PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY

URDANETA CITY
COLLEGE OF COMPUTING

COMPLEX ANALYSIS IN CONTEMPORARY WORLD

PRESENTED TO THE GENERAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

SUBMITTED BY: RAMOS, KEANNU ANGELO T.

SUBMITTED TO: SIR ARISTEO AQUINO

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The Contemporary World
curriculum is part of the Social
Sciences. It addresses
concerns and issues of the
environment, population,
wealth, power, tensions, and
conflicts. As a result, adult
learners become aware of the
implications of human activities
on society, acquire critical
judgment, and define their
perspective of the world.
Adults

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learn to participate in social
discussions and contribute to
society as responsible citizens.
Adult learners can achieve
the following subject-specific
abilities through the
Contemporary World
curriculum: Interprets a
contemporary global problem
and takes a
Stand on a contemporary world
issue, skills that contribute to
adult learners' general

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education, educate them to
participate in society, and form
opinions about social disputes.
This course exposes students to
the modern world through an
examination of the
multidimensional phenomena of
globalization. It explores the
economic, social, political,
technological, and other
developments that have
generated an increased
awareness of

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the interconnection of peoples
and places throughout the world
using multiple social
scientific disciplines. To that
aim, the course offers an
overview of key topics in global
governance, development, and
sustainability. It attempts to
instill a feeling of global
citizenship and global ethical
responsibility in students, in
addition to exposing them too
the world outside of the
Philippines.

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The Contemporary World
curriculum is part of the Social
Sciences. It addresses
concerns and issues of the
environment, population,
wealth, power, tensions, and
conflicts. As a result, adult
learners become aware of the
implications of human activities
on society, acquire critical
judgment, and define their
perspective of the world.
Adults

Page 6 of 97
learn to participate in social
discussions and contribute to
society as responsible citizens.
Adult learners can achieve
the following subject-specific
abilities through the
Contemporary World
curriculum: Interprets a
contemporary global problem
and takes a
Stand on a contemporary world
issue, skills that contribute to
adult learners' general

Page 7 of 97
education, educate them to
participate in society, and form
opinions about social disputes.
This course exposes students to
the modern world through an
examination of the
multidimensional phenomena of
globalization. It explores the
economic, social, political,
technological, and other
developments that have
generated an increased
awareness of

Page 8 of 97
the interconnection of peoples
and places throughout the world
using multiple social
scientific disciplines. To that
aim, the course offers an
overview of key topics in global
governance, development, and
sustainability. It attempts to
instill a feeling of global
citizenship and global ethical
responsibility in students, in
addition to exposing them too
the world outside of the
Philippines.
PAGE

TITLE PAGE ...................................................................................................................... 1

COVER LETTER............................................................................................................... 2

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ABSTRACT......................................................................................................................... 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... 4

A. BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY................................... 5

B. PROJECT PURPOSE............................................................................................... 8

C. PLAN OR APPROACH ........................................................................................... 9

D. BUDGET .................................................................................................................. 10

E. CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................... 12

LIST OF TABLES

1. FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES OF HYBRID TOPOLOGY ................................................... 6

2. THE BENEFICIARIES OF THE PROPOSAL....................................................................... 7

3. UNIT COST ............................................................................................................. 10

4. OPERATING COST.................................................................................................... 11

5. SERVICE COST ........................................................................................................ 11

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................... 13

A COMPLEX ANALYSIS AND SUMMARY IN

CONTEMPORARY WORLD

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 INTRODUCTION

The Contemporary World curriculum is part of the Social Sciences. It addresses

environmental concerns and issues, as well as wealth, power, tensions, and conflicts. As a
result, adult learners become aware of the societal consequences of human activity, develop
critical judgment, and define their worldview. Adults learn to be responsible citizens by
participating in social discussions and contributing to society.

Through the Contemporary World curriculum, adult learners can develop the following
subject-specific abilities: interpreting a contemporary global problem and taking a position on a
contemporary global issue; skills that contribute to adult learners' general education; educating
them to participate in society and forming opinions about social disputes.

This course introduces students to the modern world by venturing into the multifaceted
phenomenon of globalization. Using a variety of social science disciplines, it investigates the
economic, social, political, technological, and other developments that have resulted in a
greater awareness of the interconnectedness of peoples and places around the world. To
achieve this goal, the course provides an overview of key topics in global governance,
development, and sustainability. It aims to instill a sense of global citizenship and global ethical
responsibility in students, in addition to exposing them to the world outside of the Philippines.

LESSON 1: GLOBALIZATION

Globalization

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 The spread of products, technology, information, and cultures is referred to as
globalization. In economic terms, it refers to the interdependence of nations around the world
that is fostered by free trade. Globalization is the worldwide integration of international trade,
investment, technology, and cultures.

Globalization By World Health Organization (WHO)

Globalization refers to the spread of products, technology, information, and cultures. In

economic terms, it refers to the interdependence that free trade fosters among nations around
the world. The worldwide integration of international trade, investment, technology, and
cultures is referred to as globalization.

Importance of Globalization

Globalization aims to benefit individual economies around the world by increasing

market efficiency, increasing competition, reducing military conflicts, and more evenly
distributing wealth. Globalization alters the interactions of nations, businesses, and people. It
specifically alters the nature of economic activity among nations by facilitating trade, opening
global supply chains, and providing access to natural resources and labor markets.

Some of the benefits of globalization include:

 Foreign Direct Investment: (FDI) tends to grow at a much faster rate than global trade,
facilitating technology transfer, industrial restructuring, and global company growth.

 Technological Innovation: Increased competition from globalization encourages the

development of new technologies, particularly with the increase in FDI, which improves
economic output by making processes more efficient.

 Economies of Scale: Globalization enables large corporations to realize economies of

scale that reduce costs and prices, thereby supporting additional economic growth.
However, this can be detrimental to many small businesses attempting to compete on a
domestic level.

Some of the risks of globalization include:

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  Interdependence: Interdependence between nations can lead to regional or global
instability if local economic fluctuations affect a large number of countries that rely on
them.

 National Sovereignty: Some argue that the rise of nation-states, multinational or global
corporations, and other international organizations pose a threat to sovereignty. As a
result, some leaders may become nationalistic or xenophobic in the end.

 Equity Distribution: The benefits of globalization can be unfairly skewed toward rich
countries or individuals, resulting in greater economic inequalities.

The Economic Impact of Globalization on Developed Nations

Globalization helps developing countries to deal with the rest of the world increase their
economic growth, solving the poverty problems in their country. The developed countries were
able to invest in the developing nations, creating job opportunities for the poor people. One of
the major potential benefits of globalization is to provide opportunities for reducing
macroeconomic volatility on output and consumption via diversification of risk.

The overall evidence of the globalization effect on macroeconomic volatility of output

indicates that although direct effects are ambiguous in theoretical models, financial integration
helps in a nation's production base diversification, and leads to an increase in specialization of
production. However, the specialization of production, based on the concept of comparative
advantage, can also lead to higher volatility in specific industries within an economy and society
of a nation. As time passes, successful companies, independent of size, will be the ones that are
part of the global economy.

Positive Aspects of Globalization

Globalization allows companies to find lower-cost ways to produce their products. It

also increases global competition, which drives prices down and creates a larger variety of
choices for consumers. Lowered costs help people in both developing and already-developed
countries live better on less money.

 As more money is poured into developing countries, there is a greater chance for the
people in those countries to economically succeed and increase their standard of living.
 Global competition encourages creativity and innovation and keeps prices for
commodities/services in check.

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  Developing countries can reap the benefits of current technology without undergoing
many of the growing pains associated with the development of these technologies.
 Governments can better work together towards common goals now that there is an
advantage in cooperation, an improved ability to interact and coordinate, and a global
awareness of issues.
 There is greater access to foreign culture in the form of movies, music, food, clothing,
and more. In short, the world has more choices.
 More efficient markets
 Increased competition
 Stabilized security
 More wealth equality throughout the world

Advantages of Globalization

Globalization is an international situation that has arisen in the late twentieth century in
which the world’s investment, employment, production, and marketing systems have spread
beyond the territorial boundaries to the international arena. As a result, the world has become
a pervasive social and different countries are simultaneously participating in the process of
uniform investment, employment, production, and marketing.

 Allows us to pool all our resources together.

 Would also reduce labor exploitation issues.
 Reduces the prospects of tyranny.
 Improves communication access.
 Would remove tax havens for wealthy individuals and businesses.
 Would help the developing world progress faster.
 Would reduce currency manipulation problems.
 Encourages free trade.
 Could create more employment opportunities.

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Disadvantages of Globalization

When many nations’ economic systems become interdependent, the likelihood of a

global recession increases dramatically—because if one country’s economy starts to struggle,
this can set off a chain reaction that can affect many other countries simultaneously, causing a
worldwide financial crisis.

 May encourage more offshoring instead of less.

 benefits the wealthy more than the poor.
 Would encourage disease transfer.
 Could reduce social safety net programs.
 Would create a new system of politics.
 Would create a new system of politics.

Factors Affecting Globalization

Globalization is the increasing interdependence, integration & interaction among people

in various locations around the world. Interdependence is a dynamic of being mutually
responsible to and sharing common principles with others. Interdependence can be political,
social, and economic.

 Technology (Communication) Many technologies' cost efficiency is rising, and these

technologies are beginning to influence life.
 Transportation Transportation methods that are faster and less expensive, as well as
more frequent delivery of parts and completed goods.
 Deregulations Privatization also occurred, and large sections of business were now
available for acquisition or takeover.
 Removal Of Capital Exchange Controls This enabled firms to move funds from one
nation to another in search of greater commercial returns.
 Free Trade This makes commerce more affordable and, as a result, more appealing to
businesses.
 Containerization Ocean transportation costs have decreased because of
containerization, bulk shipment, and other efficiencies.
 Technological Change The cost of sending and conveying information has been
decreased as a result of rapid and persistent technical progress.
 Economies of Scale If the MES grows, a domestic market may be considered too small to
meet the selling needs of these industries.

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 If the MES grows, a
domestic market may be
considered too small to meet
the
 selling needs of these
industries.
 9. Differences in Tax
Systems
 Businesses' desire to profit
from decreased unit labor
costs and other favorable
 manufacturing variables.
 10. Less Protectionism

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  Non-tariff barriers such as
import licensing and foreign
exchange restrictions
 have gradually been
phased down.
 11. Growth Strategies of
Transnational and
Multinational Companies
 Differences in Tax Systems Businesses' desire to profit from decreased unit labor costs
and other favorable manufacturing variables.
 Less Protectionism Non-tariff barriers such as import licensing and foreign exchange
restrictions have gradually been phased down.
 Growth Strategies of Transnational and Multinational Companies

Other Factors Influencing Globalization

Factors influencing globalization are as follows: (1) Historical (2) Economy (3) Resources

and Markets (4) Production Issues (5) Political (6) Industrial Organisation (7) Technologies.
Globalization though is an economic activity, is influenced by many factors.

 Historical: The trade routes were made over the years so that goods from one kingdom
or country moved to another.

 Economy: The cost of goods and values to the end-user determine the movement of
goods and value addition. The overall economics of a particular industry or trade is an
important factor in globalization.

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  Resources and Markets: Natural resources like minerals, coal, oil, gas, human resources,
water, etc. make an important contribution to globalization. The mineral-based
industries like steel, aluminum, coal.

 Production Issues: Utilization of built-up capacities of production, sluggishness in the

domestic market, and overproduction makes a manufacturing company look outward
and go global.

 Political: The political issues of a country make globalization channelized as per political
bosses. The regional trade understandings or agreements determine the scope of
globalization.

 Industrial Organization: The technological development in the areas of production,

product mix and firms are helping organizations to expand their operations. The hiring
of services and procurement of sub-assemblies and components have a strong influence
on the globalization process.

 Technologies: The stage of technology in a particular field gives rise to the import or
export of products or services from or to the country

LESSON 2: GLOBAL ECONOMY

Global Economy

The global economy has changed in very significant ways during the past several
decades, writes David Frum. Frum The development strategies of countries today are affected
to an unprecedented degree by how industries are organized. He says this is reflected in a shift
in theoretical frameworks from those centered around the legacies and actors of nation-states
to a greater concern with supranational institutions and transnational organizations.

United Nations defines economic globalization as “increasing independence of world

economies because of the growing scale of cross-border trades of commodities and services,
the flow of international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies. The rapid growing
significance of information in all types of productive activities and marketization are the
two major driving forces for economic globalization.”

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 The global economy is an essentially multidisciplinary issue. According to Andrew Keen,
no one academic area can cover it, nor can any afford to ignore it. Keen Policymakers,
managers, workers, and social activists must have a firm understanding of how the modern
global economy works if they are to improve their position or avoid decline. The global
economy may be researched at many degrees of detail. At the macro level, there exist
international organizations and regimes that define global laws and standards. Many
developing countries have relaxed trade barriers in response to IMF and World Bank pressure.
The proportion of low-income nations in which foreign countries make direct investments is
relatively modest.

Characteristics of the global economy

 Globalization: This term refers to the process by which national and regional
economies, societies, and cultures have become intertwined via the global network of
trade, communication, immigration, and transportation. These developments resulted
in the establishment of the global economy. Domestic economies have become more
cohesive as a result of the global economy and globalization, leading to improved
performance.

 International trade: The impact of globalization on international trade is thought to be

significant. It refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries, and it has
also aided countries in specializing in products where they have a comparative
advantage. This is an economic theory that refers to an economy's ability to produce
goods and services at a lower opportunity cost than its competitors.

 International finance: Money can be transferred between countries at a faster rate than
goods, services, and people, making international finance one of the most important
aspects of the global economy. Currency exchange rates and monetary policy are two
topics covered in international finance.

 Global investment: This refers to an investment strategy that is not limited by

geographical boundaries. Foreign direct investment accounts for the vast majority of
global investment (FDI).

Importance of Global Economy

Economic significance at both the micro and macro levels Emerging countries have
grown economically as the world's population has increased, making them one of the major
engines of global economic growth. The resilience and development demonstrated by
developing countries bode well for the global economy. However, many of these developing

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countries remain impoverished, and more efforts must be made to eradicate it. These emerging
economies are home to some of the largest companies with significant market value, as well as
some of the wealthiest individuals.

Long-term world economic outlook. Growth in emerging market economies in 2019 is

likely to keep increasing at a positive rate, according to emerging markets’ economic forecast
for 2019. The economy is set to increase by 7.5% in India, 6.6% in the Philippines, and 6.3% in
China. In Egypt, 4.9% in Malaysia, 3.8% in Peru, and 3.7% in Morocco.

The global economy is defined as the worldwide exchange of commodities and services
represented in monetary units of account. It is inextricably linked to the geography and
ecosystem of Earth. In some cases, the terms "international" and "global economy" are used
interchangeably, with the "international" or "global economy" being evaluated independently
and distinguished from national economies. The "global economy" is simply the sum of the
measures of individual countries.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Global Economy

Because of the impact of the global economy, nearly every country on the planet is
influenced by events in seemingly unrelated countries. The primary source of these effects is
economics, which is concerned with the production and exchange of goods and services. Import
and export restrictions may jeopardize the economic stability of governments that choose to
impose an excessive number of them.

International trade is similar to domestic trade, but it differs in two ways from domestic
trade. Because at least two currencies are used in international trade, they must be exchanged
before goods or services can be exported or imported. Some countries impose restrictions on
international trade in commodities or services, putting a strain on bilateral relations.
Governments can benefit from economies of scale when they specialize more.
Economies of scale refer to the cost savings achieved by increasing the volume of production.
Instead of spending extra money on the production of a wide range of goods, manufacturers in
these countries could focus all of their efforts on establishing factories for specialized
production.

Trade barriers frequently harm the economies of trading nations, making it difficult to
maintain such barriers in the long run. Trade tariffs (import taxes) and trade quotas are two
examples of these barriers (limitations on the number of products that can be imported into a
country). Some countries also use trade restrictions to try to make their economies more
competitive.

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Benefits of the global economy

The global economy has changed significantly over the past few decades, in the way
that it is organized and governed by collaborating nations. These changes have repercussions
that not only affect the flow of goods and services between countries, but also the movement
of people. As we’ve seen on occasions over the last century, too great a fluctuation in this
international economic system can lead to a global economic crisis.

 Free trade: Free trade is an excellent way for countries to exchange goods and services.
It also enables countries to specialize in the production of goods in which they have a
comparative advantage.

