wrote…
14 + 12 = 26 then you’re right!
4. Look back
 Much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have
done, what worked, and what didn't.
 Other term is REVIEW YOUR SOLUTION.
Example:
We had to find out how many birds Alex saw in all. We added the number he saw
yesterday and the number he saw today.Our answer was “Alex saw 26 birds in all.” It
makes sense!

Applying Polya's Problem Solving Strategy in solving problems

Example: A hat and a jacket cost Php5,000. The jacket costs Php4,500 more than the
hat. What are the costs of the hat and jacket?
Solution:
Understand the Problem. We need to find the peso amounts that differ Php4,500 and
whose sum is Php5,000.
Devise a Plan. Write an equation using h for the cost of the hat and h+4500 for the cost
of the jacket.
h  h  4500 5000
Carry Out the Plan. Solve the above equation for h.
h  h  4500 5000
2h  4500  5000
2h  5000 4500
2h  500
2h 500

2 2
h  250
The cost of the hat is 250 and the cost of the jacket is 4,500+250=4,750.
Look Back. The sum of the costs is 250+4,750=5,000, and the of the jacket is 4,500
more than the cost of the hat.

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 Module 8
Data Management

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify data and information;
 Appreciate the importance of managing data;
 Apply Polya's Problem Solving Strategy in solving problems.

Abstraction
Data
Data is a collection of facts, such as values or measurements. It can be numbers,
words, measurements, observations or even just description of things. Simply, data is
information.

Types of Data
Data

Numerical (Quantitative) Categorically (Qualitative)

Discrete Continuous

Qualitative Data
 Are descriptive information (describes something)
 Data can be observed but measured.
 Examples: Sex, Year Level, Type of Lawyer

Quantitative Data
 Are numerical information.
 Data which can be measured. (Like whole numbers)
 Examples: Weight, Height, Ages
Discrete
 Data can only takes certain values.
 Examples: number of children, number of patients, size of a family

Continuous
 Data can take any value. (Within a range)
 Examples: prices, weight, average grades, height

Two Types of Methods

Obtrusive- data collection methods that directly obtain information from those being
evaluated
Examples: interviews, surveys, focus groups

Unobtrusive- data collection methods that do not collect information directly from
evaluees
Examples: document analysis, GoogleEarth, observation at a distance, trash of the
stars

Data Collection Tools

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1. Participatory Method
2. Records and Secondary Data
3. Observation
4. Surveys and Interviews
5. Focus Group Discussion
6. Diaries, Journals, and checklists

Steps in Data Collection

STEP 1
Formulate the problem
 Develop objectives of data collection
 Plan, human resource, logistics, scheduling, budgeting
 Discuss with stakeholders
STEP 2
Determine sources of information
 Define approach to data collection
 Identify concepts, definitions and classifications to be used
STEP 3:
Determine techniques of data collection
 Determine best approach to data collection
STEP 4:
Prepare data collection forms
 Design data collection forms
STEP 5:
Pretest data collection instruments
 Collect some information to refine the questionnaire/ data collection form.
 Determine feasibility of obtaining data
STEP 6:
Finalise data collection forms
 Discuss final questionnaire/form with stakeholders and reproduce
questionnaires/forms
STEP 7:
Collect data
 Put in place a team of data collectors/ fieldworkers
 Train data collectors

Data Presentations
1. Tables
 Simplest way to summarize data.
 Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages.
Example:
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 75 75%
Female 25 25%
Total 100 100%

2. Graphs and charts

 Visual representation of data.
 Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages.

Example:

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 Sales 29.6
24.2

16.7

12.6
9.5
6.5
5

1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr 1948 1959 1969 1980 1991 2002 2008

Module 9
Measures of Central Tendency

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define mean, mode and median;
 Appreciate the importance of measures of central tendency in statistics;
 Find the mean, mode and median.

Abstraction
Measures of Central Tendency

Mean
It is also referred as average, is probably the measure you are most familiar with. The
mean is calculated by adding up a group of numbers and then dividing the sum by the
count of those numbers.

