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GEC 004
1.1 Mathematics in our also be seen in the universe.
● Nature patterns which are not just to be
World admired, they are vital clues to the rules
that govern natural processes.
WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
Check out some examples of these
● Mathematics is the study of pattern and
patterns that you may be able to spot the
structure.
moment you decided to go for a walk.
● Mathematics is fundamental to the
● Patterns can be observed even in stars
physical and biological sciences,
that move in circles across the sky each
engineering and information technology,
day.
to economics, and increasingly to the
● The weather season cycle each year. All
social sciences.
snowflakes contain six-fold symmetry
● Mathematics is a useful way to think
which no two are exactly the same.
about nature and our world.
● Mathematics is a tool to quantify,
organize, and control our world, predict
phenomena, and make life easier for us.
WHERE IS MATHEMATICS?
● Many patterns and occurrences exist in
nature, in our world, in our life. ● Patterns can be seen in fish patterns
● Mathematics helps make sense of these like spotted trunkfish, spotted puffer,
patterns and occurrences. blue spotted stingray, spotted moral
eel, coral grouper, red lionfish, yellow
WHAT ROLE DOES boxfish, and angelfish. These animals
MATHEMATICS PLAY IN OUR and fish stripes and spots attest to
WORLD? mathematical regularities in biological
● Mathematics helps organize patterns growth and form.
and regularities in our world.
● Mathematics helps predict the behavior
of nature and phenomena in the world.
● Mathematics helps control nature and
occurrences in the world for our own
ends. ● Zebras, tigers, cats, and snakes are
● Mathematics has numerous applications covered in patterns of stripes; leopards
in the world making it indispensable. and hyenas are covered in a pattern of
spots, and giraffes are covered in a
pattern of blotches.

PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN

NATURE AND THE WORLD
● Patterns in nature are visible regularities
of form found in the natural world and can
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● Natural patterns like the intricate
waves across the oceans; sand dunes on
deserts; formation of the typhoon;
water drop with ripple and others.
These serve as clues to the rules that
govern the flow of water, sand, and air.
● Other patterns in nature can also be seen
in the ball of mackerel, the v-formation of
geese in the sky, and the tornado
formation of starlings.
Types of Patterns
SYMMETRY
● a pattern with a sense of harmonious
and beautiful proportion of balance or an
object is invariant to any various
transformations.
examples: reflection, rotation or scaling
● Bilateral Symmetry - is symmetry in
which the left and right sides of the
organism can be divided into
approximately mirror images of each
other along the midline. This exists in
living things like insects, animals, plants,
flowers, and others.
Animals can further be classified as
either cyclic or dihedral.
● Plants on the other hand often
have Radial or rotational symmetry, as to
flowers and some group of animals.
● There is also what we call a five-fold
symmetry which is found in the
echinoderms, the group which includes
starfish (dihedral-D5 symmetry), sea
urchins, and sea lilies.
● Radial symmetry suits organisms like
sea anemones whose adults do not move
and jellyfish (dihedral-D4 symmetry).
Radial symmetry is also evident in
different kinds of flowers.
FRACTALS
● a pattern with a curve or geometric
figure, each part of which has the same
statistical character as the whole.
● A fractal is a never-ending pattern
found in nature.
● The exact same shape is replicated in a
process called “self- similarity.” The
pattern repeats itself over and over again
at different scales. For example, a tree
grows by repetitive branching. This same
kind of branching can be seen in lightning
bolts and the veins in your body.
● Now, try to examine a single fern or an
aerial view of an entire river system, find
out if you’ll see fractal patterns.
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 in his Liber Abbaci (Book of Calculation)
in 1202.
THE HABBIT RABBIT
“A man put a pair of rabbits in a place
SPIRALS where no one else is there. How many
● are a curved pattern that focuses on a pairs of rabbits will be produced from that
center point and a series of circular shapes pair in a year? If supposedly that every
that revolve around it. month each pair produces a new pair,
Months Adult Pairs Young Pairs Total
which from the second month onwards
1 1 1 2 becomes productive?”
2 2 1 3
3 3 2 5
4 5 3 8
5 8 5 13
6 13 8 21
7 21 13 34
8 34 21 55
9 55 34 89
10 89 55 144
11 144 89 233
12 233 144 377

● A logarithmic spiral or growth spiral is

a self-similar spiral curve which often
appears in nature.
● It was first described by Rene Descartes
and was later investigated by Jacob
Bernoulli. Examples of spirals are pine
cones, pineapples, hurricanes.
● The sequence encountered in the rabbit
problem 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,
144, 233, 377, …. is called the Fibonacci
sequence.
● Each term in the sequence is called the
Fibonacci numbers. Fibonacci Sequence
can also be seen in shape and nature.
GOLDEN RECTANGLE

1.2 Fibonacci Sequence

● The Fibonacci sequence is a series of
numbers where a number is found by
adding up the two numbers before it.
● Starting with 0 and 1, the sequence goes
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so forth.
Mathematically it can be expressed
as Xn = Xn-1 + Xn-2.
● This is named after Fibonacci, who is
also known as Leonardo of Pisa or
Leonardo Pisano.
● Fibonacci numbers were first introduced
● A Golden rectangle is a perfect
rectangle.
● A golden rectangle can be broken down
into squares.
● To create a golden rectangle, we need to
break it down to smaller squares based on
the Fibonacci sequence then divide each
with an arc, the pattern begins to take
shapes, this is a Fibonacci spiral in which
we can see in nature.