 Movement of labor: Increased labor force migration is beneficial to both the recipient
country and the workers. If a country is experiencing high unemployment, workers can
look for work in other countries. This also contributes to the reduction of geographical
disparities.

 Increased economies of scale: The specialization of goods production in most countries

has led to advantageous economic factors such as lower average costs and lower prices
for customers.

 Increased investment: Due to the presence of a global economy, it is now easier for

countries to attract both short-term and long-term investments. Investments in
developing countries go a long way toward improving their economies.
Factors Affecting Global Economy

Economists usually believe that economic development and growth are affected by four
factors: human resources, physical capital, natural resources, and technology. Governments in
wealthy nations are focused on these issues. Less-developed countries, especially those with
abundant natural resources, would lag if they do not support technological development and
enhance employees' skills and education.

 The Impact of Human Resources

The workforce’s skills, education, and training have a direct impact on an economy's
growth. A talented and well-trained staff is more productive and produces higher-quality
results. A workforce that is underutilized, uneducated, and unskilled will be a burden on the
economy and may lead to increased unemployment.

 Investment in Physical Capital

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 The Department of L has issued a paper on the economic advantages of investing in
physical capital such as roads, machinery, and industries. It claims that investing in these assets
will lower costs while increasing the efficiency of economic production. According to the
research, this will result in greater labor productivity and economic growth.

 Quantity and Availability of Natural Resources

The amount and availability of natural resources influence economic growth rates. The
efficiency with which a country uses and exploits its natural resources is determined by the
labor force's capabilities, the type of technology used, and the availability of capital. Skilled and
educated employees can exploit these natural resources to help the economy thrive.

 Improvements in Technology
The Department of Labor has released a report on the four key factors that affect
economic growth. It shows that technological innovation and more education for workers will
improve economic output which lead to a better living environment for everyone. According to
the research, countries that understand the relevance of these elements would have better
growth rates and higher living conditions for their citizens.

actors of nation-states to a
greater concern with
supranational institutions and
transnational organizations.

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United Nations defines
economic globalization as
“increasing independence of
world economies because of
the growing scale of cross-
border trades of commodities
and services, the flow of
international capital, and the
wide and rapid spread of
technologies. The
the rapid growing significance
of information in all types of
productive activities and

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marketization are the two major
driving forces for economic
globalization.”
The global economy is an
essentially multidisciplinary
issue. According to Andrew
Keen, no one academic area
can cover it, nor can any afford
to ignore it. Keen
Policymakers, managers,
workers, and social activists
must have a firm understanding
of
how the modern global
economy works if they are to
Page 24 of 97
improve their position or
avoid
decline.
The global economy may be
researched at many degrees of
detail. At the macro
level, there exist international
organizations and regimes that
define global laws and
standards. Many developing
countries have relaxed trade
barriers in response to IMF and
World Bank pressure. The
proportion of low-income

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nations in which foreign
countries
make direct investments is
relatively modest.
LESSON 3: MARKET INTEGRATION

Market Integration

Market integration occurs when prices among different locations or related goods
follow similar patterns over a long period. Groups of goods often move proportionally to each
other and when this relation is very clear among different markets it is said that the markets are
integrated. Thus, market integration is an indicator that explains how much different markets
are related to each other

Market integration is the fusing of many markets into one. Global market integration
means that price differences between countries are eliminated as all markets become one.
Trade refers to countries within the region that create deals like cheaper tariffs for easier
import/export. Through Politics, leaders of countries within the region often perform social
visits to talk agreements despite differences and show solidarity and support to those they
agree with.

The Cambridge Business English Dictionary defines Market Integration as “a situation in

which separate markets for the same product become one single market, for example when an
import tax in one of the markets is removed.” Market Integration Integration illustrates the
connection of companies in a market. The amount of integration impacts the market behavior
of the businesses and therefore their marketing efficiency.

TYPES OF MARKET INTEGRATION

 Horizontal Integration
 Vertical Integration
 Forward Integration

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 Backward Integration

Horizontal integration

This occurs when a firm or agency gains control of other firms or agencies performing
similar marketing functions at the same level in the marketing sequence. In this type of
integration, some marketing agencies combine to form a union to reduce their effective
number and the extent of actual competition in the market. It is advantageous for the members
who join the group.

Advantages of Horizontal Integration

Larger Market Share

 The most obvious benefit is an increased market share or market power. When the two
companies merge, they also combine the product base, technology, and services that
are available on the market. With more products under one name, the new company
can increase its foothold among consumers.

Bigger Base of Customers

 Because the two companies may be operating in the same industry, they may not
necessarily have the same consumer base. By merging the two companies into one, the
new organization now has access to a larger base of customers.

Increased Revenue

 By increasing its customer base, the new company can now boost its revenue. It’s
typical for companies that undergo a horizontal integration to see more revenue than
when they were individual entities.

Additional Benefits

▪ Reducing competition
▪ Increasing other synergies such as marketing
▪ Creating economies of scale and economies of scope

Disadvantages of Horizontal Integration

Regulatory Scrutiny

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  The first and most troublesome is the level of scrutiny this kind of strategy faces,
especially from government agencies. Big mergers like these are the reason why
antitrust laws are in place. These laws prevent big corporations from acquisitions and
mergers that would narrow the competitive market and possibly create a monopoly.
This is seen as being a predatory act, giving one player dominance in the market. It
creates the idea that the large corporation may take advantage of consumers with
higher prices and narrow product/service choices.

Additional Cons

Other cons of horizontal integration include:

▪ Stunting economic growth of the new enterprise and;

▪ Reduced flexibility: This happens because the company is now a larger organization.
The addition of more personnel and processes means the need for more
transparency and therefore, more accountability and red tape.

Vertical Integration

This occurs when a firm performs more than one activity in the sequence of the
marketing process. It is a linking together of two or more functions in the marketing process
within a single firm or under single ownership. This type of integration makes it possible to
exercise control over both the quality and quantity of the product from the beginning of the
production process until the product is ready for the consumer. It reduces the number of
middlemen in the marketing channel.

Advantages of Vertical Integration

It allows you to invest in highly specialized assets

 Vertical integration can give you a great advantage over your competitors, allowing you
to invest and develop the products that you are currently offering. By being able to
acquire highly specialized assets, you will be able to differentiate your business from the
rest of your industry, with a highly competitive advantage.

It gives you more control over your business

 One great benefit that is sought by companies that are getting into vertical integration is
more control over the value chain. When retailers decide to develop or acquire a
manufacturing business, they would gain more control over the production aspect of
their distribution processes.

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It allows for positive differentiation

 This business strategy can give an organization important access to more production
inputs, process and retail channels, and distribution resources. Each of these elements
can offer great opportunities to the company to distinguish itself from the competition
with the use of effective marketing tactics.

It requires lower costs of the transaction

 This can be realized through inter-transactions that can be made between subsidiaries
that typically have a central communication and management system that is
inexpensive to employ.

Disadvantages of Vertical Integration

It can have capacity-balancing problems

 A good example of this situation is when a business needs to establish the excess upstream
capacity to ensure its downstream operations will get sufficient supply under any demand
condition. This might even result in retaliation of the business’s former suppliers, potentially
endangering its main production.

It can bring about more difficulties

 Take note that vertical mergers will have fewer economies of scale, as most of their
production processes are at different levels. Moreover, there is still scope for monopoly
power. For example, tied pubs could charge higher prices to consumers, while having fewer
choices on beer.

It can result in decreased flexibility

 The main contributors to this problem are the upstream and downstream investments the
business is making.

It can create some barriers to market entry

 Manufacturing businesses that have control over access to crucial raw materials and
components that are quite scarce due to vertical integration would often create some
barriers to market entry. They can limit competition and would establish a strong position in
the market to protect their customer base. However, they might face anti-trust regulators
who think that they are influencing market concentration.

Forward integration

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 Forward integration is a form of vertical integration in which a company moves forward
on its production path towards the distribution of its products or services. Essentially, a
company undertakes forward integration by acquiring or merging with business entities that
were its customers while still maintaining control over its initial business.

Advantages of forwarding Integration

Increase the company’s market share

 A company may increase its market share by implementing a forward integration strategy.
Generally, the strategy eliminates various transaction and transportation costs that
subsequently result in a lower final price for the company’s product.

Gain control over distribution channels

 A company employs the strategy if it is willing to obtain control over distribution channels in
its industry. Control is crucial for companies that operate in industries that lack qualified
distributors or in situations when distributors charge significant costs.

Competitive advantage

 Successful implementation of the strategy may provide a company with a competitive

advantage over its competitors. Low costs and control over industry distribution channels
can become key factors in achieving competitive advantage.

Create barriers to potential competitors

 The integration of entities forward of the company’s production vertical strengthens its
position in the industry and establishes obstacles to potential rivals. For example, if a
company integrates a large industry retailer, probable competitors could face limited access
to distribution channels.

Disadvantages of forwarding Integration

Bureaucratic inefficiencies

 Merger and acquisition deals related to forwarding integration may create various
inefficiencies as a result of the enlarged bureaucratic apparatus of the new business entity.

Failure to realize synergies between the companies

 In the forward integration strategy, a company may fail to realize synergies between the
involved entities. Improper implementation of the strategy can be one of the reasons for
the unrealized synergy potential.

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High costs

 Mergers or acquisitions necessary for undertaking forward integration may require

substantial funds to execute. A company must be certain that the benefits from the
implementation of the strategy will exceed its costs.

Backward Integration

This refers to the process in which a company purchases or internally produces

segments of its supply chain. In other words, it is the acquisition of controlled subsidiaries
aimed at the creation or production of certain inputs that could be utilized in the production.
Backward integration is a well-known competitive strategy. Through the control of more of its
supply chain, an organization can bring down the costs as well as guarantee access to key
materials.

Advantages of Backward Integration

Increased control

 Through the process of integrating backward, companies can control their value chain more
efficiently. When retailers decide to develop or acquire a manufacturing business, they
attain increased control over the production segment of the distribution phase.

Cost Control

 Through backward integration, costs can be considerably controlled all along the
distribution process. In the conventional distribution process, each phase of product
movement includes mark-ups to enable the reseller to earn profit.

Competitive Advantages

 Some companies adopt backward integration to block competitors from gaining any access
to important markets or scarce resources. For instance, a retailer might purchase a
manufacturing company and have access to proprietary technology as well as resources or
patents that are solely available in the local area of the firm.

Differentiation

 Backward integration allows companies to access an increasing number of production

inputs and distribution resources. By effectively leveraging these opportunities, the
company can stand out from the competition through efficient marketing.

Disadvantages of Backward Integration

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 It builds up excess upstream capacity to ensure that downstream has an adequate supply
even when the demand is heavy. This involves increased investment.

 The process leads to a lack of supplier competition that will lead to low efficiency resulting
in potentially higher costs.

 In due course, there are high chances that the flexibility will get reduced owing to previous
investments upstream and also downstream.

 In case there is a need for substantial in-house requirements, then it will diminish the
capability of producing the product variety.
Importance of Market Integration

 Globalization and Market Integration We will look at the notion of stock market
integration in this course. Market integration, in principle, should enhance financial and
economic efficiency and lead to better economic development. It may, however, enhance
asset return volatility, as well as generate financial instability and contagion consequences.

 Marketing Segments Technology has expanded the channels for advertising and other
marketing campaigns. The most effective campaigns will use as many different types of
media as possible to reach the largest potential audience. While the messages in a
marketing campaign must be conveyed differently on each platform, they must still be the
same message.

Factors Affecting Market Integration

Driving forces

Converging market requirements and desires, technological advancements, cost-cutting

pressure, and quality-improvement pressure.

Regional Economic Agreements

Despite being attacked by emerging nations in Europe, the European Union's increasing
membership is decreasing trade obstacles within the continent.

Market Needs & Wants

Human nature's shared characteristics give an underlying foundation for the possibility
to build and service global marketplaces.

The market has driven this change in behavior

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 Multinational companies pursuing strategies of product adaptation run the risk of being
overtaken by global competitors that have recognized opportunities to serve global customers.

Product Development Costs

The pressure for globalization is intense when new products require major investments
and long periods of development time.

Global competition has forced all companies to improve quality

For truly global products, uniformity can drive down research, engineering, design, and
production costs across business functions.

LESSON 4: INTERSTATE SYSTEM

Global Interstate

The Global Interstate is a concept used within world-systems theory to describe the
system of state relationships that arose either as a concomitant process or as a consequence of
the development of the capitalist world-system over the "long" 16th century? The theory of the
interstate system holds that all states are defined through their relationship to other states or
participation in the world economy and that divisions between states help to divide the world
into a core, periphery, and semi-periphery.

It is the whole system of human interactions. The modern world-system is structured

politically as an interstate system a system of competing and allying states. Political Scientists
commonly call this the international system, and it is the main focus of the field of International
Relations. It refers to the relationship between different state unions. It also includes all the
cultural aspects and interaction networks of the human population. 

The Notion of a System  

A system is an assemblage of units, objects, or parts united by some form of regular

interaction. In the 1950s, the behavioral revolution in the social sciences and growing
acceptance of political realism in international relations led scholars to conceptualize
international politics as a system, using the language of systems theory.  

The International System According to Realists  

All realists characterize the international system as anarchic. No authority exists above
the state, which is sovereign. Each state must therefore look out for its interests above all.  

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 Polarity:
system polarity refers to the number of blocs of states that exert power in the international
system. There are three types of polarity:  

 Multipolarity
is a distribution of power in which more than two nation-states have nearly equal amounts
of military, cultural, and economic influence. In a balance-of-power system, the essential
norms of the system are clear to each of the state actors. In the classical balance of power,
the actors are exclusive states and there should be at least five of them. 

 Bipolarity is a distribution of power in which two states have the majority of economic.
Military, and cultural influence internationally or regionally. Often, spheres of influence
would develop. 

 Unipolarity: is a distribution of power in which one state exercises most of the cultural,
economic, and military influence. In a tight bipolar system, international organizations
either do not develop or are ineffective. In a looser system, international organizations may
develop primarily to mediate between the two blocs.  

Realists and International System Change  

Changes in either the number of major actors or the relative power relationship among
the actors may result in a change in the international system. Wars are usually responsible for
changes in power relationships.   
An example of a system change occurred at the end of World War II. The war brought
the demise of Great Britain and France and signaled an end to Germany’s and Japan’s imperial
aspirations. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged into dominant positions; the
multipolar world had been replaced by a bipolar one.  

The International System According to Liberals  

The international system is not central to the view of liberals. Thus, there are three
different conceptions of the international system:  

 Not as a structure but as a process, in which multiple interactions occur among different
parties and where various actors learn from the interaction. 

 Actors include not only states, but also international governmental organizations, non-
governmental organizations, multinational corporations, and substate actors.  

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 Each actor has interactions with all of the other ones. Thus, a great many national interests
define the system, including economic and social issues and not just security. Robert
Keohane and Joseph Nye describe the international system as interdependent.

The International System According to Radicals  

Radicals seek to describe and explain the structure of the system in terms of
stratification: the uneven division of resources among different groups of states. The system is
stratified according to which states have vital resources.  

From the stratification of power and resources comes the division between the haves,
characterized by the North, and have-nots, positioned in the South. Economic disparities are
built into the structure and all actions are constrained by this structure.  

The Implications for Stratification  

When the dominant powers are challenged by those states just beneath them in terms
of access to resources, the system may become highly unstable. The rising powers seek first-tier
status and are willing to fight wars to get it. Top powers may begin a war to quell the threat.  
 
For Marxists, crippling stratification in the system is caused by capitalists. Capitalism
dominates international institutions whose rules are structured by capitalist states to facilitate
capitalist processes and MNCs whose headquarters are in capitalist states but whose loci of
activity are independent states.    

Radicals believe that the greatest amount of resentment will be felt in systems where
stratification is most extreme. The call for the New International Economic Order (NIEO) in the
1970s was voiced by radicals and liberal reformers in most developing countries. They sought
changes such as debt forgiveness, how commodities were priced, and controls on multinational
corporations (MNCs).  

Constructivism and International System Change 

Constructivists argue that the whole concept of an international system is a European

idea. Nothing can be explained by material structures alone Martha Finnemore suggests that
there have been different international orders with changing purposes. Constructivists believe
that what does change are social norms.  Social norms change through both actions of the
collective and individuals Norms may change through coercion, but most likely they will change
through international institutions, law, and social movements. 