Formula: Mean 
x
N

Example 1. Six friends in Biology class of 20 students received test grades of 92, 84, 65,
76, 88, and 90. Find the mean of these test scores.
Solution
The 6 friends are a sample of the population of 20 students. Use x to represent the
mean.

x
 x  92  84  65  76  88  90  495  82.5
N 6 6

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Example 2. A doctor ordered 4 separate blood tests to measure a patient’s total blood
cholesterol levels. The test results were 245, 235, 220, and 210. Find the mean of the
blood cholesterol levels.
Solution

x
 x  245  235  220  210  910  227.5
N 4 4

Median
It is the middle value in a group of numbers, which are arranged in ascending or
descending order.
Note: If n is odd, then the middle number is the median.
If n is even, then get the mean of the two middle numbers.

Example. Find the median of the data in the following lists.

a. 4, 8,1, 14, 9, 21, 12
b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108

Solution
a. Arrange the list in ascending order.
1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
Since the list (a) contains 7 numbers. The median of list (a) is the middle number of the
list. The middle number is 9. Thus, 9 is the median.

b. Arrange the list in ascending order.

23, 46, 77, 89, 92, 108
List (b) contains 6 numbers. The two middle numbers are 77 and 89. The mean of 77 and
89 is 83. thus 83 is the median of the data.

Mode
It is the most frequently occurring value in the dataset. While the mean and median
require some calculations, a mode value can be found simply by counting the number of
times each value occurs.

Example. Find the mode of the data in the following lists.

a. 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21
b. 2, 5, 8, 9, 11, 4, 7, 23

Solution
a. For (a), the number 15 occurs more often than the other numbers. Thus, 15 is the
mode.
b. For (b), each number occurs only once. Because no number occurs more often than
the others, there is no mode.

Module 10
Measures of Dispersion

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define range, variance and standard deviation;
 Appreciate the importance of measures of dispersion in statistics;
 Find range, variance and standard deviation.

Abstraction
Dispersion is scattering of the values of a frequency distribution from an average.

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Measures of Dispersion
 Range
 Variance
 Standard Deviation

Range
 The range of a set of data values is the difference between the greatest data value
and the least data value.
 How far apart scores are from one another
 Formula: Range = highest score – lowest score

Standard Deviation
 A measure of dispersion that is less sensitive to extreme values.
 It is the average deviation from the mean (average distance from the mean)
 Notations: s for Sample Standard Deviation
 for Population Standard Deviation

 Formulas: s
 ( x  x) 2

n 1

  (x  ) 2

Variance
 It is the square of the standard deviation.
 Amount of difference or change

 Notations: s2 for Sample Variance

2 for Population Variance
2
 
 Formulas: s2  
 ( x  x) 2
 or s 2  (s ) 2
 n 1 
 
2
 ( x   ) 2 
 2    
or  2  ( ) 2
n
 
Example. The following numbers were obtained by sampling a population.
2, 4, 7, 12, 15
Find the range, standard deviation and variance of the sample.

Solution
Range = highest score – lowest score
= 15 - 2
= 13

Standard Deviation
For computing the standard deviation, follow the following procedures:
1. Determine the mean of the n numbers.
2  4  7  12  15 40
x  8
5 5
2. For each number, calculate the deviation (difference) between the number and the
mean.
x xx
2 2  8  6
4 4  8  4

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 7 7  8  1
12 12  8  4
15 15  8  7

3. Calculate the square of each deviation in Step 2 and find the sum of these squared
deviations.
x xx xx
2
 
2 2  8  6  6  36 2

4 4  8  4  42  16
7 7  8  1  12  1
12 12  8  4 42  16
15 15  8  7 72  49
 ( x  x) 2
 118

4. Compute the standard deviation.

s
 ( x  x) 2


118

118
 5.43
n 1 5 1 4

Variance
To compute the variance, square the standard deviation.
s 2  ( s) 2  (5.43) 2  29.48

Module 11
Measures of Relative Position

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define z-score and fractiles;
 Appreciate the importance of measures of relative position and location
in statistics;
 Compute z-scores and fractiles
Abstraction
Normal Distribution
 The normal curve is represented by a bell-shaped curve and its probability distribution
is called a normal distribution.’
 The Normal distribution is also known as the Gaussian Distribution and the curve is
also known as the Gaussian Curve, named after German Mathematician-Astronomer
Karl Frederich Gauss.