● The Golden rectangle created an
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interesting pattern and come out with the
sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34,
55...which represents a Fibonacci
Sequence.
● These flower petals exhibit the
Fibonacci number, white calla lily
contains 1 petal, euphorbia contains 2
petals, trillium contains 3 petals,
columbine contains 5 petals, bloodroot
contains 8 petals, black-eyed Susan
contains 13 petals, Shasta daisies 21
petals, field daisies contains 34 petals and
other types of daisies contain 55 and 89
petals.
● The sunflower seed conveys the
Fibonacci sequence. The pattern of two
spirals goes in opposing directions
( clockwise and counter-clockwise ). The
number of clockwise spirals and counter-
clockwise spirals are consecutive
Fibonacci numbers usually contain 34 and
55 seeds.
● Aside from the golden rectangle,
Fibonacci happened to see that a
Fibonacci sequence approaches a ratio
asymptotically.
1.3 Golden Ratio
● It was first called the Divine Proportion
in the early 1500s in Leonardo da Vinci’s
work.
● Mathematically two quantities are in the
Golden ratio if (a+b) divided by a is equal
to a divided by b which is equal to
1.618033987…and represented by (phi),
provided that a is greater than b.
Examples:
1) If a = 3 and b = 2 then a/b = 1.5
2) If a = 5 and b = 3 then a/b =
1.666666...
3) If a = 8 and b = 5 then a/b = 1.6
4) if a = 13 and b = 8 then a/b= 1.625
5) If a = 21 and b = 13 then a/b =
1.615384615...
These examples show the relationship
between a and b which represents a
golden ratio.
The quotient of a and b is somewhat
close to the value of a golden ratio which
happens to be equal to 1.618033987...
In the same manner, the golden ratio
can also be noticed in Arts let us name a
few...
● The exterior dimension of the Pathernon
in Athens, Greece embodies the golden
ratio.
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● In Timaeus, Plato describes five
possible regular solids that relate to the
golden ratio which is now known as
Platonic Solid.
● Euclid was the first to give a definition
of the golden ratio as a dividing line in the
extreme and mean ratio in his book the
Elements.
● Leonardo da Vinci used the golden
ratio to define the fundamental portions of
his works. He incorporated the golden
ratio in his paintings such as" The Last
Supper", "Monalisa" and "St. Jerome in
the Wilderness".
● Michael Angelo di Lodovico Simon
was considered the greatest living artist of
his time. He used the golden ratio in his
painting " The Creation of Adam ".
● Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino was a
painter and an architect from a
renaissance. In his painting "The School
of Athens", the division between the
figures in the painting and their
proportions are distributed using the
golden ratio.
GOLDEN RATIO IN
ARCHITECTURE
● Great Pyramid of Giza built 4700 Bc
in Ahmes Papyrus of Egypt, the ratio of
its base to the height is roughly 1.5717
which is close to the golden ratio.
● Notre Dame is a Gothic Cathedral in
Paris.
● Taj Mahal is found in India and used
the golden ratio in its construction and
was completed in 1648.
● Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres in
Paris, France which also exhibits the
golden ratio.
● The United Nation Building, the
window configuration reveal the golden
proportion.
● Eiffel Tower, found in Paris France,
and erected in 1889 which is an iron
lattice.
● CN Tower in Toronto, the tallest tower,
and free-standing structure in the world,
contains the golden ratio in its design.
1.4: Mathematical
Language and Symbol
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
● The mathematical language is the
system used to communicate
mathematical ideas.
● This language consists of some natural
language using technical terms
(mathematical terms) and grammatical
conventions that are uncommon to
mathematical discourse, supplemented by
a highly specialized symbolic notation for
mathematical formulas.
● The mathematical notation used for
formulas has its grammar and shared by
mathematicians anywhere in the globe.
● Mathematical language must be precise,
concise, and powerful, these must be its
characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
PRECISION
● in mathematics is a culture of being
correct all the time. Definition and limits
should be distinct. Mathematical ideas are
being developed informally and being
done more formally, with necessary and
sufficient conditions stated upfront and
restricting the discussion to a particular
class of objects
CONCISE
● Concise in mathematics must show
simplicity. Being concise is a strong part
of the culture in mathematical language.
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Mathematicians desire the simplest
possible single exposition.
POWERFUL
● Mathematical language must also be
powerful. It is a way of expressing
complex thoughts with relative ease. The
abstraction in mathematics is the desire to
unify diverse instances under a single
conceptual framework and allows easier
penetration of the subject and the
development of more powerful methods.
● An expression (or mathematical
Expressions versus
Sentences
expression) is a finite combination of
symbols that is well-defined according to
rules that depend on the context. The
symbols can designate numbers, variables,
operations, functions, brackets,
punctuation, and groupings to help
determine the order of operations and
other aspects of mathematical syntax.
● An expression is a correct arrangement
of mathematical symbols used to represent
the object of interest, it does not contain a
complete thought, and it cannot determine
if it is true or false. Some types of
expressions are numbers, sets, and
functions.
● An expression is a correct arrangement
of mathematical symbols used to represent
the object of interest, it does not contain
● A sentence (or mathematical sentence)
makes a statement about two expressions,
either using numbers, variables, or a
combination of both. A mathematical
sentence can also use symbols or words
like equals, greater than, or less than.
● A mathematical sentence is a correct
arrangement of mathematical symbols that
states a complete thought and can be
determined whether it’s true, false, and
sometimes true/sometimes false.
CONVENTIONS IN THE
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
Mathematical languages have conventions
and it helps individuals distinguish
between different types of mathematical
expressions.