Advantages of the International System as a Level of Analysis

  

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 Allows comparison and contrasts between systems  

Comprehensiveness: it enables scholars to organize the seemingly disjointed parts into a

whole.  

Systems theory is a holistic approach. Although it cannot provide descriptions of events at

the micro-level, it does allow plausible explanations at the more general level. For realists,
generalizations provide fodder for prediction. For liberals and radicals, these generalizations
have normative implications.  
Disadvantages of the International System as a Level of Analysis

The emphasis at the international system level means that the “stuff of politics” is often
neglected, while the generalizations are broad and obvious.  

The testing of systems theories is very difficult. Most theorists are constrained by a lack of
historical information and thus the ability to test specific hypotheses over a long period is
restricted.   

The problem of boundaries: does the notion of the international system mean the political
system? What factors lie outside the system? What shapes the system?  
  
The idea of a single international system is largely a creation of European thought. It may be
better to think of multiple international systems over time.

What is the main purpose of the global interstate system?

To contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through

educational, scientific, and cultural reforms to increase universal respect for justice, the rule of
law, and human rights along with fundamental freedom.

What is the importance of the Global Interstate System?

It would sustain the economy and support international competitiveness even as the
economy evolved from an industrial era to an information age in a worldwide marketplace. In
addition, the Interstate System has proven invaluable to national defense through countless
military endeavors.

Principles of Global Interstate System

NATIONALISM – a doctrine and/or a political movement that seeks to make the nation the
basis of a political structure especially a state.
 

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 INTERNATIONALISM- the desire for greater cooperation and unity among states
and people. 

LIBERAL INTERNATIONALISM –  set of related concepts on how to best

organize international relations between states and non-state actors that emphasize a
belief in international progress, interdependence, cooperation, diplomacy, multilateralism,
and support for international political structures and organizations.

SOCIALIST INTERNATIONALISM – believes that it is possible to build a better world

based upon the twin goals of equality and social justice.

Examples of the Global Alliance in the World

 United Nations (UN) - is an intergovernmental organization aiming to maintain

international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve
international cooperation, and be a center for harmonizing the actions of nations. it is
consists of 193 countries.

 North Atlantic Treaty Organization or Atlantic Alliance (NATO) - is an international political

and military organization to guarantee the freedom and security of its members through
political and military means it also consists of 28 European countries and 2
American countries.

Factors Affecting Interstate Highway System  

Economic Factors - it shows how freight and passengers travel demand patterns are shifting
in response to temporal, spatial, and sectoral changes in U.S. business and population
activity patterns, as well as evolving technology shifts that are affecting industry
productivity, buying, and selling, transportation patterns. These factors are changing
economic activity locations as well as freight and passenger traffic patterns.   

Trend Effects - it utilizes a long-term history, and a series of alternative long-term economic
forecasts to show how the above-cited shifts in spatial, sectoral, and productivity
characteristics of the economy have affected the past and will affect the future. Interstate
highway system freight and passenger travel demand (including VMT patterns and trends).
   
Economic Outlook Alternatives - it portrays economic outlook forecasts reflecting
alternative assumptions about changes in future economic drivers such as fuel prices, trade,

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 and economic productivity. It uses the alternative forecasts to illustrate uncertainty factors
and their range of possible impacts on future interstate Highway System travel demand. 

LESSON 5: GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Global Governance

Global governance brings together diverse actors to coordinate collective action at the
level of the planet. The goal of global governance, roughly defined, is to provide global public
goods, particularly peace and security, justice and mediation systems for conflict, functioning
markets, and unified standards for trade and industry. One crucial global public good is
catastrophic risk management – putting appropriate mechanisms in place to maximally reduce
the likelihood and impact of any event that could cause the death of 1 billion people across the
planet or damage of equivalent magnitude.

Current global governance arrangements favor flexibility over rigidity, prefer voluntary
measures to binding rules, and privilege partnerships over individual actions. This synopsis of
the state of global governance examines the evolving role that sovereignty and the enduring
human struggles for power and equity are playing in shaping international relations and
governance. This contribution argues that individual empowerment, increasing awareness of
human security, institutional complexity, international power shifts, and the liberal world
political paradigm will define the future of global governance. The government has the power
to control which information can be given to which groups of people. Many journalists have
been caught between battling parties and become unfortunate casualties, and this is all about
Political globalization. Global imaginary describes the globe as an imagined community.

Importance of global governance

Global governance is a product of neo-liberal paradigm shifts in international political

and economic relations. The privileging of capital and market mechanisms over state authority

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created governance gaps that have encouraged actors from private and civil society sectors to
assume authoritative roles previously considered the purview of the State. This reinforces the
divergence of views about how to define the concept of global governance, issues that are of
the utmost importance and priority.

Global governance is concerned with issues that have become too complex for a single
state to address alone. Humanitarian crises, military conflicts between and within states,
climate change, and economic volatility pose serious threats to human security in all societies;
therefore, a variety of actors and expertise is necessary to properly frame threats, devise
pertinent policy, implement effectively and evaluate results accurately to alleviate such threats.

The widespread scientific and technological discoveries have brought about the
emergence of issues that transcend states’ borders, from free trade, deregulation, drug trade,
Internet scam, Cancer, HIV, Global warming to Terrorism. These issues have more or less
propelled states’ towards joint international efforts, aimed at providing a measure of safety and
orderliness in world affairs. Global governance has been given a lot of interpretations in
literature. Global governing can be seen as the coming together of different transnational
actors to address political, economic, social, and cultural issues of international importance that
transcend national or regional borders.

Different Kinds Of Global Governance

 The Nation-State  

The state can be defined in terms of a geographical and cultural entity, with
heterogeneous or homogenous people occupying a definite territory. With this definition, we
see that every geographically marked entity is a state, sovereign or not. The state as we have it
today has come to be associated with sovereignty, security, power, and territory, and as the
only means of ensuring its citizens are well provided for. 

 International Organizations  

International organizations simply refer to those organizations which are created as a

result of the enhanced relationships between states, to oversee political, economic, and social
relations between them, to ensure fair dealings amongst states, and act as an arbitrator
whenever a dispute arises.

 Transnational Corporation

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 A transnational corporation is an enterprise that is involved with the international
production of goods or services, foreign investments, or income and asset management in
more than one country. It sets up factories in developing countries as land and labor are
cheaper there.

 Non – governmental Organization

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non-profit group that functions

independently of any government. NGOs, sometimes called civil societies, are organized on
community, national and international levels to serve a social or political goal such as
humanitarian causes or the environment.

Advantages of Global Governance

Reducing inequality

I start with inequality reduction, which is the tenth Sustainable Development Goal but is
also linked to the other goals such as poverty alleviation. There may be enough goods in the
world, but not everyone has equal access. The system of international aid, especially bilateral
aid, is often beguiled by corruption. This corruption also adds to the risk of investing in a given
country.

Eliminating currency risk

Second, in addition to the risks associated with investing in individual countries, there is
also a currency risk that restrains capital from moving from one country to another and leveling
the playing field

Protecting the environment

A third problem is that of the environment – a problem that will also affect future
generations. Certainly, developed countries can pay to dump their toxic waste on developing
countries. They can also shift the most polluting factories to developing countries.

Fixing taxation
A fourth problem is that those with economic power can avoid taxation. Capital is
mobile and this makes it extremely difficult to levy corporate taxes. In the OECD, corporate
taxes are only half as important as personal income tax.

Curbing the power of multinationals

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 Fifth, large multinational corporations have tremendous economic power, often far
greater than that of individual nations. As a result, they can lobby for conditions that
perpetuate their power, to the detriment of competition and global economic welfare.

Ensuring a fair response to crises

Sixth, the Covid-19 pandemic has shown that countries are competitive when it comes
to protecting their citizens. Governments are currently scrambling to get vaccines, with a ‘me
first’ approach generally prevailing over notions of solidarity or fairness.

Solving the migration problem

Finally, in an international world, with global access to digital media, many people in
developing countries would like to migrate to developed countries. They are currently
prevented from doing so and this has led to an enormous loss of human life, as well as huge
payments being made to human traffickers.

Disadvantages of Global Governance

Loss of cultural identity

It is understood that a culture loss seems too apparent in some communities where the
main culture is weak. Many think that if this trend keeps going on, the global diversity of
cultural identity will be lost forever. Cultures are the core values that cannot be disappeared
just because of globalization

Degradation of unique languages

Some commentators use derogatory labels such as "corruption" to suggest that

language change constitutes a degradation in the quality of a language, especially when the
change originates from human error or is a prescriptively discouraged usage.

Homogenization of restrictions and freedoms

Cultural homogenization is an aspect of cultural globalization, listed as one of its main

characteristics, and refers to the reduction in cultural diversity through the popularization and
diffusion of a wide array of cultural symbols—not only physical objects but customs, ideas, and
values.

Decrease in perceived autonomy

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 Autonomy refers to self-government and responsible control for one's life. Relatedness
refers to the social nature of human beings and the connectedness with others. Both can be
considered as being part of panhuman psychology and both are intrinsically intertwined.

Domination of smaller cultures by larger ones

Cultural imperialism has been an important contributor to the production of imaginary

geographies that frame understandings of place and identity. Historically, the territorial or
material products of cultural imperialism and colonialism have included the establishment of
empires and colonies, the creation of built environments, and the use of physical violence.

International Treaty

International Treaty – It is an agreement formed by international actors, such as sovereign

states and international organizations under international law. Treaties (also called covenants,
protocols, acquis, conventions, pacts, or charters) are international agreements between states
and/or international organizations.

The 5 Most Important Treaties in World History 

 Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) 

 The Peace of Westphalia (1648)

 The Treaty of Paris (1783) 

 The Congress of Vienna (1814) 

 Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

An agreement between Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over lands newly

discovered or explored by Christopher Columbus and other late 15th-century voyagers.

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) 

European settlements of 1648, brought to an end the Eighty Years’ War between Spain
and the Dutch and the German phase of the Thirty Years’ War. The peace was negotiated, from
1644, in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück.

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 The Treaty of Paris (1783)

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 formally ended the American Revolutionary War. American
statesmen Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay negotiated the peace treaty with
representatives of King George III of Great Britain.

The Congress of Vienna (1814) 

assembly in 1814 that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It began in
September 1814, five months after Napoleon I’s first abdication, and completed its “Final Act”
in June 1815, shortly before the Waterloo campaign and the final defeat of Napoleon. The
settlement was the most-comprehensive treaty that Europe had ever seen.

Treaty of Versailles (1919)

peace document signed at the end of World War I by the Allied and associated powers and by
Germany in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, France, on June 28, 1919; it took
force on January 10, 1920.

Factors Affecting Global Governance

Global governance is arguably inevitable for the survival of the human race in the
present and future generations. Although global governance sometimes appears fragile and
ineffective in response to current challenges, the trend of globalization and the demand for
global governance approaches have already passed the point of no return. The future of global
governance will be mainly shaped by the following five factors: individual empowerment,
increasing awareness of human security, institutional complexity, international power shift, and
liberal world political paradigm.

The knowledge gap is important because if we do not know the severity of a problem, or
if we don’t have the resources to investigate a particular issue, then this could become difficult
for effective global governance. Normative gaps follow knowledge gaps. After an issue exists, it
is important to establish norms to address that problem. Norms are rules that govern the
behavior of the members of society. Policy gaps are related to the specific policies that one can
implement to address the stated problem.

First, because of information technology and mass/social media, individual citizens—

especially in developed countries—have acquired much more information power than a half-
century ago. Individuals can attain higher awareness of situations related to national and
international affairs.

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 Second, as the trend towards “individual empowerment” continues, global society
through global governance architecture will need to pay high attention to human security,
which protects individual humans from fatal threats to physical safety, and human dignity,
whether human-made or of natural origin. The focal point of state security is too narrow to
encompass the myriad threats that challenge societies today.

Third, we must additionally consider “institutional complexity” as another direction for

future global governance development. As the trend of individual empowerment gains more
momentum, the influence of civil society is expected to grow in terms of authority and
resources.

Fourth, global governance in the future will be also be shaped by power shifts in
international relations. Almost all the traditional institutions of global governance were initiated
by Western countries, and their pluralistic political culture and influential civil societies have
shaped the political context of global governance. States of the Global South, especially China,
have improved their relative power over the Global North.

Fifth, the future of global governance is also rooted in liberal paradigms of world
politics. States and non-state or transnational actors tend to be more cooperative with global
governance when liberal world order is maintained. Global governance regimes to date have
evolved with liberal paradigms such as democracy, bottom-up orientations, and human rights
promotion.

LESSON 6: GLOBAL DIVIDES

Global Divides The North And The South

The North-South Divide is a socio-economic and political categorization of countries. The

Cold War-era generalization places countries in two distinct groups; The North and the South.
The North is comprised of all First World countries and most Second World countries while the
South is comprised of Third World countries. This categorization ignores the geographic
position of countries with some countries in the southern hemisphere such as Australia and
New Zealand being labeled as part of the North. Brandt Line shows the “North-South” divide.

This was established in the 1980s to further illustrate the geographical split between the
rich and poor nations. Willy Brandt was a West German Chancellor who developed a report
which showed the “North-South” divide. The separation between the global North and Global
South is the biggest encounter to global governance. The Global South is under the Third World.
The USA and Japan are under the Global North while Nepal and Kazakhstan are under the
Global South.

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The North (First World Countries)

The North of the Divide is comprised of countries that have developed economies and
account for over 90% of all manufacturing industries in the world. Although these countries
account for only one-quarter of the total global population, they control 80% of the total
income earned around the world. All the members of the G8 come from the North as well as
four permanent members of the UN Security Council. About 95% of the population in countries
in The North have enough basic needs and have access to functioning education systems.
Countries comprising the North include The United States, Canada, all countries in Western
Europe, Australia, New Zealand as well as the developed countries in Asia such as Japan and
South Korea.

The South (Third World Countries)

The South is comprised of countries with developing economies that were initially
referred to as Third World countries during the Cold War. An important characteristic of
countries in the South is the relatively low GDP and the high population. The Third World
accounts for only a fifth of the globally earned income but accounts for over three-quarters of
the global population. Another common characteristic of the countries in the South is the lack
of basic amenities. As little as 5% of the population can access basic needs such as food and
shelter. The economies of most countries in the South rely on imports from the North and have
low technological penetration. The countries making up the South are mainly drawn from
Africa, South America, and Asia with all African and South American countries being from the
South.

GLOBAL NORTH

• United States, Canada, Western Europe. Outermost

Regions of the European Union

• Developed parts of Asia, Australia, and New Zealand

• Home to all G8 (France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom,

Japan, the United States, Canada, and Russia) and to four

GLOBAL SOUTH

the five permanent members of UN Security Council

• Africa, Latin America

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• Developing Asia, Including the Middle East

Major Differences Between the North and the South:

Global North

Less population

High wealth

High standard of living

High industrial development Industry

Global South

Large Population

Low wealth

Low standard of living

Low industrial development Agriculture

The Impact of Globalization on the North and South Divide

The notion of a divide between the rich north and the poor and developing south has
long been a central concept among economists and policymakers. From 1950 to 1980, the
north accounted for almost 80 percent of global GDP but only 22 percent of its population, and
the south accounted for the remainder of global population and 20 percent global income. But
the north-south divide is now obsolete. The dynamic process of globalization has resulted in
unprecedented levels of growth and interdependence. However, while this has blurred the old
division, new ones have emerged, splintering today’s world into four interconnected tiers.

The first tier comprises the affluent countries, notably the United States, European
nations, Australia, and Japan — with a combined population of around one billion and per
capita incomes ranging from $79,000 (Luxembourg) to $16,000 (Republic of Korea). For the past
50 years, these affluent countries have dominated the global economy, producing four-fifths of

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its economic output. However, in recent years, a new set of economies has emerged that is
contesting the affluent countries’ economic dominance.

The Global North/South Divide

Classifying countries in the 1980s, the Brandt Line was developed as a way of
showing how the world was geographically split into relatively richer and poorer nations.
According to this model:

Richer countries are almost all located in the Northern Hemisphere, except Australia
and New Zealand.

Poorer countries are mostly located in tropical regions and the Southern Hemisphere.
However, over time it was realized that this view was too simplistic. Countries such as
Argentina, Malaysia, and Botswana all have above global average GDP (PPP) per capita,
yet still, appear in the ‘Global South. Conversely, countries such as Ukraine appear to be
now amongst a poorer set of countries by the same measure.