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Z- Scores
 Z-score is also known as standard score
 Z indicates how many standard deviations away from the mean the point x lies.
 Z score is calculated to 2 decimal places.
x
 Formulas: z for Population z-score

xx
z for Sample z-score
s
where:
z = standard score
μ = population mean
x = sample mean
σ = population standard deviation
s = sample standard deviation
x = score or empirical value in the distribution

Example: A data set has a mean of x  75 and a standard deviation of 11.5. Find the z-
score for each of the following.
1. x  85
2. x  50
3. x  95
4. x  75

Solution
xx 85  75 10
1. z     0.87
s 11.5 11.5
xx 50  75  25
2. z     2.17
s 11.5 11.5
xx 95  75 20
3. z     1.74
s 11.5 11.5
xx 75  75 0
4. z    0
s 11.5 11.5

Fractiles
Measures of location or position which include not only central location but also any
position based on the number of equal divisions in a given distribution.
The most commonly used fractiles are the quartiles, deciles and percentiles.

Quartiles
It divides distribution into four equal parts.
nN
Formula: Qn  th item
4

Deciles
It divides distribution into ten equal parts.
nN
Formula: Dn  th item
10

Percentiles
It divides distribution into 100 equal parts.
nN
Formula: Pn  th item
100

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Example: The following table lists the calories per 100 milliliters of 10 popular sodas.
Find the Q2, Q3, Q4, D3, D5, D7, D8, P30, P50, P55, and P68.

61 37 42 40 51
44 26 73 48 44
Solution.
Rank the data as shown in the following table.

1. 26 3. 40 5. 44 7. 48 9. 61
2. 37 4. 42 6. 44 8. 51 10. 73

Quartiles
2(10) 20
Q2    5 th item, which is 44
4 4
3(10) 30
Q3    7.5 th item, which is 51
4 4
4(10) 40
Q4    10 th item, which is 73
4 4
3(10) 30
D3    3 rd item, which is 40
10 10
5(10) 50
D5    5 th item, which is 44
10 10
7(10) 70
D7    7 th item, which is 48
10 10
8(10) 80
D8    8 th item, which is 51
10 10
30(10) 300
P30    3 rd item, which is 40
100 100
50(10) 500
P50    5 th item, which is 44
100 100
55(10) 550
P55    5.5 th item, which is 44
100 100
68(10) 680
P68    6.8 th item, which is 48
100 100

Module 12
Mathematics of Finance:
Simple and Compound Interest
At the completion of this module, you should be able to:
 Identify the important terms on interest;
 Appreciate the importance of measures of relative position and location
in statistics;
 Compute simple interest, rate, term, principal and compound interest.

Abstraction
Definition of terms:
 Interest- payment for the use of borrowed money.
 Debtor - person who borrows money for any purpose.

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 Lender - person or institution which loans the money.
 Principal - capital or sum of money invested.
 Rate - fractional part of the principal that is paid on the loan and is usually
expressed as percent.
 Time or term - number of units (days, months, and years) of the time for which the
money is borrowed and for which interest is calculated.
 Final Amount - sum of the principal and the interest which is accumulated at a
certain time.
 Present value - amount received by the borrower.

Interests can be classified as simple or compound interest.

Simple Interest
Simple interest is the interest computed based on the principal only (the amount
of money borrowed or invested). It is usually used for short-term loans or investments.
Formula:
I  Prt
where: I = Interest; P =Principal; r = rate; and t = time

The maturity value (F) or the total amount the borrower has to repay is equal to the
sum of the principal plus the interest. It is also referred to as the future value.
𝐹 =𝑃+𝐼
𝐹 = 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑟𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟𝑡)

Example 1: What would be the interest Kaye has to pay if she borrowed Php10,000 for
1 year with an interest rate of 6% per annum?
Solution:
I  Prt
I  ₱10,000 × 0.06 × 1
I  ₱600

Example 2: What is the total amount that Kaye will pay at the end of 1 year?
Solution:
Use the formula for the maturity or future value.
F = P+ I
= ₱10,000 + ₱600
= ₱10,600