The mathematical convention is a fact,
name, notation, or usage which is
generally agreed upon by mathematicians.
Mathematicians abide by conventions
to be able to understand what they
write without constantly having to
redefine basic terms.
1. Mathematics has its brand of technical
terms. – a word in general usage has a
different and specific meaning within
mathematics.
Example: Group, ring, field, term, factor,
etc.
2. Mathematical statements also have their
taxonomy.
Example: Axiom, conjecture, theorems,
lemma, and corollaries.
3. Mathematics also has Mathematical
jargon- mathematical phrases used with
specific meanings.
Example: “If and only if”, “necessary and
sufficient” and “without loss of
generality.”
4. The vocabulary of mathematics also has
visual elements.
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Example: Used informally in
blackboards and formally in books and
researches which serve to display
schematic information so easily.
5. The mathematical notation has its
grammar and does not dependent on a
specific natural language.
Example: Latin alphabet used for simple
variables and parameters.
6. Mathematical expressions containing a
symbolic verb are generally treated as
clauses in sentences or as a complete
sentence and are punctuated as such by
mathematicians.
Example: Equal (=) , Less than (<) ,
Greater than (>) , Addition (+),
Subtraction (-) , Multiplication (x),
infinity ( ∞), for all ( ∀) , there exists (∋ ),
element (∈ ) , implies (⟶ ),if and only if
(⟷ ), therefore ( ∴) etc.
1.5: Four Basic Concepts
on Mathematics
Language serves as a tool for teaching
mathematics concepts.
It can show how to make syntax and
structure of mathematical language clear
and explicit to understand its fundamental
concepts.
Language serves as a major pedagogical
tool to understand how what, and why
things are said.
We need to be familiarized with the four
basic concepts in Mathematics before
moving to more complicated
mathematical structures.
There are four basic concepts in
mathematics and these are as follows the
language of sets, the language of
relations, the language of functions, and
language of binary operations.
Set Theory is the branch of mathematics
that studies sets or the mathematical
science of the infinite.
● The study of sets has become a
fundamental theory in 1870.
● Introduced by George Cantor (German
Mathematician.)
SET
● is a collection of well-defined objects.
● usually denoted by capital letters of the
alphabet and its members are enclosed
with brackets.
ELEMENTS
● are the members or objects of the set
which is denoted by a symbol (∈).
Example of a set:
A = {x/x is a set of letters from the word
Pneumonia}
This is read as A is the set of all x such
that x is a set of letters from the word
Pneumonia.
The elements of this set are a, e, i, m, n,
o, p, u.
METHODS OF DESCRIBING A SET
1) LISTING OR ROSTER METHOD
● the elements of the set are listed,
enclosed by braces.
Example:
S = {1,2,3,4,5}
2) RULE METHOD
● sometimes called describing method,
where the common characteristics of the
elements are simply stated.
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Example: B = {1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19}
S = {All negative numbers}
The set B is the set of all element x such
3) SET BUILDER OR RULE FORM that x is an element of the positive odd
● is a method which makes use of the integers and 1 ≤ x ≤ 19.
description (x│…}. This is read as “x
A = {x│x ∈ ZO+ and 1 ≤ x ≤ 19}
such that.”
4) Let A = {2,-2}
N = the set of all natural numbers.
N = {0,1,2,3,4,5…} The set A is the set of all element x such
Z = the set of all integer numbers. that x is an element of the set of all
Z = {0,-1,1,-2,2} integers and x is equal to positive and
Z+ = the set of all positive integers. negative 2.
Z-
= the set of all negative integers.
R = the set of all real numbers. A = {x│x ∈ Z and x = ±2}
R +
= the set of all positive numbers. The set A is the set of all element x such
R- = the set of all negative numbers. that x is an element of the set of all
R2 = the set of all points in the plane. integers and the solution of x2 – 4 = 0.
Q = the set of all rational numbers.
Q+ = the set of all positive rational A = {x│x ∈ Z and x2 – 4 = 0}
numbers.
KINDS OF SETS
Q- = the set of all negative rational
numbers. 1) UNIVERSAL SET
● is the totality of elements under
● Set-builder notation is especially useful
consideration.
when describing infinite sets. For
instance, in set-builder notation, the set of Example:
natural numbers greater than 7 is written U = {1,2,3,4}
as follows:
2) FINITE SET
1) {x│x ∈ N and x>7} ● a set whose elements are limited or
countable and the last element can be
This is read as: The set of all element x
identified.
such that x is an element of the set of
natural numbers and x is greater than 7. Example:
A = {1,2,3,4,5}
2) Let A be the set
A = {1,2,3,4,5} 3) INFINITE SET
● a set whose elements are unlimited or
The set A is the set of all element x such uncountable and the last element cannot
that x is an element of the set of natural be specified.
numbers and 1 ≤ x ≤ 5.
Example:
A = {x│x ∈ N and 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} A = {1,2,3,4…}
3) Let B be the set of first positive odd 4) UNIT SET
integers. ● set with only one element.

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Example: 11) POWER SET
A = {3} ● defined as the set of all the subsets of A.
5) EMPTY OR NULL SET Example:
● a unique set with no element. A = {1,2}
P = {{∅},{1},{2},{1,2}}
Example:
A = {∅} or A = {} 12) PROPER SETS
● A is a proper subset of B if and only if
6) EQUAL SET
every element in A is also in B, and there
● if they have the same elements
exists at least one element in B that is not
Example: in A.