The Gap Between the ‘North’ and ‘South’

Despite very significant development gains globally which have raised many millions of
people out of absolute poverty, there is substantial evidence that inequality between the
world’s richest and poorest countries is widening. In 1820 western Europe's per capita income
was three times bigger than Africa’s but by 2000 it was thirteen times as big. In addition, in
2013, Oxfam reported that the richest 85 people in the world owned the same amount of
wealth as the poorest half of the world’s population.

Today the world is much more complex than the Brandt Line depicts as many poorer
countries have experienced significant economic and social development. However, inequality
within countries has also been growing and some commentators now talk of a ‘Global North’
and a ‘Global South’ referring respectively to richer or poorer communities that are found both
within and between countries. There are many causes for these inequalities including the
availability of natural resources; different levels of health and education; the nature of a
country’s economy and its industrial sectors; international trading policies and access to
markets; how countries are governed and international relationships between countries;
conflict within and between countries; and a country’s vulnerability to natural hazards and
climate change.

Factors Affecting the Global Divides

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 I. Economic Factors

Capitalism

Capitalism embodies and sustains an Enlightenment agenda of freedom and equality.

Typically, there is the freedom to trade and equality under the law, meaning that most adults –
rich or poor – are formally subject to the same legal rules. But with its inequalities of power and
wealth, capitalism nurtures economic inequality alongside equality under the law.

Political Power, Economic Status and Economic Dependency

The transition of industrial production to cheaper labor sources, international media,

and expanding international trade and communication have in some ways made the world
smaller, yet in other ways made the gaps between nations larger by creating greater
dependency of poor nations to wealthy nations.

Importation/Exportation of Resources
The integration of national economies into a global economic system has been one of
the most important developments of the last century. This process of integration, often called
Globalization, has materialized in remarkable growth in trade between countries.

II. Cultural Factors

Culture refers to a system of shared beliefs and meanings that we learn growing up in a
particular society. Culture is something that everyone in a social experience. But culture does
not necessarily mean that everyone has the same beliefs. While many aspects of culture bring
people together in a society, culture can also have very divisive elements.

Media
When we talk about the media, we generally are talking about print such as newspapers
and magazines, television, radio, and the internet. Media serves several important functions in
society. Media is also interesting in terms of what it tells us about the cultural divide.

Food

Food is also another important unifying cultural factor. Imagine visiting New York or San
Francisco and walking through Chinatown. You could experience traditional cuisine from across
the globe. Immigrants to a new country who open restaurants or stores bring their traditional
foods with them, which is shared with their new culture.

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 Sports

While sporting events can get heated when everyone is rooting for their favorite team,
there are also ways that sports can bridge cultural divides. One important example of this
occurred in South Africa during Apartheid. This event demonstrated the role that sports can
play in easing cultural conflict. An example is Olympics In this international sporting event,
countries from all over the world come together to compete.

III. Technological Factors

Technological globalization is speeded in large part by technological diffusion, the

spread of technology across borders. In the last two decades, there has been rapid
improvement in the spread of technology to peripheral and semi-peripheral nations, The
processing power of computers and devices is getting faster, internet speeds are rising 23%
year-on-year and technology prices are falling. The price of personal computers has declined by
99.9% since January 1980 and computer software now costs 0.7% of its price in 1980.

However, the same patterns of social inequality that create a digital divide in the United
States also create digital divides within peripheral and semi-peripheral nations. While the
growth of technology use among countries has increased dramatically over the past several
decades, the spread of technology within countries is significantly slower among peripheral and
semi-peripheral nations. In these countries, far fewer people have the training and skills to take
advantage of new technology, let alone access it. Technological access tends to be clustered
around urban areas and leaves out vast swaths of peripheral-nation citizens. While the diffusion
of information technologies has the potential to resolve many global social problems, it is often
the population most in need that is most affected by the digital divide.

Factors why Global divide the North and the South:

 POPULATION
 The Worlds total Population is 7.7 billion
 The most populous country is China (1.398 million) and 2nd in India (1.311
 million)
 The Global North covers one-quarter of the total population while the South
 cover three-quarters of the Total Population

 WEALTH
 The total Wealth in the World is 280 trillion

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  The Richest Man: Jeff Bezos with a net worth of 149.5 billion USD
 The Richest Country in the world is Qatar ($124, 930 per capita) and 2nd is
 the country Luxembourg ($109,190 per capita)
 The Global North is controlling 80% total income of the world
 Inversely, the South only controlled 20% total income of the World

 STANDARD OF LIVING
 The south lacks the right technology, it is politically unstable, its economies are divided,
and its foreign exchange depends on primary products exports to the North
 About 95% of the population in countries in The North have enough basic needs and
have access to functioning education systems.
 In the South, as little as 5% of the population can access basic needs such as food and
shelter.

 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
 The North of the Divide is comprised of countries that have developed economies
and account for over 90% of all manufacturing industries in the world.
 The economies of most countries in the South rely on imports from the
 South have low technological penetration
 The south serves as the Raw Materials of the North

 AGRICULTURAL

The Global South is characterized by a very high rate of people working in rural areas
and according to (Todaro, 2006) over 65% are rurally based, compared to less than 27% in the
Global North. Similarly, 5,8 % of the labor force is engaged in agriculture, compared to only 50%
in Global North. Agriculture contributes about 14% of the GNI of Global South Nations but only
3% of the GNI of Global North.

LESSON 7: ASIAN REGIONALISM

Regionalism

Regionalism refers to the growing density of interaction cooperation and identity

between neighboring countries. Countries within the region assist in combating foreign-
supported terrorist groups, and this is known as security.

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 Regionalism is multidimensional—it encompasses deepening interdependence in
various spheres of economic activity, widening cooperative efforts, and a growing commitment
to international collaboration. How is regional integration progressing in different areas? Which
countries are participating most actively? Which represent the region’s strongest links to
external markets? The evolution of Asian regionalism can be assessed on a wide range of
measures, but each confirms a remarkable coming together of diverse economies.

Asian Regionalism

Asian regionalism is the product of economic interaction, not political planning. As a

result of successful, outward-oriented growth strategies, Asian economies have grown not only
richer but also closer together. In recent years, new technological trends have further
strengthened ties among them, as have the rise of the PRC and India and the region’s growing
weight in the global economy. But adversity also played a role.

The center of gravity of the global economy is shifting to Asia. The region’s economy is
already similar in size to those of Europe and North America, and its influence in the world
continues to increase. In many Asian countries, the cycle of poverty has been broken; in others,
this historic aim is within sight. Asia’s extraordinary success has brought new challenges—while
rapid economic growth remains a priority, citizens demand that it also be sustainable and more
inclusive. And Asia is now so important to the world economy that it must also play a larger role
in global economic leadership. Regional economic cooperation is essential for addressing these
challenges.

Asian Regionalism and Its History

During the Cold War era, a few regional institutions at the governmental level were
active in Asia. The Economic Commission for Asia & the Far East, which was the first regional
institution established in Asia (in 1947), reflected the development of Pan-Asian regionalism;
however, it lost its initial influence following the mid-1960s, which marked the establishment of
the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

The international liberal order is founded on three pillars: liberal market-led capitalism,
liberal internationalism, and liberal democracy. The predominance of the liberal international
order promoted the convergence of norms and values in terms of political regimes, economic
structures, ideal domestic societies, and the management of international affairs.

Regionalism and Its Importance to Asia

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 How regionalism can benefit Asia Regional cooperation, effectively structured and
implement, is a powerful new tool in Asia’s policy arsenal. It can help Asia address regional
challenges as well as provide stronger foundations for its global role.
An integrated Asia can:
 link the competitive strengths of its diverse economies to boost their productivity and
sustain the region’s exceptional growth;

 connect the region’s capital markets to enhance financial stability, reduce the cost of
capital, and improve opportunities for sharing risks;

 cooperate in setting exchange rate and macroeconomic policies to minimize the effects
of global and regional shocks and to facilitate the resolution of global imbalances;

 pool the region’s foreign exchange reserves to make more resources available for
investment and development;

 exercise leadership in global decision making to sustain the open global trade and
financial systems that have supported a half-century of unparalleled economic
development;

 build connected infrastructure and collaborate on inclusive development to reduce

inequalities within and across economies and thus to strengthen support for pro-growth
policies; and

 create regional mechanisms to manage cross-border health, safety, and environmental

issues better.

The opportunities are clear, which is why regional integration deserves a high priority in
national policymaking. Yet the challenge of cooperation should not be underestimated; it will
require trust, innovation, and compromise—and, most likely, time. Policymakers at the highest
levels appear committed to pushing the regional agenda forward, but considerable leadership
and energy are needed to achieve results.
These benefits from cooperation could extend also to developing Asian economies that
are not yet part of the region’s integrating core. Indeed, in relative terms, newcomers to
regional integration have the most to gain from the expanded opportunities for economic
development that it provides. Hence, an important aim of this study is to make the case for
integration to countries that have not yet adopted an outward-oriented development strategy
and to provide guidance on how to build stronger regional connections.

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Regionalism and Its Importance to the World

The rest of the world could benefit, too. So long as Asia’s economies continue to
integrate not just with each other, but also with the rest of the world, sustained Asian
dynamism, strengthened by regional cooperation, could bolster Asia’s role as a new and
stabilizing engine of global economic growth. There are many reasons why Asia is likely to
remain outward-looking—not least because its economy is in large part built on economies of
scale and scope in manufacturing and so requires global markets to perform at its potential.
Indeed, because an integrated Asia will continue to have a powerful stake in the global
economy, it would have both an incentive and the leverage to play a bigger role in keeping
global markets open and vibrant. An integrated Asia can;

 generate productivity gains, new ideas, and competition that boost economic growth
and raise incomes across the world;

 contribute to the efficiency and stability of global financial markets by making Asian
capital markets stronger and safer, and by maximizing the productive use of Asian
savings;

 diversify sources of global demand, helping to stabilize the world economy and diminish
the risks posed by global imbalances and downturns in other major economies;

 provide leadership to help sustain open global trade and financial systems; and

 create regional mechanisms to manage health, safety, and environmental issues better,
and thus contribute to more effective global solutions to these problems.

While Asian regionalism is primarily motivated by the desire to advance welfare in the
region, it would not do so by detracting from development elsewhere. On the contrary, Asian
regionalism can help to sustain global economic progress at a time when other major regions
are reaching economic maturity.

Asian Regionalism and Its Challenges

To be more meaningful and relevant, Asian institutions need to address four challenges.
The challenge to overcome the 19th-century mindset of sovereignty and non-intervention.
Transnational issues facing the region today -- such as pollution, terrorism, illegal migration,

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and pandemics -- defy national boundaries and must be dealt with by both the pooling of
sovereignty and some principled departures from it.

To sum up, criticisms of Asian regionalism and regional institutions are not without
merit. Yet, they do not warrant the view that investing in Asian regionalism is a waste of
resources and time, or that the Asian institutions have not made positive contributions to
regional stability and prosperity. Much depends on what sort of yardstick we use to judge their
performance

Asia is undoubtedly more diverse than Europe – whether in terms of the level of
development (from rich Singapore to very poor Laos), politics (from democracy to dictatorship
and everything between), economics (free markets to state capitalism and more), or religion
(Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Shintoism and more). Diversity is the very definition of
Asia. But this diversity has not stopped Asian countries from working together for prosperity
and peace. And over time, market-led regionalism has proven its value and is now progressively
becoming more institutionalized.

Asian Regionalism and Its Risks

Asia’s bright economic prospects provide a supportive environment for regional
cooperation. But building an Asian economic community is a long-term undertaking, and the
economic climate cannot be expected to remain consistently favorable.

Some risks are known. Global demand and financial stability are important to Asia and
could be compromised by a deepening credit crisis; a falling dollar; a sudden unwinding of
current account imbalances; and/or rapidly rising energy, food, and other commodity prices.
Other shocks, including adverse effects of global warming, could become more severe over
time. In Asia as well, after a long period of economic expansion (in some countries stretching
back nearly two decades), there are bound to be financial reversals and economic slowdowns
due to business cycles whether they originate in the region or elsewhere, and to longer-term
challenges such as excess savings and population aging. New health or security threats could
make the flow of people and goods more difficult and expensive. Environmental damage could
result in radical changes in economic policies. Social instability could generate tensions and
uncertainty that overwhelm economic progress. Many of these risks can be diminished with
adequate foresight and cooperation, and some strategies for doing so are addressed by this
study. But not all risks can be known, and the unexpected often has the greatest impact.

Asian Regionalism and The Challenge of Cooperation

Asia’s approach to regionalism is likely to have other distinct characteristics as well. The
region’s policy-making style is typically pragmatic and cautious. Cooperation is primarily aimed
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at making markets work better and tends to be limited to specific initiatives and objectives.
Although intergovernmental dialogue at all levels has greatly increased, formal regional
institutions remain relatively underdeveloped. These are likely to gain traction only insofar as
they promise and, eventually, deliver tangible benefits—not just to elite groups, but to the
population as a whole. The public appears to have positive expectations of regionalism.

Examples Of Existing Territorial Conflicts

The emergence of regional cooperation among countries to achieve Political economics

goals. Countries have become more open to collaborating with other countries in terms of
economic and human development.

 the South China Sea territorial disputes covering islands and reefs (China vs. several nations
including the Philippines)
 Senkaku (Diaoyu) Islands, East China Sea (China vs. Japan)
 Korea peninsula (North Korea vs. South Korea)
 Israel – Palestine conflict
 Lakdan Territory (India vs. Pakistan vs. China) 
 Preah Vihear dispute (Thailand vs. Cambodia)

Nations’ commitment to their cultural identities. Huntington (1996) argues that in the
post-Cold War, there has been a shift from Western countries to groups of nations with similar
cultural identities. Nations are becoming more committed to other nations whose cultural
identity they share.

The region as organized cooperation

A region can be interpreted as a group of nations that agree to take part and form a
formal organization. For instance, Southeast Asia is a region within Asia and it has been
formalized through membership on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN. is a
political and economic union of 10 member states in Southeast Asia, which promotes
intergovernmental cooperation facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational,
and cultural integration between its members and other countries in Asia?

LESSON 8: GLOBAL MEDIA CULTURES

Global Media Cultures

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 Media nowadays produce shallow or empty content; giving the public correct
information is secondary to entertaining and attracting consumers from all over the world. This
is known as economic globalization. Trolls are the hired armies of social media to manipulate
public opinion through intimidation and spreading fake news. Internet media covers e-mail,
social media, internet sites, and internet-based video and audio. Broadcast media involves
radio, film, and television. Splinternet is the segregation of the Internet into smaller groups with
similar interests to a degree that they show a narrow-minded approach to outsiders or those
with contradictory views.

The globalization of culture is often chiefly imputed to international mass media. After
all, contemporary media technologies such as satellite television and the Internet have created
a steady flow of transnational images that connect audiences worldwide. Without global media,
according to the conventional wisdom, how would teenagers in India, Turkey, and Argentina
embrace a Western lifestyle of Nike shoes, Coca-Cola, and rock music? Hence, the putatively
strong influence of the mass media on the globalization of culture. Citizens of countries within
the region are generally alike in appearance, temperament, and experiences which can help in
easing negotiations, and this is known as culture.

Function
The understanding of the relation between media and globalization should not be
restricted to the differences in internet speed among countries. Aside from the evident
“uneven” process of media globalization occurring worldwide, which implies that its effects and
consequences are not identically experienced, globalists recognize a certain “power geometry”
at work. It talks about the idea that some groups are more in command than others in the
proliferation of ideas and interests.

Cultural Imperialism and the Global Media Debate

Cultural imperialism refers to the imposition of a politically or economically dominant

community of various aspects of its own culture into a non-dominant community. In
international communication theory and research, cultural imperialism theory argued that
audiences across the globe are heavily affected by media messages emanating from Western
industrialized countries. Although there are minor differences between "media imperialism"
and "cultural imperialism," most of the literature in international communication treats the
former as a category of the latter. Grounded in an understanding of media as cultural
industries, cultural imperialism is firmly rooted in a political-economy perspective on
international communication. As a school of thought, political economy focuses on material

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issues such as capital, infrastructure, and political control as key determinants of international
communication processes and effects.