Example 3: If instead of paying Php10,600 at the end of 1 year, Kaye was required by
the lender to pay Php10,750, what is the rate of interest applied on the loan?
Solution: Recall the formula for the maturity or future value.
F = P (1 + rt)
₱10,750 = ₱10,000 [1 + (r)(1)]
₱10,750 = ₱10,000 (1 + r)
₱10,000 ₱10,000
1.075 = 1 + r
1.075 -1 = r
r = 0.075 or 7.5%

Example 4: How much should a father deposit in his savings account so that he will be
able to withdraw Php100,000 after 3 years if the bank’s interest rate is 3%?
Solution:
Use the formula for the maturity or future value for simple interest.
F = P (1 + rt)
₱100,000 = P [1 + (0.03)(3)]
₱100,000 = P (1 + 0.09)

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₱100,000 = P (1.09)
1.09 1.09
₱91,743.12 = P

Compound Interest
Compound interest is computed based on the principal plus the accumulated
interest. This is the reason why compound interest is also known as the “interest on top
of the interest.”
The compound interest formulas are as follows:
F  P(1  i ) n
r
F  P (1  ) mt
m
𝐼 = 𝐹−𝑃
where:F = future value or accumulated value
P = principal
I = compound interest
r
i  = rate of interest per interest period
m
n  mt = number of interest periods
m = number of compounding periods per year
t =time or term of investment (in years)
r =nominal rate of interest (in percent)

Example 1: An amount of Php100,000 is invested for 2 years at 6% interest compounded

quarterly. Is this a better investment compared to investing it at a simple interest of 6%?
Solution:
At compound interest:
0.06
Compute i and n . i  0.015 n  4 2  8
4
r
F  P(1  i ) n or F  P (1  ) mt
m
F  ₱ 100,000(1  0.015) 8

F  ₱ 100,000(1.015)8
F  ₱ 112,649.26
At simple interest:
F  P (1  rt )
F  ₱ 100,000[1  0.06(2)]
F  ₱ 100,000(1  0.12)
F  ₱ 100,000(1.12)
F  ₱ 112,000
Yes, it is better investment because it has a higher accumulated amount
compared to that for simple interest.

Example 2: Kyle has to decide if he should deposit his Php5,000 in a savings account at
a simple interest of 5% for 5 years or invest it in his friend’s business which can potentially
earn an interest of 5% compounded monthly for 5 years. What should be his decision?
Solution:
Option 1 (Simple Interest):
F  P (1  rt )
F  ₱ 5,000[1  (0.05)(5)]  ₱ 6,250.00

Option 2 (Compound Interest)

F  P(1  i ) n

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 0.05 12( 5)
F  ₱ 5,000(1  )
12
F  ₱ 6,416.79
Kyle should invest his money in his friend’s business.

Module 13
Propositions

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify logic and proposition;
 Differentiate simple and compound proposition;
 Appreciate the importance of logical statements;
 Write proposition in symbolic form.
Abstraction
Proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
Examples of proposition:
Today is Saturday.
Today I have math class.
1+1=2
3<1
Some cats have fleas.
l lawyers are dishonest.
Today I have math class and today is Saturday.

Note:Questions and commands are not propositions.

Symbols for proposition

It is conventional to use lower case letters such as p, q, r, s to represent logic
statements or proposition. Referring to the propositions listed above, let
p: Today is Saturday.
q: Today I have math class. r: 1 + 1 = 2
s: 3 < 1
u: Some cats have fleas.
v: All lawyers are dishonest

Logical Connectives and Symbols

The words "and" "or" "but" "if...then" are examples of logical connectives. They are
words that can be used to connect two or more simple statements to form a more
complicated compound statement.

Examples of compound statements:

 I am taking a math class but I'm not a math major.
 If I pass MGF1106 and I pass MGF1107 then my liberal studies math requirement
will be fulfilled.

Given a proposition, its truth table show all its possible truth values.

