CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is a review of existing literature relevant to the topic of psychological preparedness

towards college in new normal education. More specifically, this chapter is a review of topics

including : College Readiness; Psychological preparedness; Self- efficacy; Goal Orientation;

Motivation; and Adaptability.

A. College Readiness

Achievement on state assessments and course grades offer an important source

of information to students about their academic readiness for postsecondary

schooling, as evidence suggests that high school students update their college-

going expectations based on information they receive about their academic ability

during secondary school (Jacob & Wilder-Linkow, 2011). In fact, the labels

assigned to students through state standardized testing can impact college-going

decisions. Researchers find that students reassess their educational trajectories

based on standardized test result labels as early as eighth grade. One study in

Massachusetts found that a “Needs Improvement” label on the state assessment

increased the likelihood that urban, low-income youth will enroll in college

compared to a “Warning” label, an indication that they’re in danger of failing

(Papay, Murnane, &Willet, 2011). Additionally, California’s Early Assessment

Program, now over ten years old, is also an important effort to formally provide

students with information about their college readiness through the 11th grade

state assessment. Although the program has modestly reduced remediation rates at

the state’s less selective four-year state university campuses (Kurlaender, Jackson,

Howell, & Grodsky, 2014), there is limited evidence about whether and how
 students, their parents, or schools use the information provided on state

assessments to help students make plans for senior year and beyond.

It is also important to consider that information from college assessments (or

other sources) intended to motivate students toward their postsecondary goals

could also discourage lower-performing students. For example, students taking

state assessments who are told they may require remediation upon entering

college may feel that they do not belong in college and decide not to enroll.

However, research on California’s effort to provide students with college

readiness information in 11th grade through state assessments found that the early

signal of “Not Ready” did not dissuade students from applying to or enrolling in

college, nor did it push them into attending a less academically demanding

college, such as a community college (Howell, Kurlaender, & Grodsky, 2010;

Jackson, 2015; Kurlaender, Carrell, & Jackson, 2016).

B. Psychological preparedness

Exposure to disasters can lead to a variety of long-term health effects and risks. Apart from

physical effects, exposure to natural disasters can also cause psychological symptoms, such as

amnesia, anxiety (including Generalized Anxiety Disorder), phobias, substance abuse, insomnia, post-

traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), hyper arousal, acute stress disorder (ASD), depression and at times

suicide, and other mental illnesses (Fan et al., 2011; Hussain, Weisaeth, & Heir, 2011; Keskinen-

Rosenqvist, Michélsen, Schulman, & Wahlström, 2011; Neria, Nandi, & Galea, 2008; Norris, 2001).

Symptoms might not be detected immediately after the disaster strikes and delayed symptom

development might occur after the first few weeks following disaster exposure (Wahlström, 2010).

This makes mental health, social support and crisis interventions after a disaster extremely difficult

(Wahlström, 2010). At times, even relatively mild exposure to natural disasters can lead to the
development of psychological distress (Gifford, 2007; Reser, 2007). Furthermore, not only primary

victims, those directly exposed to the disaster, may suffer from psychological symptoms, but others,

such as grieving relatives and friends of the primary victims may be affected by association

(secondary victims). Emergency personnel, including rescue workers, fire, police, psychologists, as

well as mental health and social workers may also be affected by the disaster indirectly. These indirect

impacts can include vicarious traumatization and compassion fatigue or burnout (Paton, Violanti,

Dunning, & Smith, 2004; Prati, Pietrantoni, & Cicognani, 2011).

C. Self-efficacy

The term self-efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a

goal or an outcome. Students with a strong sense of self-efficacy are more likely to challenge

themselves with difficult tasks and be intrinsically motivated. These students will put forth a high

degree of eff ort in order to meet their commitments, and attribute failure to things which are in their

control, rather than blaming external factors. Self-efficacious students also recover quickly from

setbacks, and ultimately are likely to achieve their personal goals.

Students with low self-efficacy, on the other hand, believe they cannot be successful and they

are less likely to make a concerted, extended eff ort and may consider challenging tasks as threats that

are to be avoided. Thus, students with poor self-efficacy have low aspirations which may result in

disappointing academic performances becoming part of a self-fulfilling feedback cycle (Kirk, 2016).