In the early stage of cultural imperialism, researchers focused their efforts mostly on
nation-states as primary actors in international relations. They imputed rich, industrialized, and
Western nation-states with intentions and actions by which they export their cultural products
and impose their sociocultural values on poorer and weaker nations in the developing world.
This argument was supported by several studies demonstrating that the flow of news and
entertainment was biased in favor of industrialized countries. This bias was clear both in terms
of quantity because most media flows were exported by Western countries and imported by
developing nations, and in terms of quality, because developing nations received scant and
prejudicial coverage in Western media.

Media, Globalization, and Hybridization

According to Marshall McLuhan, Media Theorist, television was turning the world into a
global village because as more and more people sat down in front of their television and sets
and listened to the same stories, their perception of the word would contract. Several reasons
explain the analytical shift from cultural imperialism to globalization. First, the end of the Cold
War as a global framework for ideological, geopolitical, and economic competition calls for a
rethinking of the analytical categories and paradigms of thought. By giving rise to the United
States as the sole superpower and at the same time making the world more fragmented, the
end of the Cold War ushered in an era of complexity between global forces of cohesion and
local reactions of dispersal.

In media and communication research, the main question is "Have transnational media
made cultures across the globe hybrid by bringing into their midst foreign cultural elements, or
have cultures always been to some extent hybrid, meaning that transnational mass media only
strengthened an already-existing condition?" There is no obvious or final answer to that
question because there is not enough empirical research about media and hybridity and
because of the theoretical complexity of the issue. What does exist in terms of theoretical
understanding and research results points to a middle ground? This position acknowledges that
cultures have been in contact for a long time through warfare, trade, migration, and slavery.

The Advantages of Globalization for Business

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 Ability to tap into a wider talent pool When fully taking advantage of globalization, you are
no longer restrained by the talent that is available in your city. Today your global workforce
could work from anywhere in the world with an internet connection opening you up to the
brightest and best candidates the entire world has to offer.

New ideas due to cultural diversity Managing an international workforce includes teams
working across different locations, people traveling and moving countries for work, having a
range of different work ethics and practices, and even religious differences.

Larger markets Globalization opens up new opportunities for businesses to sell their goods
and services to much larger markets, which means more potential sales and greater profits.
Depending on the organization it can open up other opportunities in terms of distribution,
logistics, marketing, and management of these goods and services.

Earnings changes. With more and more companies accessing overseas outsourcing
opportunities, wages have decreased for many workers in the original countries. Companies
in the developing world can offer their services at a much-reduced rate from those who live
in countries with greater living standards. This means that workers in larger countries are
affected.

Pros of cultural globalization:

Access to new cultural products (art, entertainment, education) a Better understanding
of foreign values and attitudes. Less stereotyping and fewer misconceptions about other people
and cultures Instant access to information from anywhere in the world Capacity to
communicate and defend one’s values and ideals globally Customization or adaptation of global
cultural trends to the local environment (“message”) Cons of cultural globalization: Spread of
commodity-based consumer culture Dangers of cultural homogenization Westernization,
cultural imperialism or cultural colonialism Some small cultures may lose their distinct features
Dangerous or violent ideals can also spread faster (the international character of the terror
group IS).

More than Cultural Imperialism: Contra-flows and hybridization

Being rational creatures faced with the real threat of losing a nation’s identity due to
cultural imperialism, several coping mechanisms come into play. One of these movements is
dedicated to opposing the blind acceptance of foreign cultures is called contra-flows and to
better understand this concept, let us consider the case of the music industry

LESSON 9: THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION

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Religion and Globalization
Prominent psychologists such as Sigmund Freud trained his student to view religion as
the “greatest of all neurotic illusions” and that it ends would be upon the therapist’s couch.
According to Peter L. Burger, the core idea of secularization lies with the complete
understanding that “Modernizations necessarily leads to a decline of religion, both in society
and the mind of individuals.”-the dawdling death of religion.

Globalization denotes the chronological development by which all the world’s people
gradually came to live in a social unit. In this lesson, we will look into two possibilities that
religion and globalization present to the contemporary period. One of these possibilities
emphasizes the role of religion in globalization and the other is the effects of globalization on
religion.

Importance of Religion and Globalization

Religion and globalization persistently engage in a flexible relationship in which the
former relies on the latter to thrive and flourish while at the same time challenging its
(globalization’s) hybridizing effects. Globalization–due to the advent of communication and
transportation technology and the roles played by the media–has contributed to the
deterritorialization and the blurring of geographical spaces and boundaries. This has resulted
apparently in making the world a small village where people, cultures, and identities come in
daily face-to-face contact with each other. Undoubtedly, religion is not immune from these
changes and their burgeoning effects brought about by globalization.

However, religions still have their respective homes in specific territorial spaces where
they originally appeared and where their respective shrines exist. The inner nature of religions
and the purpose to be embraced and practiced by people all over the world prompts them to
spread throughout all the world’s geographical spaces. To emerge and spread, therefore,
religions make good use of the technologies of globalization. According to Rodney Stark in his
Sociology of religion, there are five features of the imminent death of religion following the rise
of globalization, are as follows:

 Modernization is a casual engine dragging the goods into retirement;

 Secularization theory not only predicted the end of religion in terms of the religious
institution as expressed in the separation of church and state and the decline of the
authority of religious leaders but also in the sphere of individual piety and religiousness;
 It is explicit that science has influenced mostly the death of religions in modern secular
society;

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 Secularization is an unstoppable and irreversible social force;
 Secularization as a process is not only limited to Christianity or Christendom but also other
world religions and the global world. It is good to note that processes of change involving
religion and globalization have a mutual effect on one another.

The resurgence of religion in the Global Society

Berger further disputes that in many parts of the world, “people are as furiously
religious as they ever were”. He recognizes that although secularization movements are active
in some parts of the world, other areas are not as influenced by the movement. According to
research conducted in 44 countries in 2002, religion in the USA is regarded as vital by 59% of
the population.

The emergence of Religious Fundamentalism

Religious fundamental movements are regarded with three essential factors

It is strongly founded on religious ideology, philosophy, goals, and leadership is grounded

on religious beliefs and practices,

Fundamentalism serves as a stronghold against the invasive cultural dramatic changes

brought about by globalization, and

Fundamentalism is a self-protective mechanism that seeks to preserve or re-establish the

former social order and return to the traditional sources of religious authority.

New Roles and Identities of Religion

Religion and globalization have always had a stake in notions of struggle and conflict,
one winning triumph over the other in some instances. In the field of international politics,
religion has been regarded as a new source of the clash between and among people with
different and even similar beliefs. Religious associations and faiths arouse communities and
policymakers to advocate and campaign for peace-related acts and dogmas. Other religious
perspectives believe that religion has a supreme role in influencing the creation of global
positive ethics that will combat the negativities arising from globalization like terrorism,
marginalized humanity, and environmental degradation.

Advantages of Religion

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 Religion gives strength In difficult times, it is convenient to be able to turn to something or
someone.

 God is always at hand, and your friend It can be very comforting to be accompanied by
someone that is always there (for he is in your head), who is your friend, and who you can
talk to.

 God is a great metaphor for 'good' It is nice to have something at hand that stands for
'good', and to what you can relate to in daily life.

 Religion brings together Religion brings people together. Not only metaphorically speaking,
but physical at well (in church). That is good; so they can stand together.

 Rules bring some kind of structure Most religions have rules, and they bring structure in
people's lives, especially the not very well educated people. 'You shall not steal' is very
clear.

 Religion can change people If people have been leading a 'bad' life, religion can help them
change for the better.

 Religions give answers to intriguing and difficult questions. Examples: where do we come
from who created mankind, what is the purpose of life, is there life after death, does god
exist.

Disadvantages of Religion

 Rules don't match up with feelings This can be very destructive; it destroys the lives of
people. For instance, think about the hundreds of thousands of homosexuals, who cannot
live the life they would like, because of the rules of some kind of religion.

 'Beliefs' don't match reality Some religions deny important and well-proven pieces of
science, for instance, the dinosaurs.

 Strict following of principles can stand in the way of common sense

 Religions separate As religions can bring people together, it can create a huge gap between
them – of different religions. For they all 'believe', but they still see only the differences and
not the similarities.

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 Co-responsibility for (bad) government If you supported in any way the government of a
religion, you are responsible for their actions (be it a tiny bit). If you only sympathize with
the religion, many will treat you as if you are responsible for the actions of the government
of the religion.

Factors Affecting Religion Family

 Family

One of the factors affecting religious development is family. The reason for the search
for clues about religious development in the family is that the family has a network of
relationships and interactions influencing and determining the formation of the personality and
behaviors, attitudes and perceptions, and social skills and judgments.

 Religious Socialization

Religious development has an individual charm in terms of living and feeling, and also
has a social qualification in terms of its effects. Religious development, which has a subjective
character in terms of individuality, has an objective and observable structure in terms of its
social manifestations. Religious Identification Identification is based upon the fact that the
eristic individual similarizes himself/herself with another occurs by taking his/her parents as
examples for himself/herself in childhood and a child enters this process beginning from the
moment that he/she is born. Thus, the behavior of the parents or the person performing their
duties sets a strong imitation example for the child.

 Credulity

One of the important factors of religious development is that children have a high
degree of credulity. This situation creates an environment in which the child believes what
he/she is said about religion without any question and accepts the things he believes faithfully,
too. Credulity in children and devotion to what they believe is a spiritual condition that is
peculiar to them. Because the child’s feelings are more dominant and more prominent than
their thoughts at this period, he/she accepts the belief that is tried to be provided for
himself/herself as a natural result of this dominance and prominence.

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 LESSON 10: THE GLOBAL CITY

Global City
A global city, also called a power city, world city, alpha city, or world center is a city that
is a primary node in the global economic network. The concept comes from geography and
urban studies and rests on the idea that globalization can be understood as largely created,
facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic locales according to a hierarchy of importance
to the operation of the global system of finance and trade. The most complex of these entities
is the "global city", whereby the linkages binding a city have a direct and tangible effect on
global affairs through socio-economic means.

A global city is a city that has the power to affect global issues and change the global
outlook. They can do this through a varied set of systems from politics to military and
economics, controlling and adapting the route the global economy takes. Different cities have a
different amount of power and how this power and influence develops can stem from small
changes in geography, climate, language, culture, and technology.

What makes a city “global”?

Nowadays globalization occurs in places where a mass of people work and live in cities.
However, for a city to achieve the title of being global, it must have values and ideas that will
have an impact on the rest of the world. “ Global city is a term that raises an understanding of
the cognoscenti. A global city has wealth, power, and influence over other countries as well as
hosts the largest capital markets. Moreover, a city that has wealthy multinational companies,
good infrastructure, better economy, well-educated and diverse populations, and powerful
organizations as well as a good political structure that is linked to the other parts of the world
like nowhere else is considered to be global.

A global city, therefore, is the world’s most important and influential city that covers the
dimensions of globalization. These dimensions are cultural experience, business activity, human
capital as well as political engagement. London, New York, Paris, Rome, and Tokyo are some of
the most well-known global cities as it provides global competitiveness for their citizens and
companies. A global city has wealth, power, and influence over other countries as well as hosts
the largest capital markets. London, New York, Paris, Rome, and Tokyo are some of the most
well-known global cities as it provides global competitiveness for their citizens and companies.

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Significance and Roles of the Global Cities
World Economy

The roles global cities (also known as world cities) perform in the world economy is very
complex and can vary from city to city but there is a general overview of how certain cities
affect the economy. This is why there are different classes of world cities ranging from cities
that have relatively low global influence to ones with a huge amount of power to affect the
systems of the global economy. The economy itself plays a large part in how much influence
individual cities have. In the 1970s to 1980s, the economy of the world transitioned from a
largely international economy to a truly global economy, production lines were spread across
the world by globalization and the growth of the global banking system along with the dropping
of many economic regulations by western nations such as the UK helped create a truly global
economy.

After all, it is already so highly developed meaning there is very little real Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) development in the city. Instead of trying to redevelop an already
excising city, it was decided that building a completely new capital from scratch in a
geographical location was would be most beneficial and would be the best idea as they could
develop the city how they wished without the constraints of mountains or the ocean. This is
why certain cities such as Lagos which are large and have many industries do not have enough
area to develop as they are stopped on one side by swamps and on the other by the ocean
meaning they even though they are expanding in terms of human population the more the
human population expands they lower the living standards in the general area and because of
this many upper industries like banking and retail sectors do not think it viable to develop links
to the city.

Worldwide Networks and Central Command Functions

The geography of globalization contains both a dynamic of dispersal and centralization.

The massive trends towards the spatial dispersal of economic activities at the metropolitan,
national, and global levels that we associate with globalization have contributed to a demand
for new forms of territorial centralization of top-level management and control functions.
Insofar as these functions benefit from agglomeration economies even in the face of telematics
integration of a firm’s globally dispersed manufacturing and service operations, they tend to
locate in cities. This dynamic of simultaneous geographic dispersal and concentration is one of
the key elements in the organizational architecture of the global economic system. While there
is no space to discuss it here, this systemic feature also enables particular types of struggles and
implementations linked to environmental sustainability. Let me first give some empirical

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referents and then examine some of the implications for theorizing the impact of globalization
and the new technologies on cities.

Advantages of a Global City

 Significant growth in the economy - both localized and as a whole Global City’s economy
grows faster as it is the center of trading. Moreover, it has varieties of things to offer, from
food, clothing, accessories, etc.

 Better infrastructure Global City has advanced technologies, knowledge, and diverse
advancement in architecture and engineering that can create new and modern
infrastructure.

 Higher levels of tourism Considering the diversity of global cities in terms of their food,
clothing, accessories, etc., tourists often visit them to learn, have, or experience varieties of
things.

 Better public transport The more advanced science and technology in a global city is the
main reason for it having better transportation for its rising population.

 More Work Opportunities Global cities have ria sing populations and advanced ways of
living. Therefore, it needs more people to work and to contribute to the development of
that particular city.

Disadvantages of a Global City

 Pollution/Smog

The rising population in global cities results in more waste and more irresponsible
citizens. Also, rising numbers of factories contribute to so much pollution. A dangerous form
of pollution especially to goes hand in hand with urbanization caused mainly due to
chimneys, factory stacks, vehicles, and other smoke releases making the air toxic.

 Overpopulation

A global city is usually considered by many as a “place/city of dreams” as it offers a lot of

great things to live for. Hence, many people dreamed of living in a global city.

 Slums/ housing problem

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 Due to overpopulation, people face housing problems. Thus, making it hard for them to
live.

 Poverty

The global city is considered the home to the richest and the poorest. This is due to the
intense competition in a global city caused by the rising population. If you are a weak or a
negative-thinking person you are prone to living a poor life.

 Cost of living

The higher cost of living is the first disadvantage that people typically think of when
considering moving to a city.

 Noise

In general, the noise level in major cities is higher than in the suburbs. Cities have more
people and more traffic that contribute to the noise, as well as trains and nearby airports
with loud planes flying in and out. Special events such as concerts and ball games can also
make a neighborhood louder and more congested. Downtown areas in some major cities
like New York are loud and busy almost 24 hours a day.

 Lack of Space

Moving from the suburbs to the city almost always involves downsizing your living
space. Most people in major cities live in apartments and some cities, the apartments can
be very small. It is also rare to have an outside space like a yard or patio. There are homes in
major cities, some with decent-sized yards, but they are much more expensive than in the
suburbs. If you want to move to the city, you must accept that you will be living in an
apartment building with neighbors on the other side of your walls.

 Lack of Parking

The parking situation in a major city is a huge hassle compared to the suburbs. In the
suburbs, people can park in their driveways or on their residential streets and most
businesses have parking lots for their customers to use.

Five (5) Big Challenges Facing Big Cities of the Future

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 The UN estimates that 55% of the global population lives in urban areas – a figure that is
projected to rise to 68% by 2050. With few exceptions, cities are expected to become bigger
and more numerous. As urbanization speeds up, particularly in Asian and African countries,
here are five of the biggest challenges confronting the future of cities:

Environmental threats

Rapid urbanization, which strains basic infrastructure, coupled with more frequent and
extreme weather events linked to global climate change is exacerbating the impact of
environmental threats. Common environmental threats include flooding, tropical cyclones (to
which coastal cities are particularly vulnerable), heat waves, and epidemics.