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Example 1. Since a proposition has two possible truth values, a proposition would have
the following truth table.

p
T
F

Truth tables can also be used to display various combinations of the truth values
of two propositions and . The rows of the table will correspond to the each truth value
combination of and , so there will be rows. The truth table for propositions and are as
follows.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

Negation
If p is a statement, the negation of p is another statement that is exactly the
opposite of p.
The negation of a statement p is denoted ~p ("not p"). A statement p and its
negation ~p will always have opposite truth values; it is impossible to conceive of a
situation in which a statement and its negation will have the same truth value.
Truth table of Negation
p ~p
T F
F T
Examples
Write the negation of each proposition.
1. p: Today is Saturday.
2. q: Selena Gomez is a pop singer.
3. r: The dog does not need to be fed.

Solution
1. ~p:Today is not Saturday.
On any given day, if p is true then ~p will be false; if p is false, then ~p will be true.
2. ~q: Selena Gomez is not a pop singer.
Since Selena Gomez has been describes as a pop singers and songwriter, then ~q
is false.
3. ~r: The dog needs to be fed.
The dog will die if you will not feed them. Therefore, ~r is true.

Conjunction
If p and q are propositions, their conjunction is the statement "p and q." It is
denoted: p ∧ q.
For example, let p be the proposition "I have a dime" and let q be the statement "I
have a nickel.” Then p ∧ q is the proposition "I have a dime and I have a nickel."
Truth table of Conjunction
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F

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 F F F

Disjunction
If p and q are propositions, their disjunction is the statement "p or q." It is denoted: p
∨ q.
For example, let p be the proposition "Today is Tuesday" and let q be the proposition
"1 + 1 = 2." In that case, p ∨ q is the proposition "Today is Tuesday or 1 + 1 = 2."

Truth table of Disjunction

p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Conditional proposition
If we order pizza, then we can have it delivered.
The proposition states that on the condition that they will order pizza, then they can
have it delivered and it is an example of conditional proposition.

Conditional propositions can be written in if p then q form. If p and q are

propositions , their conditional proposition is denoted by p →q
Truth table of Conditional Propositions

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The proposition p is called the antecedent while the proposition q is called the
consequent.

Biconditional proposition
The biconditional of the propositions p and q is denoted by p ↔ q : (p if and
only if q) and is defined through its truth table:
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Determine the truth value of a Proposition

Example 1. If p:5 is a whole number and q:5 is an even number, find p˄q, p˅q, p→q,
p↔q, ~p, and ~q. Write each proposition in symbolic form.

Solution:
p: 5 is a whole number is TRUE
q: 5 is an even number is FALSE
 p˄q: 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number
p˄q: T ˄ F
p˄q: F
 p˅q: 5 is a whole number or 5 is an even number
p˅q: T ˅ F
p˅q: T

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 p→q: If 5 is a whole number then 5 is an even number
p→q: T→ F
p→q: F
 p↔q: 5 is a whole number if and only if 5 is an even number
p↔q: T↔ F
p↔q: F
 ~p: 5 is not a whole number.
~p: ~T
~p: F
 ~q: 5 is not an even number.
~q: ~F
~q: T

Example 2. If p:2 is not a prime number and q:2 is an even number, find p˄q, p˅q,
p→q, p↔q, ~p, and ~q. Write each proposition in symbolic form.
Solution:
p: 2 is not a prime number is FALSE
q: 2 is an even number is TRUE
 p˄q: 2 is not a prime number and 2 is an even number
p˄q: F ˄ T
p˄q: F
 p˅q: 2 is not a prime number or 2 is an even number
p˅q: F ˅ T
p˅q: T
 p→q: If 2 is not a prime number then 2 is an even number
p→q: F→ T
p→q: T
 p↔q: 2 is not a prime number if and only if 2 is an even number
p↔q: F↔ T
p↔q: F
 ~p: 2 is a prime number
~p: ~F
~p: T
 ~q: 2 is not an even number
~q: ~T
~q: F.

Module 14
Truth Tables and Tautologies

At the completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Identify truth tables and tautologies;
 Appreciate the importance of truth tables is logic;
 Construct truth table of compound proposition.