A = {1,2,3,4}
● Order or Cardinality is the number of
B = {2,4,1,3}
elements or the size of a set.
7) EQUIVALENT SET A={1,2,3}
● if they have the same number of thus, nA = 3
elements.
OPERATIONS OF SETS
Example:
C = {2,4,6} 1) UNION
D = {a,b,c} ● Union od two sets is the set containing
all of the elements from both of those sets.
All equal sets are equivalent sets, but not
all equivalent sets are equal sets. A ∪ B = {x│x ∈ A x ∈ B}
8) JOINT SET {1,2,3,4} ∪ {3,4,5,6} = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
● sets that have common elements.
Example:
Example:
A = {1,2,3} Let X = {a,b,c,d,e}, Y = {c,d,e,f,g,h}, and
B = {2,4,6} Z = {h,p,q,r}.
9) DISJOINT SET X ∪ Y = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}
● sets without common elements.
Y ∪ Z = {c,d,e,f,g,h,p,q,r}
Example:
C = {1,3,5} Z ∪ X = {a,b,c,d,e,h,p,q,r}
D = {7,8,9}
Y ∪ X = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h}
10) SUBSETS
2) INTERSECTION
● set A is a subset of set B if every
● Intersection of two sets is the set
element of A belongs to B
containing elements which are in both of
Example: those sets.
A = {1,2,3}
A ∩ B = {x│x ∈ A ^ x ∈ B}
B = {1,2,3,4,5}
{1,2,3,4} ∩ {3,4,5,6} = {3,4}
Thus, A ⊆ B
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Example: subsets of the universal set are generally
represented by oval or circular regions
Let X = {a,b,c,d,e}, Y = {c,d,e,f,g,h}, and drawn inside the rectangle.
Z = {h,p,q,r}.
U
X ∩ Y = {c,d,e}
Y ∩ Z = {h} A B
Z ∩ X = {} or ∅
Y ∩ X = {c,d,e}
2) DIFFERENCE
● Difference of two sets is the set of
values in one but not the other. A∩B

A - B = {x│x ∈ A and x ∉ B}
Venn Diagram is an illustration that uses
{1,2,3,4} - {3,4,5,6} = {1,2} circles to show the relationships among
Example: things or finite groups of things.

Let X = {1,2,3,4} and Y = {3,4,5,6} ● Circles that overlap have a commonality

while circles that do not overlap do not
X-Y = {1,2} share those traits.
● The circles are being placed inside a
Y-X = {5,6}
box, where the box represents the
2) COMPLEMENT universal set and the shaded inside of a
● Complement of a set S, is written Sc and circle represents the subset of a universal
us the set of all values not in the set. set.
● Sometimes we will use the Venn
Sc = {x/x ∉ S} Diagram for a particular set whose
Example: elements are known, the elements should
be listed accordingly.
Let U = {a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h} and A = {a,c,g,h}
Given: U = {1,2,3,4,5} and A = {2,4}
Ac = {b,d,e,f}

VENN DIAGRAM
● The English logician John Venn (1834-
1923) developed diagrams, which we now
refer to as Venn Diagrams, that can be
used to illustrate sets and relationships
between sets. ● Disjoint Set can also be represented in a
Venn Diagram:
● In a Venn Diagram, the universal set is
represented by a rectangular region and
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COMPLEMENT OF A SET
● A' is the shaded part below:
Examples:
1. Using Venn Diagram find A' given U
= {1,2,3,4,5}
2. Using English sentence description
find A' Given U = all CE students and
A = CE students who are scholars.
Answer: A' = CE students who are not a
scholar.
INTERSECTION OF SET
● A ∩ B is the shaded part below; assume
the sets are A and B:
UNION OF SET
● A∪B is the shaded part below; assume
the sets are A and B:
DIFFERENCE OF A SET
● A - B is the shaded part below
APPLICATION OF VENN DIAGRAM
● If 380 students are taking courses: 215
taking Biology, 173 taking Physics, 182
taking chemistry. 72 taking Biology and
Physics, 90 taking Biology and
Chemistry, 60 taking Physics and
Chemistry.
Find the number of students in each of the
following parts.
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SOLUTION:
Let A = Biology (215)
B = Physics (173) The illustration shows a relationship
C = Chemistry (182) between the figure from the left to the
A∩B = 72 figure at the right. This is an example of a
A∩C = 90 relation. A relation can be shown in three
The intersection of the three courses will ways as shown in the above example.
be label as x. ● A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
A⋂B = 72 – x ● If x and y are elements of these sets and
A⋂C = 90 – x if a relation exists between x and y, then
B⋂C = 60 – x we say that x corresponds to y or that y
depends on x and is represented as the
Let us solve for the equation of A: ordered pair of point (x, y).
A = 215 - [ (72-x) +x + (90-x)] ● A relation from set A to set B is defined
A = 215 - 162 + x to be any subset of A x B.
A= 53 + x ● If R is a relation from A to B and (a, b)
€R, then we say that "a is related to b" and
Let us proceed with B:
it is denoted as an R b.
B =173 - [ (72 - x) + x + (60 - x)]
B = 173 - (132 - x) Example:
B = 41 + x A= {a, b, c, d} be the set of car brands
B = {s, t, u, v} be the set of countries of
Now let us have the C:
the car manufacturer.
C =182 - [(90 - x) + x + (60 - x)]
C = 182 - (90 - x + 60) hence, A x B will give all the possible
C = 32 + x pairings of the elements of A and B.