Resources

Cities need resources such as water, food, and energy to be viable. Urban sprawl
reduces available water catchment areas, agricultural lands and increases energy demand.
While better application of technology can boost agricultural productivity and ensure more
efficient transmission of electricity, many cities will continue to struggle to provide these
resources to an ever-growing urban population.

Inequality

When it comes to both the provision of basic resources and resilience against
environmental threats, the forecast is uneven for different groups of urban inhabitants. As the
number of the urban super-rich grows, many cities will also see increased numbers of urban
poor. The widening gap between the haves and have-nots will be accentuated in the megacities
of the future.

Technology

Technology will be increasingly used in the development and running of cities of the
future. Smart planning used in Singapore can harness solar energy for use in housing estates
and create man-made wetlands for ecological balance. Smart mobility technology can alleviate
traffic gridlocks that plague many cities.

Governance

Future cities offer immense possibilities to enrich the lives of their inhabitants even as
the challenges are stark. To make the best out of inevitable urbanization, good governance is

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imperative. Cities will increase in size and their populations become more diverse. Governing
these cities will, therefore, be progressively complex and require the most dedicated of minds.

Characteristics/ Factors in Considering a Global City

 A variety of international financial services, notably in finance, insurance, real estate,

banking, accountancy, and marketing.

 Headquarters of several multinational corporations.

 The existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and major financial institutions.

 Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area.

 Major manufacturing centers with port and container facilities.

 Considerable decision-making power daily and at a global level.

 Centers of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture, and politics.

 Centers of media and communications for global networks.

 Dominance of the national region with great international significance.

 High percentage of residents employed in the services sector and information sector.

 High-quality educational institutions, including renowned universities, international student

attendance, and research facilities.

 Multifunctional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical, and entertainment
facilities in the country. High diversity in language, culture, religion, and ideologies.

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 LESSON 11: GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY

Global Demography
In the past 50 years, the world accelerated its transition out of long-term demographic
stability. As infant and child mortality rates fell, populations began to soar. In most countries,
this growth led to falling fertility rates. Although fertility has fallen, the population continues to
increase because of population momentum; it will eventually level off. In the meantime,
demographic change has created a ‘bulge’ generation, which today appears in many countries
as a large working-age population. This cohort will eventually become a large elderly
population, in both developed and developing countries.

Population growth has been the subject of great debate among economists and
demographers. Until recently, most have agreed on a middle ground, in which population
growth per se does not affect economic growth. New evidence suggests that changes in the age
structure of populations – in particular, a rising ratio of working-age to non-working-age
individuals – leads to the possibility of more rapid economic growth, via both accounting and
behavioral effects. This visualization of the population pyramid makes it possible to understand
this enormous global transformation. Population pyramids visualize the demographic structure
of a population.

Importance Of Demography:
The importance of demography lies in its contribution to helping government and
society better prepare to deal with the issues and demands of population growth, aging, and
migration. A wide variety of social outcomes are impacted by demographic processes and
distributions. The importance of demography is clear for its scope. Since its scope is increasing
which already leads to its importance. Demography is concerned with the growth and
distribution of population in less developed countries as well as underdevelopment and
developed countries. The importance of demography is clear from the following:
 Health Planning

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 Due to the o high fertility rate, health problems are created both for mother and child.
Inst developing countries, married women are facing pregnancies problem due to malnutrition.
Also due to the ll health of the mothers, the infant mortality rate is high in our country.
 Planning for Food Supply
Planning for food supply means the available ability of adequate food for the total
population. The inadequate food results in thor health, low growth, high mortality rates, and l,
ow physical activity. Food supply grows with the growth of population. The undeveloped and
underdeveloped countries are unable to meet the demands they ply.
 Housing Planning
When the size of the population is increasing, the demand for housing is also increasing.
Therefore, data collected about fertility, mortality, migration, urban,ization, and family
formation gives the basis for the estimation of housing planning. Demography is concerned that
how the problem of housing of a large population should be solved according to the estimates
prepared by the Economic and Social Commission for APacific the pacific (ESCAP).
 Employment Planning
Unemployment is a social and international problem. From developed to
underdeveloped as well as undeveloped countries, the unemployment problem growing
rapidly. A demographic factor is the high dependency ratio in less developed countries. So, for
employment planning, population study and dependency ratio must be studied. Therefore
demography studies all aspects of popupopulate where it makmakesanning for employment
and unemployment problem.
 Educational Planning
Today every nation is concerned with providing proper education to children. The
number of numbers is constantly increasing which creates educational problems. The
demographers are interested to make planning for these children of a specific area or the
whole country. Due to educational planning by demographers, these children should be
provided with per educational facilities.
 Migration Planning
Most of the people are migrated to western countries. It is necessary to estimate the
trends of migration, the immigrants, the emigrants a,ndheavyavy burden on other countries. It
is the study of social demography to make plans, to stop the problem. A large number of
emigrants from a country affects a population adversely and a qualitative change occurs.

Advantage And Disadvantages:

 Crude birth and death rates

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 One of the simplest ways to consider population growth is through crude birth and
death rates. These are the number of births and deaths per 1,000 people. On a worldwide
basis, the difference between these rates is the rate of population growth. Within regions or
countries, population growth is also affected by emigration and immigration.

 Total fertility rate

The total fertility rate, that is the number of children born per woman, fell from about 5
in 1950 to a little over 2.5 in 2005. This number is projected to fall to about 2 by 2050. Fertility
in the latter is now below 3 children per woman. The fertility decline in low-income countries
can be ascribed to several factors, including declines in infant mortality rates, greater levels of
female education and increased labor market opportunities for women, and the provision of
family planning services.

 Life expectancy and longevity

For the world as a whole, life expectancy increased from 47 years in 1950–1955 to 65
years in 2000–2005. It is projected to rise to 75 years by the middle of this century, with
considerable disparities between the wealthy developed countries, at 82 years, and the less-
developed countries, at 74 years. As a result of the global decline in fertility, and because
people are living longer, the median age is rising.

 Age distribution: working-age population

Baby booms have altered the demographic landscape in many countries. As the
experiences of several regions during the past century show, an initial fall in mortality rates
creates a boom generation because high survival rates lead to more people at young ages than
in earlier generations. Fertility rates fall subsequently, as parents realize they do not need to
produce as many children to reach their desired family size, or as desired family size diminishes
for other reasons.

 Migration

Also alters population patterns. Globally, 191 million people live in countries other than
the one in which they were born. On average, during the next 45 years, the United Nations
estimates that over 2.2 million individuals will migrate annually from developing to developed
countries. The UN estimates regarding future migration are not very informative, a reflection of
the inherent difficulty of constructing accurate projections of migration flows.

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Factors Affecting Demography:

 Suicide and Self-directed Violence

Demographic factors, including gender, age, race, and ethnicity, provide a general indication of
those groups in the general population that are at the highest risk of suicide. As indicated, in
almost all countries the risk of suicide is greater among males than females, and globally for
both genders, the suicide risk increases with age. The prevalence of suicide varies across racial
and ethnic groups. In the United States in 2010, the prevalence of suicide among Caucasians
was almost three times higher than that observed in all other races, and American Indians and
Alaska Natives had the highest suicide rates of all ethnic groups in the country.

Pathological Gambling and Gambling Disorder:

 Demographic Correlates

Several demographic factors appear to be associated with a higher risk of PG. Age, for
example, appears to be inversely related to gambling problems, as indicated by prevalence
studies cited above that find higher rates of PG among younger individuals. Gender is also a
contributing factor, as men have traditionally been at substantially higher risk for developing PG
than women, although there is also some evidence that the gap between men and women has
been narrowing with the proliferation of legal gambling venues.

Cyberbullying:

 Gender

Another demographic factor that has been examined about cyberbullying prevalence
rates is gender. Gender differences in experiences with cyberbullying, either as perpetrator or
victim, are currently fervently debated. Males are typically thought to engage in more direct
forms of aggression, whereas females may prefer to engage in more indirect forms of
aggression. Because cyberbullying has been identified as a form of indirect aggression, the
finding in several studies that females are more likely than males to engage in cyberbullying
behavior is relatively unremarkable.

Injuries and Accidents:

 Psychosocial Aspects and Demographic Factors

Age is a demographic factor associated with accident liability. Both older (>64 years) and
younger (<30 years) age groups have a greater frequency of accidents and injuries compared to
middle-aged people. It is a common assumption that younger people are accident-involved
because they are immature risk-takers, while older people are more accident-involved because
of the decline in their mental faculties.

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Judaism: 5.1.1

 The Holocaust

First, let us consider the demographic factor. The most productive sector of world Jewry
perished, and the social-political and cultural conditions that put forth the great systemic
creations vanished with the six million who died. We may account for the systemopoia of
Central and Eastern European Jews in two ways:

 the Jews in the East, in particular, formed a vast and coherent population, with enormous
learning and diverse interests;
 the systems of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries arose out of a vast population living
in self-aware circumstances, not scattered and individual but composed and bonded. The
Jews who perished formed enormous and self-conscious communities of vast intellectual
riches. Assumptions, Research Gaps and Emerging Issues: Implications for Research, Policy,
and Practice:

Increasing Immigration And Work-Family Integration

One of the major demographic factors that are changing social structures in the 21st
century is international migration. The number of countries hosting more than half a million
immigrants has also doubled to more than 64 countries and there is greater diversity and
visibility among recent waves of immigrants. While immigrants are seen as a welcome source of
new citizens and new labor force participants in countries like Canada where fertility rates are
low, immigration can also be problematic, especially when newcomers have difficulty finding
appropriate employment, securing a stable income, and settling into their new community.

Immigration is a central concern among policy-makers who recognize the greater

prevalence of poverty and stress among recent immigrants, incidents of racial discrimination
and hostility, and the likelihood of significant social exclusion reflecting an underclass of
immigrants with accompanying social problems. It is also a concern of larger cities, especially
when municipalities are responsible for providing appropriate health, education, social services,
and settlement supports with limited funding.

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 LESSON 12: GLOBAL MIGRATION

Global Migration
Nowadays, many people decide to migrate to have a better life. Employment
opportunities are the most common reason due to which people migrate. Except this, lack of
opportunities, better education, construction of dams, globalization, natural disaster (flood and
drought), and sometimes crop failure forced villagers to migrate to cities.

Migrants People who move from one place to another in search of work or shelter are
called migrants. Most of the time migrant people are not skilled or educated therefore they
usually employed as daily wagers (workers who are paid at the end of each day, for their
services). Daily wagers do not get enough money for the survival of their families and suffer
from many problems such as they do not have enough food to eat, sanitation, hygiene, a
proper place to live, etc.

History of Migration

Human society is founded on a long history of migration. Concurrently, migration is one

of the most widely studied topics in the social sciences. It garners interest from its basis in
human development, livelihood, and existence. Migration is often studied from a sociological
and theoretical point of view, or through geographical examinations of an empirical nature. Yet
despite political leaders’ longstanding obsession with invading countries on one hand – and
building walls to protect their sovereignty on the other – politics and understanding the drivers
to control migration have been divorced until recently.

The unprecedented nature of global flows in goods, services, and people today which is
most markedly embodied under the term ‘globalization’ has also resulted in growing attention
to the issues arising from this process about concerns over economic and human development
in both immigration and emigration countries. In an age of growing international flows, there
has been a surge in control over human migration – particularly in migrant-receiving states.

A Brief History of the Republic of the Philippines

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➢ The Philippines is an archipelago composed of 7,107 islands in Southeast Asia. The capital of
the Philippines is Manila, which is located on mainland Luzon.

➢ The estimated population of the Philippines is 94,013,200 according to the mid-2010 census
conducted by the National Statistics Office. This figure makes the Philippines the world’s 12th
most populous country.

➢ The official languages of the Philippines are Filipino (Tagalog) and English.

➢ The Philippines was colonized by Spain in the sixteenth century.

➢ After the Philippine Revolution and the Spanish-American War, the Philippines was ceded by
Spain to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris

➢ After the 1899 Battle of Manila, the Philippine-American war broke out resulting in the
United States taking control over the Philippines which was then administered as an ‘insular
area.

➢ In 1942, the Japanese invaded the Philippines. During World War II, the Japanese occupied
the Philippine islands.

➢ In 1946, the Philippines attained its independence.

➢ The Philippine Government is Unitary Presidential Constitutional Republic.

➢ The current President of the Philippines is Rodrigo Roa Duterte.

The Prehistoric Period

Historians believe the first inhabitants of the Philippines descended from various ethnic
groups from across Southeast Asia, the nearby islands, and the mainland, in waves of migration
starting over 300,000 years ago. No historical documentation exists of these early migrations.
However, scientists have found distinct similarities between the fossilized remains of the
Philippines and that of their neighboring countries.

The Spanish Period

The Philippines was a colony of Spain for 333 years. During the Hispanic rule, Filipinos
frequently migrated along the Spanish trade and exploration routes – to Guam, Indonesia,
other nearby islands, and Mexico. Filipino seafarers were recorded to have ridden trading ships
going down the Manila-Acapulco galleon route. But seafarers were not the only ones who
immigrated. The migrant wave of 1565-1815 included slaves, prisoners, soldiers, adventurers as
well as refugees.

The American Period

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 The first Filipinos came to North America as sailors on the Spanish-Filipino-Mexico
Galleon trade of the 14th century. The Filipino sailors landed in what is now California and
Louisiana, where they jumped ship and established colonies by the water in as early as 1565. In
1903, the first documented group of Filipinos arrived. The second major migrant wave to
America began after the Spanish-American War in 1899 when the Philippines officially became
a colony of the United States.

Impacts of Migration
Migration is becoming a very important subject for the life of cities. Many opportunities
and attractions of big cities pull large numbers of people to big cities. Migration can have
positive as well as negative effects on the life of the migrants. Famine, High Unemployment
Rate, and Minimal Income are push factors of migration.
Positive Impact
 Unemployment is reduced and people get better job opportunities.
 Migration helps in improving the quality of life of people.
 It helps to improve the social life of people as they learn about a new culture, customs, and
languages which helps to improve brotherhood among people.
 Migration of skilled workers leads to a greater economic growth of the region.
 Children get better opportunities for higher education.
 The population density is reduced and the birth rate decreases. Negative Impact
 The loss of a person from rural areas impacts the level of output and development of rural
areas.
 The influx of workers in urban areas increases competition for jobs, houses, school facilities,
etc.
 Having a large population puts too much pressure on natural resources, amenities, and
services.
 It is difficult for a villager to survive in urban areas because in urban areas there is no
natural environment and pure air. They have to pay for each and everything.
 Migration changes the population of a place, therefore, the distribution of the population is
uneven in India.
 Many migrants are completely illiterate and uneducated, therefore, they are not only unfit
for most jobs, but also lack basic knowledge and life skills.
 Poverty makes them unable to live a normal and healthy life.
 Children growing up in poverty have no access to proper nutrition, education, or health.
 Migration increased the slum areas in cities which increase many problems such as
unhygienic conditions, crime, pollution, etc.
 Sometimes migrants are exploited.
 Migration is one of the main causes of increasing nuclear family where children grow up
without a wider family circle.

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Factors Affecting Global Migration

 Economic Factors

Economic factors relate to the labor standards of a country, its unemployment situation,
and the overall health of its economy. If economic conditions are not favorable and appear to
be at risk of declining further, a greater number of individuals will probably emigrate to one
with a better economy.

Political Factors
According to the Organization for International Migration, there are approximately 192
million people who live outside their place of birth. A majority of these people are migrant
workers and they make up 3 percent of the world’s population. Human beings have always
migrated from one place to another in search of better economic opportunities.

Lack of Political Liberties

The lack of political liberties and rights, and endemic corruption act as push factors for
migrants seeking greater freedoms. Even though they are not persecuted in their places of
birth, concerns that limit people’s freedoms cause them to leave. If the political environment is
hostile, then the economic situation is likely to be poor.

War Factor
According to the National Geographics’ Earth Pulse, there are approximately 42 million
people worldwide who have been forced to migrate due to war. War and armed conflict have
diverse causes but all these factors are influenced by political issues. War migrants not only
migrate to the usual countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and
Australia, they also migrate within their geographical areas such as within their continent.

 Socio-Cultural Factors
Social push factors can include ethnic, religious, racial, and cultural persecution.
Warfare, or the threat of conflict, is also a major push factor. In the Australian context, most
asylum seekers arriving by boat in the last decade have come from Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, and
Sri Lanka. All of these countries, apart from Iran, have undergone extremely destabilizing
conflicts in recent years.