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Abstraction

Truth Tables
A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound proposition for all
possible truth values of its simple statements. A truth table is a device that allows us to
analyze and compare compound logic statements.
Truth table of Negation
p ~p
T F
F T

Truth table of Conjunction

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Truth table of Disjunction

p q pq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Truth table of Conditional Propositions

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Truth table of Biconditional Propositions

p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Example. Construct the truth table of the following proposition.

1. (p ∧ ~q) ∨ ~p
2. q∨ ~(~p∧ q)
3. [p ∧ (q ∨ ~p)] →~p
4. [(p →q) ∨ (r∧ ~p)]→(r∨ ~q)

Solution
1.(p ∧ ~q) ∨ ~p
p q ~q (p ∧ ~q) ~p (p ∧ ~q) ∨ ~p
T T F T∧ F=F F F∨ F=F

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 T F T T∧ T=T F T∨ F=T
F T F F∧ F=F T F∨ T=T
F F T F∧ T=F T F∨ T=T

2. q∨ ~(~p∧ q)
p q ~p (~p∧ q) ~(~p∧ q) q∨ ~(~p∧ q)
T T F F∧ T=F ~F=T T∨ T=T
T F F F∧ F=F ~F=T F∨ T=T
F T T T∧ T=T ~T=F T∨ F=T
F F T T∧ F=F ~F=T F∨ T=T

3. [p ∧ (q ∨ ~p)] →~p
p q ~p (q ∨ ~p) p ∧ (q ∨ ~p) [p ∧ (q ∨ ~p)] → ~p
T T F T∨ F=T T∧ T=T T→F=F
T F F F∨ F=F T∧ F=F F→F=T
F T T T∨ T=T F∧ T=F F→T=T
F F T F∨ T=T F∧ T=F F→T=T

4. [(p →q) ∨ (r∧ ~p)]→(r∨ ~q)

p q r p →q ~p r∧ ~p (p →q) ~q r∨ ~q [(p →q)
∨ (r∧ ~p) ∨ (r∧ ~p)]→(r∨ ~q)
T T T T→T F T∧ F T∨ F=T F T∨ F= T→T=T
=T =F T
T T F T→T F F∧ F T∨ F=T F F∨ F= T→F=F
=T =F F
T F T T→F F T∧ F F∨ F=F T T∨ T= F→T=T
=F =F T
T F F T→F F F∧ F F∨ F=F T F∨ T= F→T=T
=F =F T
F T T F→T T T∧ T T∨ T=T F T∨ F= T→T=T
=T =T T
F T F F→T T F∧ T T∨ F=T F F∨ F= T→F=F
=T =F F
F F T F→F T T∧ T T∨ T=T T T∨ T= T→T=T
=T =T T
F F F F→F T F∧ T T∨ F=T T F∨ T= T→T=T
=T =F T
Tautologies and Self-Contradictions
A tautology is a statement that is always true. A self-contradiction is a statement
that is always false.
Example of Tautology
q∨ ~ (~p∧ q)
p q ~p ~p∧ q ~ (~p∧ q) q∨ ~ (~p∧ q)
T T F F∧ T=F ~F=T T∨ T=T
T F F F∧ F=F ~F=T F∨ T=T
F T T T∧ T=T ~T=F T∨ F=T
F F T T∧ F=F ~F=T F∨ T=T

Example of Contradiction
(p∧ q)∧ ~ (p∨ q)
p q p∧ q p∨ q ~ (p∨ q) (p∧ q)∧ ~ (p∨ q)
T T T T ~T=F T∧ F=F
T F F T ~T=F F∧ F=F
F T F T ~T=F F∧ F=F
F F F F ~F=T F∧ T=F

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 Closing Prayer
We give you thanks Almighty Father through your son Jesus Christ for all the
benefits you have given us to you who live and reign forever and ever. Amen.
Well done! So, you have successfully completed the activities and tasks for the module 1
to 14. It is expected that you have gained insights and meaningful experiences. What a great
achievement!
Again, CONGRATULATIONS AND GOD BLESS!

Consultation
Name of Teacher Contact No. Consultation Day Consultation Hours
Mr. Niño Joseph C. Valenzuela 09076732634 Monday to Friday 3:00 PM -5:00 PM

“Your EDUCATION is your LIFE, Guard it well”

-
- Proverbs 4:13b

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