Now let us find for x... then, the relation (R) from A to B will be
53 + x + 72 - x + 41 - x + 90 - x + 60 - x + given by:
32 - x + x
348 + x = 380 R = {(a, s), (a, t), (a, u), (a, v), (b, s), (b, t),
x = 32 (b, u), (b, v), (c, s), (c, t), (c, u), (b, v),
(d, s), (d, t), (d, u), (d, v)}
The value of x will be substituted to find
the answer to the Venn diagram... Let R be a relation from set A to the set
A= 53 + 32 = 85 B.
B = 41 + 32 = 73 ● the domain of R is the set dom R.
C = 32 + 32 = 64 dom R = {a € A│ (a, b) € R for some b € B}
A⋂B = 72 - 32 = 40
LANGUAGE OF FUCNTIONS
A⋂C = 90 - 32 = 58
B⋂C = 60 - 32 = 6 ● A function is a special kind of
relationship that helps visualize
LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS relationships in terms of graphs and make
it easier to interpret different behavior of
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variables.
● A function is a relation in which, for
each value of the first component of the
ordered pairs, there is exactly one value of
the second component.
● The set X is called the domain of the
function.
● For each element of x in X, the
corresponding element y in Y is called the
value of the function at x, or the image of
x.
RANGE
● is the set of all images of the elements
of the domain.
A function can be map one to one
correspondence from one set to another.
A function can be map many to one
correspondence from one set to another.
EXAMPLES:
A = {(1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 5), (4, 6)}
Answer: Function
B = {(-2, 7), (-1, 3), (0, 1), (1, 5), (2, 5)}
Answer: Function
C = {(3, 0), (3, 2), (7, 4), (9, 1)}
Answer: Not a Function
2.1 Polya's Four Steps in
Problem Solving
REASONING
● Reasoning is what we do when we take
information that we are given, compare it
to what we already know, and then come
up with a conclusion.
● It is the action of thinking about
something in a logical, sensible way.
INDUCTIVE REASONING
● Inductive Reasoning is drawing a
general conclusion from a repeated
observation or limited sets of observations
of specific examples. The conclusion
drawn by using inductive reasoning is
called conjecture.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
● Deductive Reasoning is drawing
general to specific examples or simply
from general case to specific case
COMMON PROBLEMS SOLVING
STRATEGIES/HEURISTICS
● Heuristics are procedures or strategies
that do not guarantee a solution to a
problem but provide a more highly
probable method for discovering the
solution to a problem.
1. WORKING BACKWARDS.
● This entails starting with the end results
and reversing the steps you need to get
those results, in order to figure out the
answer to the problem.
2. GUESS AND CHECK.
● It is important to recognize that an error
really isn’t a mistake at all. It helps to
guide the problem solver to the next
attempt at the answer.
3. MAKE A DIAGRAM.
● The diagram represents the problem in a
way we can see it, understand it, and think
about it while looking for the next step.
When you draw a diagram, you organize
information spatially, which then follows
the visual part of your brain to become
more involved.
4. MAKE A LIST.
● Making a list is a systematic method of
organizing information in rows and/or
columns. By putting given information in
an organized list, you can clearly analyze
this information and then solve the
problem by completing the list.
13
5. LOOK FOR A PATTERN.
● This strategy entails looking for patterns
in the data in order to solve the problem,
that is, the solver looks for items or
numbers that are repeated, or a series of
events that repeat.
6. DIVIDE AND CONQUER.
● If a problem can’t be solved right away,
divide it into parts, and solve one part at a
time. A problem which at first seems
difficult becomes easier if you divide it
into parts and solve one part at a time.
7. SOLVE A SIMPLER PROBLEM.
● If a problem can’t be solved right away,
divide it into parts, and solve one part at a
time. A problem which at first seems
difficult becomes easier if you divide it
into parts and solve one part at a time.
8. ACT IT OUT.
● Act out the problem by trying to do
what the people or things in a problem do.
This strategy works because you are
actually doing the problem.
9. ADOPTING A DIFFERENT POINT OF
VIEW.
● Sometimes, instead of considering the
problem in the most direct and obvious
manner, a different approach may yield
the answer quickly and more efficiently. It
also might reveal some interesting
reasoning.
POLYA’S PROBLEM SOLVING
STRATEGY
● George Polya (1887-1985) was a
Mathematics educator who strongly
believed that the skill of problem-solving
can be taught. He developed a framework
known as Polya's Four Steps in Problem
Solving.
● This process addresses the difficulty of
students in problem- solving. He firmly
believed that the most efficient way of
learning mathematical concepts is through
problem-solving. Students and teachers
become better problem solvers.
1. Understanding the problem
2. Devising a plan
3. Carrying out the plan
4. Looking back
STEP 1: UNDERSTAND THE
PROBLEM.
● Do you understand all the words used in
stating the problem?
● What are the data?
● Is there enough information to enable
you to find a solution?
STEP 2: DEVISE A PLAN.
● Polya mentioned that there are many
reasonable ways to solve problems. The
skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is
best learned by solving many problems.
STEP 3: CARRYING OUT THE
PLAN.
● This step is usually easier than devising
the plan. In general, all you need is care
and patience, given that you have the
necessary skills. Persist with the plan that
you have chosen. If it continues not to
work, discard it and choose another.
STEP 4: LOOKING BACK.
● Polya mentioned that much can be
gained by taking time to reflect and look
back at what you have done, what worked,
and what didn’t. Doing this will enable
you to predict what strategy to use to
solve future problems.
2.2 Number Pattern
● An ordered list of numbers such as 5,
14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a sequence.
● The numbers in a sequence that are
separated by commas are the terms of the
14
sequence.