Brain drain or brain gain?

People who leave developing countries are not randomly selected among the
population. It is often the case that those who migrate from developing countries are among
the most educated people. This has caused great concern about a “brain drain” process in
developing countries, where the brightest minds leave for other countries.

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The impact of remittances
Remittances are transfers of money from an individual in one country to an individual in
another country. The majority of these transactions involve small amounts of money. However,
for households in receiving countries, this money flows may represent an important share of
their budget. Migrants send money for many reasons. In some cases, migrants are behaving
altruistically toward the household back home.

LESSON 13: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable Development

Sustainable development. This concept refers to economic and environmental changes

that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. The concept of needs goes beyond simply material needs and includes
values, relationships, freedom to think, act, and participate, all amounting to sustainable living,
morally, and spiritually.

Sustainable development is the search for progress in quality of life, development

services, and enough provision of supply and goods. Sustainable development refers to the
changes that meet the needs of the present generation without jeopardizing the future
generation. Sustainability is a multidimensional response that involves economic, political, and
technological aspects. It is bridging the environmental gaps and societal damage to ensure
global fairness.

Advantages And Disadvantages Advantages Of Sustainable Development

Among the pros of sustainable development, obviously its objective, perhaps utopian,
but at the same time necessary to save the planet from a major crisis, must be cited. To do this,
it proposes a feasibility solution by harmonizing the economic, social and environmental
aspects.Considering any of these issues separately will lead us to a dead end sooner or later.

On the other hand, taking care of the environment, its resources, without renouncing
social and economic progress is synonymous with sustainability and avoids a disastrous
outcome.

Lower Environmental Impact

The main pillar on which all this is sustained and where ideas take shape to develop the
economy without compromising nature. As it involves reducing the emissions of gases that
create phenomena such as acid rain or global warming, it directly causes the search for
alternative, clean and equally effective forms of energy.

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 In the same way, as a large part of human activities are responsible for the deterioration
of the environment, adopting this ideology entails doing something to reduce pollution, which
can bring positive results such as better air quality, more green areas, the preservation of
biodiversity of the planet, the subsistence of more species, etc.

Guarantee Of A Better Future

With the current situation of the delicate environment, the fact that actions are taken to
reduce the effect of the warming of the land or other events such as the melting of the poles or
changes in such an abnormal climate guarantees that the Next generations of people can have
an adequate life in the future.

This also means ensuring that the planet’s natural resources are not exhausted and
there is enough to be renewed or, if not, that they last for a good number of years, as in the
case of oil or natural gas.

Disadvantages Of Sustainable Development

 One of the main obstacles that the application of sustainable policies finds itself in is the
duality that exists between the need for solutions and strategies that transcend borders ,
since it is a cooperation that today is not being produced, much less there are visors of a
hopeful future.
 Currently, unfortunately, global patterns of production and consumption go in the
opposite direction to that required by a sustainability policy. However, everything that
glitters is not gold, and there are also numerous negative elements in sustainable policies.
 Governance itself has to face a constant uncertainty, because there are many aspects that
must be married to achieve a result that achieves that desired sustainability. And, in the
same way, even the tools considered more sustainable, such as organic farming or
renewable energy sources have a host of drawbacks that need to be tackled intelligently
in order to really help that sustainability.
 Thus, although sustainable development can help to end poverty in the world and adjust
social inequalities, addressing human needs in a fairer way and reorienting technology to
respect the planet and ensure its long-term viability, there are also negative
consequences.
 Among others, that change of mentality that is demanded would hurt the big capitals,
which means that a radical transformation of society would be necessary so great that it is
difficult to trust that it will happen.

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  Do not abuse nature, the human being or turn the economy into an instrument that
enriches only a few is the goal of sustainable theory, a paradigm that today invites you to
dream and, of course, also to fight to do so reality. A better world is possible.

COSTS

Although intentions are good, carrying them out costs work because it is about reducing
or completely dispensing with energy that already supplies part of the population with a new
one, changing infrastructure, consumption habits and this whole transition can be very
expensive

In this sense, the perspective also influences from the point of view, because the countries of
the first world would not have much difficulty in adopting new forms of energy, but in the
developing nations, it would not be possible to assume these expenses.

UNEMPLOYMENT IN SOME AREAS

Changes to preserve and care for ecosystems and biodiversity can cause several
industries to reduce their activities or, in the last case, stop them altogether. This can bring
unemployment for many people who have dedicated their whole lives to work in a single
sector, such as the coal industry.

Although in sustainability a better quality of life is contemplated in the future, it does not take
into account the collateral effects for the population in the present.

FRAGILE COMMITMENT

As the transition to a more environmentally friendly industry is more costly and difficult
to meet because of the points mentioned above, there is a risk that the commitment made with
society is not so serious. This inconvenience would occur because the results obtained are
generally long-term, but in places that are just developing, it may not be possible to wait so
long.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The sustainable development goals (SDGs) are a new, universal set of goals, targets and
indicators that UN member states will be expected to use to frame their agendas and political
policies over the next 15 years.

The SDGs follow and expand on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which were
agreed by governments in 2001 and are due to expire at the end of this year.

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 There is broad agreement that, while the MDGs provided a focal point for governments
– a framework around which they could develop policies and overseas aid programmes
designed to end poverty and improve the lives of poor people – as well as a rallying point for
NGOs to hold them to account, they were too narrow.

As the MDG deadline approaches, about 1 billion people still live on less than $1.25 a
day – the World Bank measure on poverty – and more than 800 million people do not have
enough food to eat. Women are still fighting hard for their rights, and millions of women still
die in childbirth.

17 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

 This is a bold commitment to finish what we started, and end poverty in all forms and
dimensions by 2030.
 This goal aims to end all forms of hunger and malnutrition by 2030, making sure all people,
especially children and the more vulnerable – have access to sufficient and nutritious food
all year round. Solutions for food and agriculture issues are the fundamental concerns of
this sustainable development.
 This provides an ambitious, comprehensive plan of action for people, planet and prosperity
and for ending the injustices that underpin poor health and development outcomes.
Ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all fall under this sustainable
development.
 This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary and secondary schooling by
2030. Obtaining quality education for improving people’s lives fall under this sustainable
development. 21st century education is not just about technology, but also include cultural
awareness, problem solving and productivity.
 This goal aims to build on these achievements to ensure that there is an end to
discrimination against women and girls everywhere.
 This goal states that ensuring universal access to safe and affordable drinking water by 2030
requires investing in adequate infrastructure, providing sanitation facilities and encourage
hygiene at every level. Clean and accessible water for all fall under this sustainable
development.
 This goal states that ensuring universal access to affordable electricity by 2030 means
investing in clean energy sources such as solar, wind and thermal.
 Affordable clean energy is the primary concern of this sustainable development.
 This goal aims to encourage sustained economic growth by achieving higher levels of
productivity and through technological innovation

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 This goal states technological progress is also key to finding lasting solutions to both
economic and environmental challenges, such as providing new jobs and promoting energy
efficiency.
 This goal states that income inequality is a global problem that requires global solutions.
 This goal states that extreme poverty is often concentrated in urban spaces, and national
and city governments struggle to accommodate the rising population in these areas.
 This goal states that the efficient management of our shared natural resources, and the way
we dispose of toxic waste and pollutants, are important targets to achieve this goal.
 This goal aims to mobilize $100 billion annually by 2020 to address the needs of developing
countries and help mitigate climate-related disasters.
 This goal creates a framework to sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal
ecosystems from land-based pollution, as well as address the impacts of ocean acidification.
 This goal aims to conserve and restore the use of terrestrial ecosystems such as forests,
wetlands, drylands and mountains by 2020.
 This goal aims to significantly reduce all forms of violence, and work with governments and
communities to find lasting solutions to conflict and insecurity.
 This goal aims to enhance North-South and South-South cooperation by supporting national
plans to achieve all the targets.

Within the goals are 169 targets, to put a bit of meat on the bones. Targets under goal
one, for example, include reducing by at least half the number of people living in poverty by
2030, and eradicating extreme poverty (people living on less than $1.25 a day). Under goal five,
there’s a target on eliminating violence against women, while goal 16 has a target to promote
the rule of law and equal access to justice. Unlike the MDGs, which were drawn up by a group
of men in the basement of UN headquarters (or so the legend goes), the UN has conducted the
largest consultation programme in its history to gauge opinion on what the SDGs should
include.

Establishing post-2015 goals was an outcome of the Rio+20 summit in 2012, which
mandated the creation of an open working group to come up with a draft agenda. The open
working group, with representatives from 70 countries, had its first meeting in March 2013 and
published its final draft, with its 17 suggestions, in July 2014. The draft was presented to the UN
general assembly in September last year. Member state negotiations followed, and the final
wording of the goals and targets, and the preamble and declaration that comes with them,
were agreed in August 2015. Alongside the open working group discussions, the UN conducted
a series of “global conversations”. These included 11 thematic and 83 national consultations,
and door-todoor surveys. The UN also launched an online My World survey asking people to
prioritize the areas they’d like to see addressed in the goals. The results of the consultations
were fed into the working group’s discussions.

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 LESSON 14: GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

Global Food Security

Food security is defined as the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is
considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. Stages of
food insecurity range from food secure situations to full-scale famine. The World Food Summit
of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all times have access to sufficient,
safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life". Africa has the worst food security.

The World Food Summit of 1996 defined food security as existing "when all people at all
times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life".
Commonly, the concept of food security is defined as including both physical and economic
access to food that meets people's dietary needs as well as their food preferences. Household
food security exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active,
healthy life. Food security incorporates a measure of resilience to future disruption or
unavailability of critical food supply due to various risk factors including droughts, shipping
disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.

As cited by International Food Policy Research Institute, Food security, as defined by the
United Nations’ Committee on World Food Security, means that all people, at all times, have
physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their
food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life.

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Over the coming decades, a changing climate, growing global population, rising food prices, and
environmental stressors will have significant yet uncertain impacts on food security. Adaptation
strategies and policy responses to global change, including options for handling water
allocation, land use patterns, food trade, postharvest food processing, and food prices and
safety are urgently needed. IFPRI’s work on food security includes analysis of cash transfers,
promotion of sustainable agricultural technologies, building resilience to shocks, and managing
trade-offs in food security, such as balancing the nutritional benefits of meat against the
ecological costs of its production.

To put it more simply, Food Security is when families are able to afford and obtain
enough nutritious food. A family is food secure when its members do not live in hunger or fear
of hunger. Both in the United States and in developing nations, food insecurity is often linked to
poverty. Shifts in the global economy, including rises in global food and oil prices, can affect
food security throughout the world, with especially severe effects in low-income countries.

Many of the world’s major challenges – climate change, instability in financial markets, food
and water insecurity, infectious diseases, migration, war and terrorism are Complex,
interdependent and borderless.

Elements of Food Security

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines three main aspects of food security. The first is
food availability, having a sufficient supply of food available on a consistent basis. This food can
be either locally produced or imported from other places. In some cases, communities may be
unable to produce their own food locally because of inappropriate agricultural technologies or
practices; lack of natural resources or productive land; climate constraints; emergency
situations like natural disasters; or health constraints, such as HIV/AIDS, that prevent people
from engaging in labor. Communities may be unable to import food from other places because
of issues like lack of foreign exchange, political unrest, or lack of transportation.

The second aspect of food security is food access, having sufficient resources to obtain
appropriate foods for a nutritious diet. Even when a sufficient supply of food exists to feed
everyone, food may not always be accessible to everyone. People need to have sufficient
incomes and resources in order to obtain food. There are a number of factors that can affect a
person's economic access to food, including lack of job opportunities that can provide sufficient
income, or lack of training or business knowledge for success with income generating activities.

The final aspect of food security is known as food utilization, or consuming a nutritious diet.
This means that people make appropriate use of food, based on knowledge of basic nutrition
and care, and have access to water and sanitation for preparing food and maintaining proper
hygiene. Nutrition education can be an important part of improving food utilization-making

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sure people are aware of the variety of foods their bodies need to maintain good health. In
many parts of the world experiencing food insecurity, people may consume sufficient quantities
of starchy staple foods like potatoes, rice, maize, and cassava, but insufficient quantities of
protein, oils, dairy, fruits and vegetables that make up a balanced diet. Changing this may not
only require nutrition education, but also increasing food availability through improved
agricultural practices and resources.

Disease prevention and management, including proper sanitation and hygiene practices, are
also important for proper food utilization. Undernourished human bodies are more susceptible
to illnesses like diarrheal disease and pneumonia. But with proper nutrition, sanitation, and
hygiene, many diseases-especially those caused by food and waterborne contaminants-are less
likely to occur.

IMPORTANCE OF GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY

Growth in the agriculture sector has been found, on average, to be at least twice as
effective in reducing poverty as growth in other sectors. Food insecurity – often rooted in
poverty – decreases the ability of countries to develop their agricultural markets and
economies.

Access to quality, nutritious food is fundamental to human existence. Secure access to food can
produce wide ranging positive impacts, including:

• Economic growth and job creation

• Poverty reduction

• Trade opportunities

• Increased global security and stability

• Improved health and healthcare

Why is there food insecurity?

Poverty

Poor people lack access to sufficient resources to produce or buy quality food. Poor
farmers may have very small farms, use less effective farming techniques, and/or be unable to
afford fertilizers and labour-saving equipment, all of which limit food production. Often they
cannot grow enough food for themselves, let alone generate income by selling excess to others.
Without economic resources and a political voice, poor farmers may be forced on to less

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productive land possibly causing further environmental deterioration. Addressing poverty is
critical to ensuring that all people have sufficient food.

Health

Without sufficient calories and nutrients, the body slows down, making it difficult to
undertake the work needed to produce food. Without good health, the body is also less able to
make use of the food that is available. A hungry mother will give birth to an underweight baby,
who then faces a future of stunted growth, frequent illness, learning disabilities and reduced
resistance to disease. Contaminated food and water can cause illness, nutrient loss and often
death in children.

The HIV/AIDS pandemic has reduced food production in many affected countries as productive
adults become ill or die. Lacking the labour, resources and know-how to grow staples and
commercial crops, many households have shifted to cultivating survival foods or even leaving
their fields, further reducing the food supply. Addressing health issues will improve utilization
and availability of food.

Water, land degradation and the environment

Food production requires massive amounts of water. It takes one cubic metre (1000
litres) of water to produce one kilogram of wheat and 3,000 litres of water to produce one
kilogram of rice. Producing sufficient food is directly related to having sufficient water. Irrigation
can ensure an adequate and reliable supply of water which increases yields of most crops by
100% to 400%. Although only 17% of global cropland is irrigated, that 17% produces 40% of the
world’s food. Increasing irrigation efficiency and limiting environment damage through
salinization or reduced soil fertility are important for ongoing food availability.

Mankind has mastered that art of exploiting the land for maximum profit without
thinking twice about the real cost for all these advancements. This is called land degradation.
Agrarian lands are converted to concrete structures rendering farmers powerless to utilize land
for its primary purpose is descriptive greedy land deals. Fertile lands become exhausted
because of an unending cycle of production is characteristic of land degradation.

Gender equity

Women play a vital role in providing food and nutrition for their families through their
roles as food producers, processors, traders and income earners. Yet women’s lower social and
economic status limits their access to education, training, land ownership, decision making and
credit and consequently their ability to improve their access to and use of food. Food utilization
can be enhanced by improving women’s knowledge of nutrition and food safety and the
prevention of illnesses. Increasing women’s involvement in decision making and their access to

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land and credit will in turn improve food security as women invest in fertilizers and better
seeds, labor-saving tools, irrigation and land care. Gender equality is a fundamental human
right, but a necessary foundation for a peaceful and sustainable world.

Disasters and conflicts

Droughts, floods, cyclones and pests can quickly wipe out large quantities of food as it
grows or when it is in storage for later use. Likewise, seeds can be destroyed by such
environmental dangers.

Conflict can also reduce or destroy food in production or storage as farmers flee to
safety or become involved in the fighting. Previously productive land may be contaminated with
explosive debris and need to be cleared before it can again be used for food production. Stored
food, seeds and breeding livestock may be eaten or destroyed by soldiers, leading to long-term
food shortages. Government spending needs to prioritize food security in the aftermath of
conflict.