In a study that included 286 high school students enrolled in three schools who attended a

biology course in Turkey, Aydin (2016) found that the use of metacognitive strategies and self-

efficacy made a positive and significant prediction of students’ intrinsic motivation to learn biology.

Yuksel and Geban (2016) study investigated science and math course achievements of vocational high

school students in the scope of self-efficacy and anxiety. Results showed that academic self-efficacy

perceptions of students predicted achievement in physics, chemistry and math courses.

 D. Goal –orientation

Goal -orientation can be associated with motivation and self-efficacy. The Cambridge

dictionary describes a goal-oriented person as one who works hard to achieve good results in the

tasks. These people have the strict mindset of what they want to achieve. Goal-oriented personalities

focus on concrete goals and the things they hope to accomplish because they are concerned with

productivity and efficiency.

A study made by Soltaninejad (2015) examined the relationships between achievement goal

orientations and learning strategies among 350 public high school students in Iran. The results showed

that achievement goal orientations were significant determinants of learning strategies.

In another study done among 201 students from state and private schools in Turkey,

Turkcapar (2015) found that there are significant differences in students’ achievement goal orientation

scores in favor of state school students and of those who come from low socioeconomic level.

Gafoor and Kurukkan (2014) investigated the relationship between parenting style and goal

orientation among 365 boys and 467 girls in higher secondary schools in Kerala, India. The findings

implied that parents can influence the students’ goal orientation by promoting their children to set

goals other than performance avoidance by changing their styles of parenting. Mothers’

responsiveness and control have more crucial relation with goal orientation of students and hence

mothers can do more in this respect

A multilevel analysis on the relationship between learning strategies and goal orientation

made by Kadioglu and Uzuntiryaki (2014) found performance- approach and mastery- approach goals

positively predicted students’ learning strategies.

 E. Motivation

Motivation is literally the desire to do things. Cherry (2016) defines motivation as a process

that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behavior. It is what causes a person to act.

Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In

everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something.

There are three major components of motivation, activation, persistence, and intensity. Activation

involves the decision to initiate behavior. On the other hand, persistence refers to the continued eff ort

toward a goal, even though obstacles may exist. For instance, a student may show persistence to earn

a degree which requires significant investment of time, energy and resources. Lastly, intensity can be

seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal.

A study made by Mensah & Atta (2015) used a phenomenological lens to explore middle

level classroom goal perceptions and classroom experiences that were pivotal in motivating students

to achieve their learning goals. A total of 46 participants (31 students and 15 teachers) from two

middle schools in a Midwestern city participated in focus group discussions and one-on-one interview

sessions respectively. Findings indicated that teachers endorsed long-term goals with mastery

emphasis. However, students’ classroom goals were more of performance and less mastery oriented.

In addition, thematic analyses of the participants’ perspectives showed that: classroom lessons that are

more engaging, teachers’ positive disposition and personality, personal connection with learning

experience, application of varied instructions, and supportive teacher relationships are key classroom

experiences in driving middle school level students to achieve their learning goals.

Dana (2013) examined the influence of two different learning contexts based within self-

determination theory on the motivation and effect of 79 secondary PE students. The result of the study

indicated that engagement in a highly autonomy supportive learning context significantly engaged

students’ overall motivation, need for competence and enjoyment.

F. Adaptability
 Adaptability means the ability to adjust oneself readily to different conditions or adapt

efficiently and fast to changed circumstances. An adaptable person is one who is open to new ideas

and concepts, to working independently or as part of a team and to carrying out multiple tasks. The

need for adaptability has never been greater than it is now. The ability for people and organizations to

adapt to changes in their environments, stay relevant to avoid obsolescence which is the defining

characteristic between success and failure, growth and stagnation. Boss (2015) enumerated 14 signs of

an adaptable person. Some of these are: open to change, seek opportunity, think ahead, resourceful,

don’t whine, don’t claim fame, curious, stay current, see systems and are willing to listen to the

other’s point of view.

Buyukgoze-Kavas (2016) made a study on predicting career adaptability from positive

psychological traits among 415 undergraduate students in Turkey. Results from the simultaneous

multiple regression analysis indicated that career adaptability was significantly predicted by hope,

resilience and optimism.