● It is customary to use the subscript
notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence. That is,
a1, a2, a3, …. an
● An infinite sequence is a function
whose domain is the set of positive
integers.
● A finite sequence is a function whose
domain consists of the first n positive
integers only.
2.3 Difference Table
● The process of finding the next term in
a given sequence can also be found using
another technique. Finding the difference
between the number pattern will help us
find the next term. The difference table is
needed to be constructed.
● A difference table shows the difference
between successive terms of the sequence.
The differences in rows may be the first,
second, and third differences.
2.4 Number Series
● Number Series is a sequence formed
out of numbers. The four fundamental
operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division can be used to
find the next term in the given number
series. The difference table can also be
used to find the next term in the series.
2.5 Writing A Formula
from a Sequence
STEPS:
1. Draw difference table and find he
common difference.
2. Write the Initial Equation.
3. Distribute the value of n to the initial
equation.
4. Subtract the initial equation to the
given terms.
5. Add the common difference on step 4
to the initial equation.
3.1 Introduction to Data
management
● Data, (Datum in singular form) as
defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary,
are information (such as measurements or
statistics) used as a basis for reasoning,
discussion, or calculation.
● It is an information in digital form that
can be transmitted or processed. Both
useful and irrelevant or redundant
information must be processed to be
meaningful.
● Example of data includes demographic
profile, electricity consumption, or even
the number of sick. The daily report of
Department of Health in regard to the
number of COVID cases in the country is
an example of data.
● The recommendation of the Inter-
Agency Task Force on Emerging
Infectious Disease (IATF-EID) regarding
quarantine protocols or even the
prediction of the experts in the University
of the Philippines is in reference to a
meticulous data analysis and treatment.
● Data, then, is an important aspect in
research for it paves way in giving a
precise conclusion and will give insights
as to what to expect in the future.
Population, the growth in the years to
come, and the problems that may arise
from it, will be given focus today, all
because of the data gathered.
FORMS OF DATA
QUALITATIVE DATA
● Uses words and descriptions.
● Can be observed but is subjective and
therefore difficult to use for the purposes
15
of making comparisons.
● Qualitative data collection methods
include focus groups, interviews, or open-
ended items on a survey.
● Examples: texture, color, taste, odor.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
● Data that is expressed with numbers.
● Data which can be put into categories,
measured, or ranked.
● Quantitative can be represented visually
in graphs and tables and be statically
analyzed.
● Examples: length, weight, age, cost,
rating.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
DATA
1. CATEGORICAL
● Data that has been placed into groups.
● An item cannot belong to more than one
group at a time.
● Examples: individual’s current living
situation, smoking status, or whatever
he/she is employed.
2. CONTINUOUS
● Numerical data measured on a
continuous range or scale.
● In continuous data, all values are
possible with no gaps in between.
● Examples: person’s height or weight,
and temperature.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
NOMINAL
● Also known as categorical.
● They don’t have numeric value so
cannot be added, subtracted, divided, or
multiplied.
● Examples: Gender, Genotype, Religion
ORDINAL
● Data is classified according to rank.
● The ordinal scale contains things that
you can in order.
● Examples: Ranking in class, socio-
economic status, Likert Scale
INTERVAL
● An interval scale has ordered
numbers with meaning divisions.
● Examples: Temperature, IQ, NCAE
Rating
RATIO
● The ratio scale is exactly the same as
the interval scale with one major
difference: zero is meaningful.
● Examples: Ruler Measurements,
Income
QUALITATIVE DATA
COLLECTION METHOD
● This is collected through direct
interaction with individuals on a one-to-
one basis or direct interaction with
individuals in a group setting. Data is
usually collected from a smaller sample.
DATA COLLECTION
● As previously mentioned, data
collection is one of the keys in creating a
quality-research. Best Research Design is
achieved through proper and accurate data
collection.
● Data collection is a very demanding job
which needs thorough planning, hard
work, patience, perseverance and more to
be able to complete the task successfully.
● Data collection starts with determining
what kind of data required followed by the
selection of a sample from a certain
population.
● Data collection is the process of
gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established
systematic fashion that enables one to
answer stated research questions, test
16
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
● The data collection component of
research is common to all fields of study
including physical and social sciences,
humanities, business, etc. While methods
vary by discipline, the emphasis on
ensuring accurate and honest collection
remains the same.
● The goal for all data collection is to
capture quality evidence that then
translates to rich data analysis and allows
the building of a convincing and credible
answer to questions that have been posed.
Regardless of the field of study or
preference for defining data (quantitative,
qualitative), accurate data collection is
essential to maintaining the integrity of
research.
● Both the selection of appropriate data
collection instruments (existing,
modified, or newly developed) and
clearly delineated instructions for their
correct use reduce the likelihood of
errors occurring. (Kabir, 2016)
PRIMARY DATA
● Data that has been collected from
firsthand experience is known as primary
data.
● Primary data has not been published
yet and is more reliable, authentic, and
objective.
● Primary data has not been changed or
altered by human beings; therefore, its
validity is greater than secondary data.
● Sources: Experiment, Survey,
Questionnaire, Interview, Observation
1. EXPERIMENT - require an artificial
or natural setting in which to perform
logical study to collect data. Experiments
are more suitable for medicine,
psychological studies, nutrition and for
other scientific studies. In experiments the
experimenter must keep control over the
influence of any extraneous variable on
the results.
2. SURVEY - is most used method in
social sciences, management, marketing,
and psychology to some extent. Surveys
can be conducted in different methods.