Population growth

Population growth increases the demand for food. With most productive land already in
use, there is pressure for this land to become more productive. Poor harvests and higher costs
lead many poor farmers to migrate to cities to look for work. Expanding cities spread out across
productive land, pushing food production further and further away from consumers. This
increases the cost of all the activities associated with producing and transporting food, and
decreases the food security of the poor in cities.

Trade

Many poor countries can produce staples more cheaply than rich nations but barriers to
trade, such as distance from markets, quarantine regulations and tariffs make it difficult for
them to compete in export markets against highly subsidized farmers in rich countries. This
deprives poor farmers of income and entire countries of the agricultural base they need to
develop other sectors of the economy. In addition, trade imbalances prevent poor countries
from importing agricultural products that could enhance their food security.

What is being done?

Improving food production

Increasing the amount of food available is necessary to feed the growing population.
The Green Revolution of the 1970s and 1980s led to huge increases in output, largely due to the
cultivation of high-yielding varieties of rice and wheat, the expansion of land under production

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and irrigation, greater use of fertilizers and pesticides and greater availability of credit. In many
countries these gains have reached their limit, and social and environmental issues must now
be addressed. Further increases in food production depend on better integration of traditional
knowledge with research; improving farming practices through training and the use of
technology to increase outputs from current land without further loss of productive land; land
reform to provide secure access to land for more people; and the provision of low-cost finance
to help farmers invest in higher quality seeds and fertilizers and small irrigation pumps.

Economic growth and trade liberalization

Increasing food production leads to greater availability of food and economic growth in
the domestic and/or overseas markets. Generating income can provide access to more and
varied foods and provide cash for use in other areas of the economy, such as small enterprise
and manufacturing, which in turn helps reduce poverty. Trade liberalization is opening up
markets slowly, but there are costly barriers to overcome. Work is underway through the Doha
Round of multilateral trading negotiations in the World Trade Organization to make trade rules
fair, encourage trade liberalization and assist developing countries to participate in the global
trade environment.

Distribution

While there are sufficient resources in the world to provide food security for all, policy and
behavioral changes are necessary to guarantee a fair share for all people, especially the poor.
Building on a series of global conferences, in particular the 1992 International Conference on
Nutrition and the 1996 and 2002 World Food Summits, countries have developed national
nutrition plans and policies in nine major strategic action areas that:

• include mainstream nutrition goals in development policies and programs

• improve household food and nutrition security

• protect consumers through improved food quality and safety

• prevent and manage infectious diseases promote breastfeeding

• care for the socioeconomically deprived and nutritionally vulnerable

• prevent and control specific micronutrient deficiencies

• promote appropriate diets and healthy lifestyles

Food aid

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The need for food during emergencies such as drought, disaster, population displacement and
conflict is addressed by the distribution of basic food supplies and fuel. Early warning systems
can predict problem areas, allowing action to be taken to keep people in their homes and help
them back to food self-sufficiency as quickly as possible. Food sourced locally rather than
internationally minimizes the costs and disruption to local markets. In severe situations feeding
may be necessary but often food aid is linked with work, health or education to avoid
dependency and address the long-term causes of food insecurity.

Challenges to Global Food Security

1. Rising incomes, changing diets

Today, with incomes rising fast in emerging economies, there are at least 3 billion people
moving up the food chain toward Westernized diets. They consume more grain-intensive
livestock and poultry products. Today, the growth in world grain consumption is concentrated
in China. It is adding over 8 million people per year, but the big driver is the rising affluence of
its nearly 1.4 billion people.

As incomes go up, people tend to eat more meat. China’s meat consumption per person is still
only half that of the United States. That leaves a huge potential for future demand growth.

2. Falling water tables

In India some 190 million people are being fed with grain produced by over pumping
groundwater. For China, the number is 130 million. Aquifer depletion now threatens harvests in
the big three grain producers — China, India and the United States—that together produce half
of the world’s grain. The question is not whether water shortages will affect future harvests in
these countries, but rather when they will do so.

3. Slowing irrigation

Water supply is now the principal constraint on efforts to expand world food production.
During the last half of the 20th century, the world’s irrigated area expanded from some 250
million acres in 1950 to roughly 700 million in 2000.

This near tripling of world irrigation within 50 years was historically unique. Since then, the
growth in irrigation has come to a near standstill, expanding only 10% between 2000 and 2010.

4. Increasing soil erosion

Nearly a third of the world’s cropland is losing topsoil faster than new soil is forming. This
reduces the land’s inherent fertility. Future food production is also threatened by soil erosion.

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The thin layer of topsoil that covers the earth’s land surface was formed over long stretches of
geological time as new soil formation exceeded the natural rate of erosion. Sometime within
the last century, the situation was reversed as soil erosion began to exceed new soil formation.

Now, nearly a third of the world’s cropland is now losing topsoil faster than new soil is forming.
Soil that was formed on a geological time scale is being lost on a human time scale. Peak soil is
now history.

5. Climate change

The generation of farmers now on the land is the first to face manmade climate change.
Extreme changes in temperature results to massive fish kills is an effect of climate change.

Agriculture as it exists today developed over 11,000 years of rather remarkable climate
stability. It has evolved to maximize production within that climate system. Now, suddenly, the
climate is changing. With each passing year, the agricultural system is more and more out of
sync with the climate system.

Typhoons, tornadoes and similar catastrophes destroy rice fields and destroying crops
rendering them inedible for humans is caused by climate change.

6. Melting water reserves

At no time since agriculture began has the world faced such a predictably massive threat to
food production as that posed by the melting mountain glaciers of Asia.

Mountain glaciers are melting in the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Alps and elsewhere. But
nowhere does melting threaten world food security more than in the glaciers of the Himalayas
and on the Tibetan Plateau that feed the major rivers of India and China.

Ice melt helps sustain these rivers during the dry season. In the Indus, Ganges, Yellow and
Yangtze river basins, where irrigated agriculture depends heavily on rivers, the loss of glacial-
fed, dry-season flow will shrink harvests and could create potentially unmanageable food
shortages.

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 LESSON 15: GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

Global Citizenship

A global citizen is someone who is aware of and understands the wider world - and their
place in it. They take an active role in their community, and work with others to make our
planet more equal, fair and sustainable. Global Citizenship is restricted to jetsetters, socialites,
and influential people only. A global citizen is someone who understands that individual
conduct and behavior is the basis of a community’s culture. The four main parts of global
citizenship are civic responsibility, cultural awareness, global economy and environment

An active global citizen takes responsibility for their actions, and can also help people,
wildlife and plant life. Active global citizens cannot describe by the way they look the other way
when they see injustice, don’t value cultural diversity, and they only care about the global, not
local communities. Global citizenship is also related to the Sustainable Development Goals.
Global Citizens are not sentinels of social unjustness and inequalities.

For Oxfam, global citizenship is all about encouraging young people to develop the knowledge,
skills and values they need to engage with the world. And it's about the belief that we can all
make a difference. Global citizenship is the idea that everyone is a part of a worldwide
community.

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Education for global citizenship is not an additional subject - it's a framework for learning,
reaching beyond school to the wider community. It can be promoted in class through the
existing curriculum or through new initiatives and activities.

The benefits are felt across the school and beyond. Global citizenship helps young people to:

• Build their own understanding of world events.

• Think about their values and what's important to them.

• Take learning into the real world.

• Challenge ignorance and intolerance.

• Get involved in their local, national and global communities.

• Develop an argument and voice their opinions.

• See that they have power to act and influence the world around them.

What's more, global citizenship inspires and informs teachers and parents, too. But above all, it
shows young people that they have a voice. The world may be changing fast, but they can make
a positive difference - and help build a fairer, safer and more secure global-citizenship.

Global Citizenship

It is a way of living that recognizes our world is an increasingly complex web of

connections and interdependencies. One in which our choices and actions may have
repercussions for people and communities locally, nationally or internationally.

Global Citizenship nurtures personal respect and respect for others, wherever they live.
It encourages individuals to think deeply and critically about what is equitable and just, and
what will minimize harm to our planet. Exploring Global Citizenship themes help learners grow
more confident in standing up for their beliefs, and more skilled in evaluating the ethics and
impact of their decisions.

Global citizenship as a choice and a way of thinking. National citizenship is an accident of

birth; global citizenship is different. It is a voluntary association with a concept that signifies
"ways of thinking and living within multiple cross-cutting communities—cities, regions, states,
nations, and international collectives…" (Schattle 2007, 9). People come to consider themselves
as global citizens through different formative life experiences and have different interpretations
of what it means to them. The practice of global citizenship is, for many, exercised primarily at
home, through engagement in global issues or with different cultures in a local setting. For
others, global citizenship means firsthand experience with different countries, peoples, and
cultures. For most, there exists a connection between the global and the local. Whatever an

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individual's particular "take" on global citizenship may be, that person makes a choice in
whether or how to practice it.

Global Citizen

"An ethic of care for the world." Hannah Arendt.

There is a great deal of debate and discussion around this, as there is around the whole concept
of globalization. A useful working definition, however, is offered by Oxfam:

A Global Citizen is someone who:

▪ Is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world citizen

▪ Respects and values diversity

▪ Has an understanding of how the world works

▪ Is outraged by social injustice

▪ Participates in the community at a range of levels, from the local to the global

▪ Is willing to act to make the world a more equitable and sustainable place

▪ Takes responsibility for their actions.

To be effective Global Citizens, young people need to be flexible, creative and proactive.
They need to be able to solve problems, make decisions, think critically, communicate ideas
effectively and work well within teams and groups. These skills and attributes are increasingly
recognized as being essential to succeed in other areas of 21st century life too, including many
workplaces. These skills and qualities cannot be developed without the use of active learning
methods through which pupils learn by doing and by collaborating with others.

A global citizen is someone who identifies with being part of an emerging world
community and whose actions contribute to building this community’s values and practices.
Such a definition of global citizenship is based on two assumptions which this article explores:
(a) that there is such a thing as an emerging world community to which people can identify; and
(b) that such a community has a nascent set of values and practices.

Historically human beings always have organized themselves into groups and
communities based on shared identity. Such identity gets forged in response to a variety of
human needs - economic, political, religious, and social. As group identities grow stronger,
those who hold them organize into communities, articulate shared values, and build
governance structures that reflect their beliefs.

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 Today the forces of global engagement are helping some people identify themselves as
global citizens, meaning that they have a sense of belonging to a world community. This
growing global identity in large part is made possible by the forces of modern information,
communication, and transportation technologies. In increasing ways these technologies are
strengthening our ability to connect to the rest of the world: through the internet; through
participation in the global economy; through the ways in which worldwide environmental
factors play havoc with our lives; through the empathy we feel when we see pictures of
humanitarian disasters, civil conflicts and wars in other countries; or through the ease with
which we can travel and visit other parts of the world.

Those who see ourselves as global citizens are not abandoning other identities; such as
allegiances to our countries, ethnicities, and political beliefs. These traditional identities give
meaning to our lives and will continue to help shape who we are. However, as a result of living
in a globalized world, we find we have an added layer of responsibility. We have concern and a
share of responsibility for what is happening to the planet as a whole, and we are members of a
world-wide community of people who share this concern.

The values being proposed for the world community are not esoteric and obscure. They
are the values that world leaders have been advocating for the past 100 years. They include
human rights, religious pluralism, gender equity, the rule of law, environmental protection,
sustainable worldwide economic growth, poverty alleviation, prevention and cessation of
conflicts between countries, elimination of weapons of mass destruction, humanitarian
assistance, and preservation of cultural diversity.

Since World War II efforts have been undertaken to develop global policies and
institutional structures that can support these enduring values. Such efforts have been made by
international organizations, sovereign states, transnational corporations, NGOs, international
professional associations and others. They have resulted in a growing body of international
agreements, treaties, legal statutes, and technical standards.

Yet, despite such efforts, we have a long way to go before there is a global policy and
institutional infrastructure that can support our emerging world community and the values it
stands for. There are significant gaps of policy in many domains, large questions about how to
get countries and organizations to comply with existing policy frameworks, and issues of
accountability and transparency. Most importantly, from a global citizenship perspective, there
is an absence of mechanisms that enable greater citizen participation in the growing number of
institutions practicing global governance.

Governance at the global level, for the most part, is in the hands of the representatives
of sovereign states and technocrats. Global governance organizational leaders are usually
distant and removed from those that their institutions serve. Therefore, most people feel

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disconnected and alienated from the global governance arena, making it difficult to build a
sense of grass-roots community at the global level.

There is an urgent need for a cadre of citizen leaders who can play activist roles in
forming world community. Such global citizenship activism can take many forms, including:
advocating, at the local and global level, for policy and programmatic solutions that address
global problems; participating in the decision-making processes of global governance
organizations; adopting and promoting changes in behavior that help protect the earth’s
environment.

Global Citizenship education

"Education must be not only a transmission of culture but also a provider of alternative views of
the world and a strengthener of skills to explore them", Jerome S. Bruner.

Global citizenship education best implies a set of value and attitudes to improve the world and
its inhabitants, engage with diverse groups in the locality, and interconnect with people an
issue of the world. Global citizenship education does not only belong exclusively to tertiary
education. It can also be applied in all levels of education. Global citizenship education is always
adapted to local contexts. It is relevant today because it is warranted in light of contemporary
challenges, and it is a way to understand, connect, relate and share with other cultures.
Citizenship education & knowledge of issues are an imperative in the world of globalization.

With the interconnected and interdependent nature of our world, the global is not ‘out there’;
it is part of our everyday lives, as we are linked to others on every continent:

• Socially and culturally through the media and telecommunications, and through
travel and migration

• Economically through trade

• Environmentally through sharing one planet

• Politically through international relations and systems of regulation.

The opportunities our fast-changing ‘globalized’ world offers young people are enormous. But
so too are the challenges. Young people are entitled to an education that equips them with the
knowledge, skills and values they need in order to embrace the opportunities and challenges
they encounter, and to create the kind of world that they want to live in. An education that
supports their development as Global Citizens.

The active, participatory methods of Education for Global Citizenship and Sustainable
Development help young people to learn how decisions made by people in other parts of the
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world affect our lives, just as our decisions affect the lives of others. Education for Global
Citizenship and Sustainable Development also promotes pupil participation in the learning
process and in decision-making for the following reasons:

• Everything done in school sends out messages, so we need to exemplify the

values we wish to promote. If we wish to affirm beliefs about the equality of all
human beings and the importance of treating everyone fairly and with respect, we
need to ensure that learning processes, and relationships between pupils and
teachers, reflect and reinforce these values.

• Research shows that in more democratic schools pupils feel more in control of
their learning, and the quality of teaching, learning and behavior is better.

• The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child affirms the right of children to
have their opinions taken into account on matters that affect them.

While the world may be increasingly interconnected, human rights violations, inequality and
poverty still threaten peace and sustainability.

Global Citizenship Education (GCED) is UNESCO’s response to these challenges. It works by

empowering learners of all ages to understand that these are global, not local issues and to
become active promoters of more peaceful, tolerant, inclusive, secure and sustainable
societies.

GCED is a strategic area of UNESCO’s Education Sector program and builds on the work of
Peace and Human Rights Education. It aims to instill in learners the values, attitudes and
behaviors that support responsible global citizenship: creativity, innovation, and commitment
to peace, human rights and sustainable development.

UNESCO’s work in this area is grounded in its own Constitution which aims to ‘build peace in
the minds of men and women,’ the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Education 2030
Agenda and Framework for Action, notably target 4.7 of the Sustainable Development Agenda,
the Recommendation concerning Education for International

Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms (1974), and the World Program for Human Rights Education (link is
external) (2005-ongoing).

Under the GCED umbrella, UNESCO has several special themes: Preventing violent extremism
through education, Education about the Holocaust and genocide, Languages in education and
the promotion of the rule of law through global citizenship education.

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UNESCO collaborates with an extensive global network to disseminate GCED including its own
Category 1 institutes, other UN agencies and inter-governmental organizations, including
regional organizations, most notably: the UNESCO Mahatma

Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development (MGIEP), the
International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa (IICBA), the UNESCO Institute for

Statistic (UIS), the Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCIEU),
the UNESCO Associated Schools Project Network (ASPNet) and UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs.

What does it look like in the classroom?

"Education is not a preparation for life, it is life itself." John Dewey

Education for Global Citizenship deals with issues of global interdependence, diversity of
identities and cultures, sustainable development, peace & conflict and inequities of power,
resources & respect.

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