3. QUESTIONNAIRE - is the most used
method in survey. Questionnaires are a list
of questions either open-ended or close-
ended for which the respondents give
answers. Questionnaire can be conducted
via telephone, mail, live in a public area,
or in an institute, through electronic mail
or through fax and other methods.
4. INTERVIEW - is a face-to-face
conversation with the respondent. In
interview the main problem arises when
the respondent deliberately hides
information otherwise it is an in-depth
source of information. The interviewer
can not only record the statements the
interviewee speaks but he can observe the
body language, expressions and other
reactions to the questions, too. This
enables the interviewer to draw
conclusions easily.
5. OBSERVATION - can be done while
letting the observing person know that
s/he is being observed or without letting
him know. Observations can also be made
in natural settings as well as in artificially
created environment.
SECONDARY DATA
● Data collected from a source that has
already been published in any form is
called as secondary data. The review of
literature in any research is based on
secondary data.
● Secondary data is essential since it is
impossible to conduct a new survey that
can adequately capture past change and/or
17
developments. Secondary data can be less
valid, but its importance is still there.
Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary
data; in these cases, getting information
from secondary sources is easier and
possible. Sometimes primary data does
not exist in such situation one has to
confine the research on secondary data.
● Sometimes primary data is present, but
the respondents are not willing to reveal it
in such case too secondary data can
suffice.
● Sources: Experiment, Books, Records,
Biographies, Newspapers, Published
censuses, Data Archives, Internet
Archives, Research Articles by other
researchers, Database.
ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED
FOR DATA COLLECTION
Data collection should adhere to ethical
norms in research.
● Norms promote aims of research: truth,
knowledge, and avoidance of error
● Ethical standards promoting values that
are essential to collaborative work such as
trust, accountability, mutual respect, and
fairness.
● Norms ensure that researchers can be
held accountable to the public.
● Norms build public support for research
● Norms promote moral and social values
such as social responsibility, human
rights, animal welfare, compliance with
the law, and health and safety.
General summary of some ethical
principles that various codes address:
1. HONESTY - Do not fabricate, falsify,
or misrepresent data
2. OBJECTIVITY - Avoid bias in
experimental design, data analysis and
review.
3. INTEGRITY - Keep your promise and
agreements, consistency in actions and
words.
4. CAREFULNESS - Critically examine
your work and work of peers. Keep
good records of journal.
5. OPENNESS - Share data results and
be open to criticism.
6. RESPECT FOR INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY - Honor patents and
copyrights. Acknowledge the authors.
7. CONFIDENTIALITY - Protect
important communication or data.
8. RESPONSIBLE PUBLICATION -
Publish in order to advance research
and not your career.
9. RESPECT FOR COLLEAGUES - Treat
one of your colleagues fairly. Listen to
their ideas.
10. COMPETENCE - Maintain and
improve your own professional
competence.
11. LEGALITY - Know and obey
relevant laws and policies.
12. ANIMAL CARE - Show respect to
animals. Do not perform poorly
designed animal experiments.
13. HUMAN SUBJECTS PROTECTION -
Minimize harms and maximize benefits.
Respect privacy.
CONDUCTING A SURVEY
● Face-to-Face
● Phone Interview
● Self-Administered Survey
DESIGNING A SURVEY
● Determine the goal of your survey.
● Identify the sample population.
● Choose an interviewing method.
● Decide what questions you will ask, in
what order, and how to phrase them.
● Conduct the interview and collect the
information.
18
● Analyze the results by making graphs
and drawing conclusions.
DISPLAY, ANALYZE, AND
INTERPRET DATA
● Data gathered remain meaningless
unless organized. It is in the organization
that the values in the data set get meaning.
To organize data is to present them in
table or graphical form.
● Once the data are gathered and
organized in a frequency distribution, the
next step is to come up with a
comprehensive presentation that is easier
to understand. One of it is through graphs.
LINE CHARTS
● Line charts, or line graphs, are
powerful visual tools that illustrate
trends in data over a period or a
particular correlation.
BAR CHARTS
● Bar graphs work great for visually
presenting nearly any type of data, but
they hold power in the marketing
industry. The graphs are ideal for
comparing any sort of numeric value,
including group sizes, inventories,
ratings and survey responses.
PIE CHARTS
● Pie charts are the simplest and most
efficient visual tool for comparing parts
of a whole. For example, a pie chart can
quickly and effectively compare various
budget allocations, population
segments or market -research question
responses.
SPIDER CHARTS
● When a statistician needs to visually
compare three or more quantitative
variables, he or she might choose to use
a radar chart, also known as a spider or
star chart. The length of each “spoke” is
proportionate to the value being
compared. For each category, the
spokes are then connected with a line of
a designated pattern or color, forming a
star- like shape with points equal to the
number of categories.
STOCK CHARTS
● One of the most vital of all financial
graphs, stock charts help investors
track the markets to determine profits
and loss, as well as make buying and
selling decisions.
● The lines simply track changes in a
particular stocks or overall market’s
value over a period of time. Multiple
stocks can be tracked and compared at
the same time by transforming the line
graph into a stacked area chart or
simply using multiple lines of various
colors.
GANTT CHARTS
● Gantt charts are special types of bar
graphs used to diagram projects and
schedules. The chart reflects the start
and end time of the project and the
important tasks.
HISTOGRAMS
● It looks like a bar graph. The graph
has no gaps; it is helpful when the
distribution is interval or ratio.
FREQUENCY POLYGON
● It looks like a line graph. It is a
visually substantial method of
representing quantitative data and its
frequency.
OGIVE
● It is a cumulative frequency graph for
the classes in a frequency distribution.
The graph is typically “upward” in
trend. It also shows values below
certain boundary.
19
DATA AND STATISTICS
● Data consists of information coming
from observations, counts, measurements,
or responses.
● Statistics is the science of collecting,
organizing, analyzing, and interpreting
data in order to make decisions.
● A population is the collection of all
outcomes, responses, measurement, or
counts that are of interest.
● A sample is a subset of a population.
PARAMETERS AND STATISTICS
● A parameter is a numerical description
of a population characteristic.
● A statistic is a numerical description of
a sample characteristic.
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS
The study of statistics has two major
branches: descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.
● Descriptive statistics involves
organization, summarization, and
display of dat.
● Inferential statistics involves using a
sample to draw conclusions about a
population.
DIFFERENT TYPE OF SAMPLES
STRATIFIED SAMPLES
● A stratified sample has members from
each segment of a population. This
ensures that each segment from the
population is represented.
CLUSTER SAMPLES
● A cluster sample has all members from
randomly selected segments of a
population. This is used when the
population falls into naturally occurring
subgroups.
SYSTERMATIC SAMPLES
● A systematic sample is a sample in
which each member of the population is
assigned a number. A starting number is
randomly selected and sample members
are selected at regular intervals.
CONVENIENCE SAMPLES
● A convenience sample consists only of
available members of the population.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
CLASS INTERVALS OR CLASS LIMITS
(CI)
● This refers to the grouping defined by a
lower limit and an upper limit.
● Example: 5-9, in this class interval 5 is
the lower limit and 9 is the upper limit.
CLASS BOUNDARIES (CB)
● This refers to the real or true class
limits. The values of the class boundaries
can be found by subtracting 0.5 from the
lower limit and adding 0.5 from the upper
limit.
● Example: 5-9 becomes 4.5 - 9.5
CLASS MARKS (x)
● This refers to the midpoint or middle
value of the class interval. It is obtained
by finding the average of the lower and
upper-class limits.
● Example: x = 5+9/2 =7
CLASS SIZE (i)
● This refers to the difference between the
upper-class boundary and the lower-class
boundary of a class interval. It can also be
obtained by computing the difference
between two successive lower-class limits
or two successive upper-class limits.
● Example: 5-9 and 10-14
The difference of 10 and 5 is 5 while the
difference of 14 and 9 is 5 also therefore
the class size is 5.
20
The class boundaries are 4.5 - 9.5 and 9.5
- 14.5 respectively, the difference between
these boundaries is 5.
CLASS FREQUENCY (f)
● This refers to the number of
observations belonging to a class interval.
● The frequency distribution table can
also contain additional information such
as: Relative frequency, Percentage,
Cumulative Frequency.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY (Rf)
● This refers to the quotient of the class
frequency and the total number of
observations.
● Formula: Rf = f/n
PERCENTAGE (%)
● This is obtained by multiplying the Rf
by 100.
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY (Cf)
● This can be less than cumulative
frequency (<cf) or greater than cumulative
frequency (>cf).
● This is obtained by getting the sum of
the frequencies starting from the lowest
classes to the highest classes(<cf) or from
starting from the frequency of the highest
classes to the lowest classes (>cf).
3.2 Categorical Frequency
Distribution
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
● This is an excellent device for making
larger collections of data much more
manageable.
● Categorical Frequency Distribution -
is used to organized nominal level or
ordinal level type of data.
● Grouped Frequency Distribution - is
used to organized quantitative data.
● The frequency distribution has two parts
– the frequency table and the extended
frequency table.
FREQUENCY TABLE
● Lists categories of scores along with
their corresponding frequencies. The
frequency for a category or class is the
number of original scores that fall into
that class.
EXTENDED FREQUENCY TABLE
● Consists of columns that can generate
various graphs or charts. It is a
prerequisite for creating graphs and charts
used in statistics. Consists of class
intervals, class marks, frequency,
cumulative frequency, relative frequency,
cumulative relative frequency.
GUIDELINES FOR FREQUENCY
TABLE
1. Class interval should not overlap.
2. Classes should continue throughout
the distribution with NO gaps.
3. All classes should have the same
width.
4. Use 5-20 classes.
3.3 Grouped Frequency
Distribution
GROUPED FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
● It is used when the range of the data set
is large; the data must be grouped into
classes whether it is categorical or interval
data. For interval data, the class is more
than one unit in width.
● To make a grouped frequency
distribution, there are steps to follow in
constructing an FDT.
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING THE
GROUPED FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION TABLE
21
STEP 1: Arrange the data from lowest to
highest. (Array)
STEP 2: Solve for the Range (R).
STEP 3: Solve for the number of classes
then solve for the class width.
STEP 4: Fill in the LL of the interval
column by starting from the lowest
score adding the class width. The UL is
the step lower the next class. There
should be no overlapping of classes.
STEP 5: Tally all the scores and write
the frequency in the frequency column.
Be careful in tallying since this is what
you are going to use for the rest of the
solution.
STEP 6: For <cf, start from the lowest
group frequency then add the
frequency of each class for the
succeeding classes.
STEP 7: For >cf, start from the highest
group frequency then add the
frequency of each class for the
succeeding classes.
STEP 8: For rf, it is f divided by n,
where n is the total number of scores.

3.4 Measures of Central

Tendency for Ungrouped
Data
GROUPED FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
● It is used when the range of the data set
is large; the data

22